Brills Companion to Aphrodite

Edited by

Amy C. Smith and Sadie Pickup

LEIDEN BOSTON2010

On the cover: An Attic black-!gure amphora, featuring Aphrodite and Poseidon, ca. 520bc.London, British Museum B254. Drawing a$er Lenormant, de Witte, lite des monumentscramographiques. Matriaux pour lhistoire des religions et des moeurs de lantiquit (Paris,18441861), 3, pl. 15.

%is book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Brill's companion to aphrodite / edited by Amy C. Smith & Sadie Pickup.p. cm.

Emerged from a conference at the University of Reading, May 8-10, 2008.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-90-04-18003-1 (hardback : alk. paper)1. Aphrodite (Greek deity)Congresses. I. Smith, Amy Claire, 1966- II. Title.

BL820.V5B74 2010292.2'114dc22

2009052569

ISSN 1872-3357ISBN 978 9004 18003 1

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ixAbbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiList of illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

introductionChapter One Flourishing Aphrodite: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge (University of Lige)

Chapter Two Budding Aphrodite: Into the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Sadie Pickup (University of Oxford) andAmy C. Smith (University of Reading)

part one

aphrodites identityChapter0ree Aphrodite:0e Goddess of Appearances . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Vered Lev Kenaan (University of Haifa)

Chapter Four O quam te memorem, virgo? Interpreting Venus inAeneid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51James Burbidge (University of Oxford)

Chapter Five Aphrodite Enoplion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79Stephanie L. Budin (Rutgers University)

Chapter Six Rethinking Aphrodite as a Goddess at Work. . . . . . . . . . 113Gabriella Pironti (University of Naples)

vi contents

part two

aphrodites companions and relationsChapter Seven 0e Song of Ares and Aphrodite: Asertu on

Skheria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133Annette Te!eteller (Concordia University, Montreal)

Chapter Eight Father-Daughter Dynamics in the Iliad:0e Roleof Aphrodite in De9ning Zeus Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151Kassandra Jackson (University of Chicago)

part three

the spread of aphrodites cultsChapter Nine Images of Cypriot Aphrodite in her Sanctuaries

during the Age of the City-Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167Anja Ulbrich (University of Oxford)

Chapter Ten Aphrodite on the Akropolis: Evidence from AtticPottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195Elisabetta Pala (University of Cagliari)

Chapter Eleven Aphrodite and the Fleet in Classical Athens . . . . . . 217Chryssanthi Papadopoulou (Kings College, University of London)

Chapter Twelve Encountering the World of Aphrodite on theWestern Greek Mainland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235Alexander Nagel (University of Michigan)

Chapter0irteen 0e Architectural Setting of the KnidianAphrodite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251Sophie Montel (University of Paris Ouest NanterreLa Dfense)

Chapter Fourteen Interactive Aphrodite: Greek Responses to theIdea of Aphrodite as Ancestress of the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269Jenny Wallensten (Swedish Institute, Athens)

contents vii

part four

the reception of the goddessChapter Fi

ABBREVIATIONS

AA Archologischer AnzeigerABV Beazley, John D., Attic Black-Figure Vase-Painters (Oxford, )AJA American Journal of ArchaeologyAM Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archologischen Instituts. Athenische

AbteilungARV2 Beazley, John D., Attic Red-Figure Vase-Painters, nd ed. (Oxford,

)BAPD Beazley Archive Pottery Database, Oxford University

www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/databases/pottery.htmBCH Bulletin de Correspondence HellniqueBSA Annual of the British School at AthensCHD Gterbock, Hans G., Harry A. Ho'ner, Jr., and(eo P.J. van den

Hout, eds.,!e Hittite Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of theUniversity of Chicago (Chicago, )

CIG Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum ()CQ Classical QuarterlyCVA Corpus Vasorum AntiquorumFHG Mller, C., Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum ()IG Inscriptiones Graecae ()IGRom. Inscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes ()JHS Journal of Hellenic StudiesJRA Journal of Roman ArchaeologyLIMC Lexicon IconographicumMythologiae Classicae (Zurich, )OCD Hornblower, Simon, and Anthony Spawforth, eds.,!e Oxford

Classical Dictionary, rd ed. (Oxford, )RDAC Report of the Department of Antiquitues, CyprusSEG Supplementum epigraphicum Graecum (Amsterdam, )TAPA Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philogical Association

Abbreviations of primary sources follow those given in OCD.

ILLUSTRATIONS

. Terracotta from Salamis, Cyprus, fourth century bc. London, BritishMuseum, A . Photograph by(omas Kiely (e Trustees of theBritish Museum.

. Drawing of bronze /gurine excavated at Sparta, fourththird centuriesbc. Drawing by Paul C. Butler, a0er Solima, Era, Artemide e Afrodite,/g. , used with kind permission.

. Marble statue from Epidauros, Roman. Athens, National ArchaeologicalMuseum, NM . Photo: Alinari /Art Resource, New York.

. Gelon Gem, Hellenistic (ca. bc). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,.. Photograph Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

. Attic black-/gure dinos by Lydos, mid-sixth century bc. Drawing byPaul C. Butler, used with kind permission.

. Bronze /gurine from building gamma at Gravisca. Tarquinia, MuseoArcheologico, /. Drawing by Paul C. Butler, used with kindpermission.

. Bronze /gurine from building gamma at Gravisca. Tarquinia, MuseoArcheologico, /. Drawing by Paul C. Butler, used with kindpermission.

. Coin of Octavian. From Forum Ancient Coins,www.forumancientcoins.com, used with kind permission.

. Bronze mirror back, Roman. Berlin, Staatliche Museen . Image a0erFlemberg, Venus Armata, /g. .

. Plasma intaglio depicting Venus Victrix, /rst century ad. BeazleyArchive (formerly Marlborough Collection ). Beazley Archive,Oxford University, www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/gems. Photograph by ClaudiaWagner, used with kind permission.

. Marble sculpture of Armed Aphrodite, Roman. Pafos District Museum,FR /. Permission to publish this photograph has been given bykind courtesy of the Director of the Department of Antiquities, Republicof Cyprus.

. Marble sculpture of Venus Victrix, second century ad. Paris, LouvreMuseum, MA . Photo: Runion des Muses Nationaux/ArtResource /New York.

. An Attic black-/gure amphora, featuring Aphrodite and Poseidon,ca. bc. London, British Museum B. Drawing a0er Lenormant, deWitte, lite des monuments cramographiques. Matriaux pour lhistoiredes religions et des moeurs de lantiquit (Paris, ), , pl. .

xiv illustrations

. Map of Cyprus with all city-kingdoms and other cult places mentionedin the text. Drawing Anja Ulbrich.

. Goddess with upli0ed arms, from Palaepaphos. British Museum,London, ... Image a0er Karageorghis,!e Coroplastic Art ofAncient Cyprus, , pl. ., courtesy of the British Museum, London.

. Astarte /gurine, from Amathous. British Museum, London, ... Image a0er Karageorghis,!e Coroplastic Art of Ancient Cyprus, ,pl. ., courtesy of the British Museum, London.

. Dea Tyria gravida, from perhaps Kition. Louvre Museum, Paris.Drawing from Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez,Histoire de lartdans lantiquit, (Paris, ), p. /g. .

. Kourotrophos from Kition. Archaeological District Museum ofLarnaca, Kition /, Area II /. Image a0er Karageorghis,!e Coroplastic Art of Ancient Cyprus, , pl. ., courtesy of theDepartment of Antiquities, Cyprus.

. Goddess with vegetal crown, from Idalion. Berlin Museums,Antiquarium (), inv. M. J. , (in the year ). Imagefrom Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, die Bibel und Homer, pl. ..

. Hathor-capital, from Kition. Louvre Museum, Paris: Departmentof Oriental Antiquities, AM . Image a0er Hermary, Un nouveauchapiteau Hathorique, p. /g. .

. Goddess with lions and turreted crown, from Achna. Present locationunknown. Drawing from Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, die Bibel undHomer, pl. ..

. Aphrodite with vegetal Kalathos and Eros, from Golgoi. New York,Metropolitan Museum of Art,(e Cesnola Collection, Purchased bysubscription, (..). Image Metropolitan Museumof Art.

. Aphrodite with Eros and Himeros, on an Attic black-/gure pinaxfragment, ca. bc. Athens, National Archaeological Museum, Akr.. Photo courtesy National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

. Procession of gods on an Attic black-/gure kantharos fragment,ca. bc. Athens. National Archaeological Museum, Akr. . Photocourtesy National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

. Eros and Aphrodite (?) on an Attic black-/gure kantharos (?)fragment from Naukratis, ca. bc. London, British Museum.. (B .). Photo (e Trustees of the British Museum.

. A duel between Aineias and Achilles, on an Attic black-/gure amphorafragment, ca. bc. Athens, National Archaeological MuseumAkr. . Drawing a0er Graef and Langlotz, Die Antiken Vasen, ,pl. ..

. Aphrodite and the Arrephoroi (?), on an Attic red-/gure hydriafragment, attributed to the Kleophon Painter, ca. bc. Tbingen,Universitt, Institut fr Klassische Archologie E , ca. bc.Courtesy Institut fr Klassische Archologie, Tbingen.

. Map showing Aphrodites shrines on the Akropolis and its slopes, a0erTravlos, Bildexikon, /g. .

illustrations xv

. Map of the Piraeus peninsula with marked points discussed in thischapter. Map by Cixx design, a0er Garland,!e Piraeus, /g. .

. Birth of Aphrodite from the sea, on an Attic red-/gure pyxis attributedto the Wedding Painter, ca. bc. New York,(e MetropolitanMuseum of Art, Fletcher Fund, (..a, b). Image (eMetropolitan Museum of Art.

. Anodos of Aphrodite from the earth, on an Attic red-/gure skyphosattributed to the Penthesilea Painter, ca. bc. Museum of Fine Arts,Boston, Henry Lillie Pierce Fund, .. Photograph Museumof Fine Arts, Boston.

. Aphrodite riding a swan over the sea, on an Attic red-/gure lekythos,ca. bc. Oxford, Ashmolean Museum, AN.. Image by Cixxdesign, a0er J. Arthur R. Munro, Excavations in Cyprus:(ird SeasonsWorkpolis tes Chrysochou, JHS (), pl. .

. Aphrodite riding a shell, on an Attic red-/gure bell krater, ca. bc, acquired in Laurion in . Dresden, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen,Albertinum ZV. Image reproduced with the kindest permission ofthe Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden.

. Figurine excavated in cult deposit near Stratos in . Arta,Archaeological Museum, inv. . Photo: author.

. Schematic drawing of the /gurine shown in /gure . Drawing: author.. (e western Greek mainland and adjacent areas with the sites

mentioned in this chapter: Leukas, Aktion, Kassope, Ambrakia, Stratos,Phystion, Naupaktos, Kalydon. Photo: Franziska Lang and AlexanderNagel.

. Venus Colonna statue, Roman Imperial period, made a0er the KnidianAphrodite (.m high without the plinth). Rome, Vatican Museum,Museo Pio Clementino no. . Photo: G. Becatti.

. Sketches of niches and shelters with back and side walls. Drawing:C. Amourette.

. Illustration of the di'erences between amonopteros and a tholos.Drawing: C. Amourette.

. (e second-century bc tholos in Knidos. Photo: Amy C. Smith.. (e second-century ad round structure of the nymphaeum in Hadrians

Villa at Tivoli. Photo courtesy A. Pollini.. Plan of the round building in Hadrians Villa at Tivoli, a0er Ortolani, Il

padiglione, /g. .. Plan of the tholos in Knidos, a0er Bankel, Knidos, /g. .

. Denarius of Julius Caesar showing Venus Genetrix on the reverse, bc.Photo courtesy American Numismatic Society.

. Julio-Claudian relief showing pedimental statues from the Templeof Mars Ultor. Villa Medici, Rome, ca. ad. Photo courtesyForschungsarchiv fr Antike Plastik, Cologne.

xvi illustrations

. Julio-Claudian relief showing cult statues from the Temple of MarsUltor, ca. ad. Archaeological Museum, Carthage. Photo courtesyForschungsarchiv fr Antike Plastik, Cologne.

. Sculptural group of Mars and Venus with portrait heads, Ostia, LateAntonine (ca. ad). Rome, Museo delle Terme . Photo a0erG. Moretti, Ostia, Notizie degli Scavi, , pl. .

. Frescoed wall of cubiculum B, from the Villa Farnesina, Augustan(ca. bc). Detail showing Aphrodite with Peitho and Eros. Rome,Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme). Photocourtesy Scala /Art Resource, NY ART.

. Frescoed wall of cubiculum B, from the Villa Farnesina, Augustan(ca. bc). Detail showing nymph nursing the young Dionysos.Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme). Photoby Luciano Romano, courtesy Scala /Art Resource, NY ART.

. Mosaic from(uburbo Maius, illustrating Venus and the spectacles ofthe amphitheatre. First half of third century. Muse National du Bardo,Tunis . Photo: Matthew Nicholls.

. Mosaic from Mactar, Maison de Vnus basin, showing Venus, adjustingher sandal, with Erotes. First half of the third century. Museum ofMactar. Photo: author.

. Photomontage by Ren Magritte published in the last issue of LaRvolution surraliste (no. , December ). Photo showingmen around a naked woman. ADAGP, Paris, and DACS, London.

. Projecta Casket from the Esquiline Treasure, late fourth century.London, British Museum ... Photo Trustees of the BritishMuseum.

. Silver statuette of Aphrodite from Kaiseraugst, . Augst,Rmermuseum .. Photo Augusta Raurica, Switzerland.

. Silver gilt statuette of Aphrodite from Antioch, fourth century. Antakya,Hatay Archaeological Museum. Photo courtesy of Marlia MundellMango.

. Bone carving of Aphrodite covering her pudenda with a shell, second orthird century. Athens, Benaki Museum. Photo Benaki Museum,Athens.

. Circular pyxis, /0h to sixth century. Baltimore, Walters Art Museum.. Photo (e Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

. (e Veroli Casket, tenth century. London, Victoria and Albert Museum. Photo V&A Images /Victoria and Albert Museum,London.

. Aphrodite and lover, detail from the Veroli Casket, tenth century.London, Victoria and Albert Museum . Photo V&AImages /Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

illustrations xvii

. Sandro Botticelli, Venus and Mars, ca. . Photo (e NationalGallery, London.

. Detail of /gure ., showing Venus. Photo (e National Gallery,London.

. Detail of /gure ., showing Mars. Photo (e National Gallery,London.

. Detail of /gure ., showing Pan/Satyr inside the cuirass of Mars.Photo (e National Gallery, London.

. Datura Stramonium. Pencil on paper drawing by David Bellingham,, a0er Basilius Besler, . Drawing David Bellingham.

. Pierre Bonnard,!e Wash Stand, or!e Mirror (). Photo MusedOrsay, Paris.

chapter fifteen

AUGUSTAN APHRODITES: THE ALLURE OFGREEK ART IN ROMAN VISUAL CULTURE

Rachel Kousser

Hellenized images of Aphrodite /rst began to permeate Roman visualculture in the Augustan era (bcad). From the elaborate state-sponsored monuments of the new regime to wall paintings in privatehomes, the goddess of love featured prominently in works of art whoseidealized naturalism was inspired by the achievements of ClassicalGreece.6ese images, widely popular in Augustan Rome, marked a dis-tinct break with earlier practice. 6ey replaced the sober and imposingVenus of the Republicdivine ancestress of Rome, and victory-bringinggoddess of Sulla, Pompey, and Caesarwith a more elegant, Greek-styledeity. In doing so they o7ered a particularly vivid example of a broadercultural phenomenon: Augustan classicism.

In recent years, scholars have highlighted the moral and ethical con-notations of classicism in the early empire. Drawing especially on eliteliterary texts, art historians such as Paul Zanker and TonioHlscher havecharacterized classicism as an elevated style appropriate for the gods,and for the new princeps.1 For them classicism is understood not asan aesthetic choice, but rather as a semiotic one, used to convey mean-ing within the visual language of Early Imperial art. 6is extremelyin8uential approach has greatly enhanced our understanding of Augus-tan art. Its emphasis on the semiotic character of Roman artistic styleshas proven very e7ective in opening up new avenues of inquiry in the/eld. Its exclusive stress on what Zanker has termed the moral claimof classical forms, however, seems to me problematic, as it leaves out

1 Tonio Hlscher,!e Language of Images in Roman Art, trans. Anthony Snodgrassand Annemarie Knzl-Snodgrass (Cambridge, Eng., ); originally published in Ger-man, as Rmische Bildsprache als semantisches System (Heidelberg, ); Paul Zanker,!e Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, trans. Alan Shapiro (Ann Arbor, ),pp. .

rachel kousser

a central aspect of what made classicism so powerful in Augustan visualculture: its sensuous pleasure, and its visual allure.2

In contrast, this article focuses precisely on the visual attraction of clas-sicism, as exempli-ed by the Hellenized images of Aphrodite so preva-lent in Early Imperial art. I begin by examining the role of these imagesin major public monuments of the Augustan regime, concentrating onthe forum of the new princeps. In the Forum Augustum, these imagesgenerally adaptations of established Greek sculptural typesserved togive an authoritative, impressive appearance to the divine ancestress ofthe Iulii.3 .ey also functioned as propaganda, to signal the attractivequalities of the new imperial system through the metaphor of a beautifulwomans body, thus contributing very e/ectively to the organization ofopinion, to borrow a phrase from Ronald Syme.4

Public monuments do not tell the whole story. .is article thereforealso includes complementary works of art from the private sphere, witha focus on the wall paintings of the Villa Farnesina. In this elite riversidevilla in Trastevere, we see very clearly the self-conscious evocation of ear-lier forms, in rooms whose decorative scheme is patterned on that of apinacotheca (picture gallery).5 Here Aphrodite appears with her com-panions Peitho and Eros, in a -ctive panel painting whose style recallsthat of Athenian white-ground pottery of the -0h century bc.6 As else-where in domestic decoration, the image functions programmatically,but in a manner very di/erent from that seen in public monuments suchas the Forum Augustum. Aphrodite at her toilet, in the Villa Farnesina,speaks of the re-ned pleasures of the senses; in this way, she helps cre-ate the pleasurable ambiance central to the Roman conception of otium(pleasurable leisure)..is research is relevant in our understanding of both Aphrodite and

Augustan art. Much of our evidence for the visual representation ofthe Greek goddess comes from the Roman period. .e famous fourth-

2 Zanker,!e Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, p. .3 Tonio Hlscher, Monumenti Statali e Pubblico, trans. Lucia Scatozza Hricht and

Franz Hricht (Rome, ), pp. ; Paul Zanker, Forum Augustum. Das Bildpro-gram (Tbingen, ), pp. ; Zanker,!e Power of Images, pp. .

4 Ronald Syme,!e Roman Revolution (Oxford, ), pp. .5 Bettina Bergmann, Greek Masterpieces and Roman Recreative Fictions, Harvard

Studies in Classical Philology (), pp. ; Irene Bragantini and Mariettede Vos, Le Decorazioni della Villa Romana della Farnesina, , , Museo NazionaleRomano: Le Pitture (Rome, ), pp. ; Christopher Hallett, Emulation VersusReplication: Rede-ning Roman Copying, JRA , no. (), pp. .

6 See below, n. .

augustan aphrodites: the allure of greek art

century bc Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles, for example, is knownalmost exclusively from Roman coins, statues, and literary descriptions.7Our understanding of the goddess cult is also fundamentally indebtedto Roman authors, such as Strabo and Pausanias, who mention herfrequently.8 It is important to recognize, however, the existence andcharacter of this Roman 6lter, if we are to accurately and criticallyuse these images and authors to reconstruct Greek monuments and cultpractices. My examination here of Aphrodites from the Augustan periodthus constitutes a contribution to the broader goal of reconstructing theRoman reception of Aphrodite.9

In addition to its signi6cance for the study of Aphrodite, this researchhas implications for our analysis of Augustan art. As scholars have longacknowledged, a major innovation of the period is its adoption andtransformation of Greek styles and visual formats to metropolitan publicmonuments.7e prevailing explanation for this phenomenon, promotedby Zanker, stresses the moral claim of Classical forms and the controlof the visual sphere by the princeps.10 Aphrodite images, from boththe public and private spheres, are useful in that they suggest di8erentexplanations for this use of Classical forms in Augustan art. What theydemonstrate above all is the allure, and not simply the authority, ofGreek art for the Romans. 7is understanding may also explain thewide-ranging scope and extraordinary longevity of the Roman embraceof Classical forms, which extended well beyond the state-sponsoredmonuments of the Augustan metropolis to private and provincial worksof art, even in later periods.

!e Background: Aphrodite in the Republic

Before examining the deployment of Aphrodite images in the Augus-tan period, it is useful to consider 6rst some related material from theRepublic. Augustus was by nomeans the 6rst Roman leader to emphasize

7 Delivorrias et al., in LIMC , pp. , s.v. Aphrodite, nos. ; Seaman,Retrieving the Original.

8 7ese authors are central to, for example, authors such as Pirenne-Delforge, LAphro-dite grecque.

9 Kousser, Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture, pp. ; ibid., MythologicalPortraiture in Antonine Rome:7e Performance of Myth, AJA (), .

10 Zanker,!e Power of Images, pp. .

rachel kousser

his ties to Venus, or indeed to Aphrodite.11 .e Late Republican gen-eral Sulla, for example, took as his Latin cognomen Felix (Lucky); it wastranslated into Greek, !pi%'+ (Beloved of Aphrodite), suggest-ing he enjoyed the favor of Aphrodite.12 A/er his victory at Chaironeia,Sulla dedicated his trophy to Aphrodite, Ares, and Nike, proclaimingthem the patron deities of his military success.13 He also sent gi/s to theAphrodite of Aphrodisias, claiming to have seen her in a dream, 0ghtingon his side in battle.14

In his relationship to Aphrodite, as in many other respects, Sullao1ered a useful model for other aspiring generals of the Late Republic.His one-time protg, Pompey the Great, likewise portrayed himself asunder the protection of the goddess, and he dedicated a temple withinhis impressive theatre complex to Venus Victrix, that is, Venus Victori-ous.15 In response, Pompeys rival Caesar insisted upon his own, albeitcloser, relationship to this deity. His forum in Rome, initially vowed toVenus Victrix, was eventually dedicated to Venus GenetrixVenus theAncestresssince he was a member of the Julian gens and thereforeclaimed descent from her via Aeneas and Iulus.16 Caesar also commis-sioned a Greek sculptor, Arkesilaos, to create the statue of Venus to standin the Julian Forum; he included her extensively on his coins; he alsoreceived honors as the son of Aphrodite and Ares from the Greek citiesof Asia Minor.17.us in the highly competitive world of the Late Republic, Roman

leaders frequently claimed Venus as a patron deity and used artistic andarchitectural commissions to commemorate this relationship for a broadpublic audience. .eir emphasis was on the goddess role in war, as anally bringing them victory and therefore power. .ey highlighted herconnection to Ares /Mars, with whom she shared both a concern forwarfare and a role as divine ancestor of the Romans.While this emphatic

11 For an overview, see Robert Schilling, La Religion Romaine de Vnus depuis lesOrigines jusquau Temps dAuguste, nd ed. (Paris, ).

12 App., B Civ. ..13 Plut., Vit. Sull. ..14 App., B Civ. ..15 Plin., HN .; on the theatre, see Ann Kuttner, Culture and History at Pompeys

Museum, TAPA (), , with previous bibliography.16 Victrix: App., B Civ. ..; Genetrix: Plin.,HN .; on the descent of the Iulii

from Venus, see Stefan Weinstock, Divus Julius (Oxford, ), p. .17 On the Arkesilaos statue, see Weinstock, Divus Julius, p. ; Plin., HN .; on

the coins, ibid., pp. ; the inscription is in W. Dittenberger, Sylloge InscriptionumGraecarum, rd ed. (Leipzig, ), p. .

augustan aphrodites: the allure of greek art

association with war might seem, at 4rst glance, out of character for thegoddess of love, it is clearly attested in the written and visual sourcesfor the Republican period, and it is best understood as a traditionalRoman role for Venus, due to her connection with themilitary godMars.5is goes back at least to the period of the Punic Wars, when the twogods appeared on a couch together at a major religious ceremony inbc.18and to her status as ancestress of the (very warlike) war-lovingRomans.

Furthermore, it should be stressed that the Venus of the Republic wasby no means equivalent to the Greek Aphrodite.19 While the example ofSulla illustrates how the Romans were aware of Greek Aphrodite cults,and could indeed make use of them for their own purposes, Romanimages of Venus, and patterns of worship, were nonetheless distinctfrom those of her Hellenic predecessor. 5is may be demonstrated, forexample, by Caesars coins, which show a draped Venus holding a spear,with Victoria alighting on her hand (4gure .).20 5e e:ect is verydi:erent from that of contemporary Late Hellenistic Aphrodites, withtheir sensuous representation of the goddess nude ;esh, and attributessuch as an apple or mirror.21 It was only in the Augustan period thatthe representation, and to some extent the divine personality, of Venusstarted to approximate that of her Greek counterpart.5is developmentis well illustrated by the public monuments of the new regime, to whichI now turn.

Aphrodite in the Forum Augustum

Although Augustus was not the 4rst Roman leader to emphasize his tiesto Venus and Aphrodite, his approach di:ered from that of his predeces-sors: in the consistency and number of monuments, in taking inspira-tion from Classical prototypes rather than the Hellenistic or Republican

18 Livy ...19 Schilling, La Religion Romaine, pp. .20 Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, pp. , no. ., .21 On Late Hellenistic Aphrodites, see Delivorrias et al., in LIMC , pp. and

, s.v. Aphrodite, nos. and ; Havelock,!eAphrodite of Knidos; RachelKousser, Creating the Past:5e VnusDeMilo and theHellenistic Reception of ClassicalGreece, AJA (), ; Wiltrud Neumer-Pfau, Studien zur Ikonographieund gesellscha"lichen Function Hellenistischer Aphrodite-Statuen (Bonn, ); Hans-Hoyer von Prittwitz und Ga:ron, Der Wandel der Aphrodite. Archologische Studien zuweiblichen halbbekleideten Statuetten des spten Hellenismus (Bonn, ).

rachel kousser

Figure .. Denarius of Julius Caesar showing Venus Genetrix on thereverse, bc. Photo courtesy American Numismatic Society.

ones previously favored, and in his emphasis on her embodiment ofthe bene1ts of peace rather than her patronage of war. 2e AugustanForum o3ers the most extensive and complex example of the princepsprogrammatic use of Venus and classicism to promote his new regime.Vowed at Philippi in bc, it was completed some forty years later,making it one of the longest, as well as largest, building projects of theperiod.22 It is also one of the monuments most closely tied to Augustus;the forum was initiated, designed, and paid for by the ruler.23 It shouldthus o3er us a clearer idea of howAugustus himself wished to present histies to Venus and the Classical past, than do the other monuments set upin his honor by di3erent patrons.2e complex featured at its centerpiece a large Corinthian temple to

Mars Ultor, set within an elaborate two-storey portico.24 Its plan thusemulated that of the Forum of Julius Caesar, immediately contiguous toit; at the same time, as a comparison of the two demonstrates, the Forumof Augustus was considerably larger and more complicated than its pre-decessor.25 Its sculpted decoration was similarly complex and ambitious,

22 Suet., Aug. .; Cass. Dio ...23 Augustus, Res Gestae Divi Augusti .24 For the architectural ensemble of the forum, see the useful summary in Valentin

Kockel, in Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae , ed. Eva Margarete Steinby (Rome,), pp. , s.v. Forum Augustum.

25 See Chiara Morselli, in Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae , ed. Eva MargareteSteinby (Rome, ), pp. , s.v. Forum Iulium.

augustan aphrodites: the allure of greek art

including deliberate citations of earlier Greekworksmost famously, thecaryatids modeled on those of the Erechtheumas well as portrait stat-ues of illustrious Romans, from Aeneas and Romulus to Pompey andCaesar.26 4is historicizing iconography suited its role as a showplace ofthe new regime: it functioned as a meeting place for the Senate, a tri-bunal where the emperor sat in judgment, the depository of the Parthianstandards, the setting for the manumission of slaves, and, 5nally, the cul-minating point of festivals.27

Within this large, high-pro5le structure, Venus and Venusian imagerywere very prominent. O6cially, the design centered around Mars, andspeci5cally the temple vowed to him in his capacity as Ultor (Avenger),in the lead-up to Augustus battle with the assassins of Caesar at Philip-pi.28 Venus and her descendents were also extensively honored in theforum. We know the goddess appeared on the pediment of the temple,which is replicated on a relief from the so-called Ara Pietatis Augustaeof the Claudian period, ad (5gure .).29 Imposing and heavilydraped, Venus has a scepter and diadem to enhance her regal appear-ance. At the same time, her association with love and beauty is sig-naled by a tiny 5gure of Cupid, who perches on her le: shoulder. Typo-logical analysis is tenuous with so small a 5gure, but the rendering ofVenus here recalls mid-5:h-century bc Greek prototypes. 4e triangu-lar mantle, in particular, resembles those on statues such as the VelletriAthena.30

Other images of Venus from the Forum can be more securely andclosely associated with Classical precedents. Whereas the cult statuegroup from the temple, for example, featured a novel sculpted image ofa bearded, armed Mars, a deity rarely depicted in Classical Greece, theVenus in this group followed prototypes of the late 5:h century bc (5g-ure .).31 4e bare le: shoulder, seductive hip-shot pose, and seem-ingly transparent drapery of the chiton all 5nd parallels in the art ofthe Peloponnesian War era; useful comparisons might be the so-called

26 For the forums sculpture, the most useful treatment is that of Eugenio La Rocca, IlProgramma Figurativo del Foro di Augusto, in I Luoghi del Consenso Imperiale. Il Forodi Augusto, Il Foro di Traiano , ed. Lucrezia Ungaro, Eugenio La Rocca, and RobertoMeneghini (Rome, ), pp. .

27 Ibid., pp. .28 Suet., Aug. ..29 Joachim Ganzert and Valentin Kockel, Augustusforum und Mars-Ultor-Tempel,

in Kaiser Augustus und die verlorene Republik (Mainz, ), pp. .30 Pierre Demargne, in LIMC (), p. , s.v. Athena, no. .31 Zanker, Forum Augustum, pp. .

rachel kousser

Figure .. Julio-Claudian relief showing pedimental statues fromthe Temple of Mars Ultor. Villa Medici, Rome, ca. ad.Photo courtesy Forschungsarchiv fr Antike Plastik, Cologne.

Hera Borghese type, or the Aphrodite in the Gardens from Daphni.321ere is no secure evidence that theRoman cult statue replicates preciselya speci2c Classical original. It may instead have functioned as an eclecticfusion of several earlier sculptural types, in order to create a new work ofart appropriate to its display context, the princeps forum.

32 On the Hera Borghese, see Angelos Delivorrias, Der Statuarische Typus der soge-nannten Hera Borghese, in Polykletforschungen, ed. Herbert Beck and Peter Bol (Berlin,); on theDaphniAphrodite, Die Kultstatue derAphrodite vonDaphni,Antike Plas-tik (), .

augustan aphrodites: the allure of greek art

Figure .. Julio-Claudian relief showing cult statues from the Templeof Mars Ultor, ca. ad. Archaeological Museum, Carthage.Photo courtesy Forschungsarchiv fr Antike Plastik, Cologne.

7e cult statue of Venus also departed from any Classical precedents(all conceived as independent 8gures) in that it formed part of a largergroup, which included Cupid and Mars as well.33 Although Mars andVenus are physically isolated from each other and do not touch, they arenonetheless visually connected by the 8gure of Amor, who holds out tohis mother the war gods sword. 7ey also turn and look towards eachother in a manner that encourages an allegorical interpretation of thegroup as a scene of Mars disarmed through his love of Venus.34 Suchallegorical scenes were familiar from the late fourth century bc onwards,as for instance with Aetions famous painting of Alexander the Great

33 Hans Gnter Martin, Die Tempelkultbilder, in Kaiser Augustus und die verloreneRepublik (Mainz, ), pp. ; Zanker, Forum Augustum, pp. ; Zanker,!ePower of Images, pp. .

34 Zanker,!e Power of Images, pp. .

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overcome with love of his eastern bride, Roxana.35 In the forums cultstatue group, the sensuous visual appearance of Venus helps to explaineven tomotivatethe allegorical narrative. At the same time, her paci.c,seductive appeal serves to counterbalance the aggressive force of Mars,for an audience all too familiar with the violence and human cost of war,and appreciative of the bene.ts of peace./e manner in which the Venusian images of the Augustan Forum

workboth as cultural allusions to the Classical past, and as allegoricalrepresentations of the attractive qualities of the new imperial systemis best illustrated by a third sculpture, a group of Mars and Venus setup within the temple (.gure .).36 /e original statue group is onlyfragmentarily preserved, but can be reconstructed through comparisonwith a series of later versions of the type./ese sculptures, highly consis-tent in their scale and iconography, also provide useful evidence for thereception of Augustan state imagery in the private sphere.37 Indeed, thehistory of the Mars-Venus group type in the Augustan period and there-a3er o4ers a very e4ective demonstration of how allusion and allegorycould be misunderstood, particularly at a time when the visual languageof imperial art was still in the process of formation.

One should .rst consider the visual format of the original Augustansculpture. Venus, half-nude, with a mantle draped about her hips, turnstowards and embraces Mars, her le3 arm encircling his neck and herright hand on his chest./e war god is here a youthful nude .gure, verydi4erent from the cuirassed cult statue; he likewise turns to his consort,gazing at her and receiving her embrace. Both .gures are based on well-established Classical statue types, the late .3h-century Ares Borghesetype for Mars, the mid-fourth-century Aphrodite of Capua type forVenus.38 /e group thus constitutes another of those eclectic fusions ofearlier precedents, as posited above for the cult statue.39 It imbues the

35 Lucian, Her. sive Aetion ; Andrew Stewart, Faces of Power (Berkeley, ),pp. .

36 Hans Peter LOrange, Le Statue di Marte e Venere nel Tempio di Marte Ultore sulForo di Augusto, Symbolae Osloenses (), ; Zanker, !e Power of Images,pp. .

37 Kousser, Mythological Portraiture.38 Paris, Muse du Louvre, inv. ; Naples, Museo Nazionale, inv. .39 On the Classical precedents for the sculptural group, and Augustan eclecticism, see

Kousser, Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture, pp. ; Zanker,!e Power of Images,pp. .

augustan aphrodites: the allure of greek art

Figure .. Sculptural group of Mars and Venus with portrait heads,Ostia, Late Antonine (ca. ad). Rome, Museo delle Terme .Photo a9er G. Moretti, Ostia, Notizie degli Scavi, , pl. .

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protagonistsMars, ancestor of the Roman people by connection withRomulus, and Venus, ancestress of the gens Iulii through Aeneaswiththe authority and majesty of Greek art..e sensuous and erotic appearance of the sculpture is undeniable.

.e Mars-Venus group is a sophisticated classicizing work of art, but itis also an appeal to the senses, a visual essay on the delights of seeingand touching. .e gods themselves both gaze and caress, encouragingthe viewer to imagine doing likewise. For the mythologically informedviewer, the groups narrative backgroundthe love a/air of Ares andAphrodite, celebrated from Homers Odyssey onwardswould heightenthe gods sensuous appeal.40.e story of Greek mythologys most famous adulterers was widely

popular in contemporary private art, as in Augustan literaturefor ex-ample, works by Propertius and Ovid.41 At least some viewers made theconnection between the statue group and the myth, to judge from anintriguing passage from Ovids Tristia. In it, the poet imagines a womanvisiting the great landmarks of Romethe Forum Augustum, CircusMaximus, and so onand interpreting them in a distinctly inappropriatemanner:

venerit in magni templum, tua munera, Martis,stat Venus Ultori iuncta, vir ante fores.

Should she come into that temple of great Mars, your own gi0,Venus stands joined to the Avenger, her husband before the doors.42

.is is not to suggest that such intimations of adultery would have beenperceived by all viewers; nor is it likely that they were intended by thepatron or artist. Instead, the seductive visual appearance and Classicalform of the sculptures might have been misinterpreted by viewers suchas Ovid, who were familiar with the myth of Ares and Aphrodite asrepresented in Greek literature and in contemporary private art. Insteadof reading the statue as an attractive allegorical image of war disarmedby the ancestress of the princeps (as perhaps Augustus intended) theymight have read the group in a more literal fashion, as a depiction oferotic love..e a0erlife of this image, which appeared very infrequentlyin later public art, but had an extensive career in the private sphere (ongems, objets dart, and sarcophagi), suggests this interpretation.43

40 Hom., Od. ..41 Prop. ..; Ov., Am. ..; ibid., Ars am. ..42 Ov., Tr. ., trans. author.43 Kousser, Mythological Portraiture.

augustan aphrodites: the allure of greek art

In Augustan public spaces like the princeps Forum, Greek-styleAphrodite images evoked the attractive qualities of the new regime.3usthey were an important component of Augustus public self-representa-tion. 3ese images were liable to misinterpretation precisely because oftheir sensuous and attractive appearance, especially at a time when thevisual language of the principate was new and unfamiliar to viewers.3eseductive Aphrodite images of the private sphere, which had a very dif-ferent range of functions and meanings, were more familiar to Augustanspectators. 3ese private images thus tended to contaminate, as it were,the interpretation of Augustan public monuments and therefore deserveour scrutiny.

Aphrodite in Augustan Private Art:!e Pleasures of the Senses

In the wealthy homes of the Hellenistic and Roman worlds, Aphroditehad long been a familiar presence. OnDelos and Kos, for example, scoresof Aphrodite statuettes were produced for the purposes of domesticdecoration; there theymight have been seen byRomans aswell asGreeks,since both islands had a strong Italian trading presence from the secondcentury bc onwards.44 So, too, the Aphrodites found in the Mahdiaand Antikythera shipwrecksreduced in scale, and modeled on famoustypes such as the Aphrodite of Knidoslikewise testify to the popularityof such images as imports to the Roman market in the 6rst century bc.45While the statuettes of the love goddess from Pompeii and Herculaneumare more di7cult to date closely, it seems likely that some, at least, weremade during the pre-Augustan period.46

Prior to the Imperial period (starting in bc), fewpaintedAphroditesare preserved in the archaeological record. 3is is not surprising, giventhat most Republican wall painting is architectural in character. 3atthey do occur is surprising: we have, for example, Aphrodite and Eros

44 Kousser, Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture, pp. ; Vassiliki Machaira, LesGroupes Statuaires dAphrodite et dEros (Athens, ); JeanMarcad,AuMuse de Dlos(Paris, ), pp. .

45 For the Antikythera statue, see Delivorrias et al., in LIMC , p. , s.v. Aphrodite,no. ; Peter Bol,Die Skulpturen des Schi"sfundes vonAntikythera (Berlin, ), pp. ; for Mahdia, (Muse National du Bardo, Tunis, inv. N. C), see Hans-Hoyer vonPrittwitz und Ga@ron, Die Marmortondi, in Das Wrack. Der antike Schi"sfund vonMahdia, ed. Gisela Hellenkemper Salies (Cologne, ), pp. .

46 Angelika Dierichs, Auf den Spuren der Venus: Bilder der Liebesgtten aus Pompeji(Teil ), Antike Welt (), p. , 6g. ; p. , 6g. .

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peeking out the door of a wall painting of circa bc from the House ofM. Fabius Rufus.47 /ey become much more frequent with the advent ofmythological imagery in the Augustan era.48/e frescoes of the Villa Farnesina, generally dated in the last decades

of the 0rst century bc, o1er an early and particularly high-quality exam-ple of the use of Greek-style Aphrodite images in Augustan painting.49/eir good preservation throughout the decorative ensemble makesthem more useful for analysis than the frescoes of many houses at Pom-peii, where the mythological panels were cut out and brought to theNaples Museum./e Villa Farnesina paintings thus allow us to see howimages of Aphrodite functioned within a larger decorative context, use-ful for reconstructing more fully their functions and meanings. As com-parisons with Pompeian houses show, the Farnesina paintings were notunique, but rather exemplify, in a particularly clear and elegant man-ner, the signi0cant role played by Aphrodite in the decoration of Romanhomes.

An overview of the topographical context and patronage of the VillaFarnesina is warranted./e riverside villa boasted an enviable site, acrossfrom the Campus Martius between Trastevere and the Vatican.50 It hasfrequently been associated with Agrippa, who had large holdings in thearea; the presence in its decorative scheme of a stucco image of Mercurythat seems to resemble Augustus has encouraged this interpretation.51Such a hypothesis is di2cult to prove. Rather than insisting upon aprecise identi0cation of the patron, we should instead see the house asexemplary of the elite culture of early principate./e patrons wealth andcultivated tastes are in any case suggested by the paintings: they are ofa high quality and refer to a range of mythological and art-historicalreferences./e scale of the villa and its innovative and complex plan alsosuggest wealth and taste./e site and plan of the Villa Farnesina, furthermore, indicates its

purpose as a suburban pleasure villa. It stood well outside the pomerium,

47 Ibid., p. , 0g. .48 Jrgen Hodske, Mythologische Bildthemen in den Husern Pompejis (Ruhpolding,

), pp. .49 /e best introduction to the paintings is Bragantini and Vos, Le Decorazioni della

Villa Romana della Farnesina, with abundant previous bibliography; Maria Rita Sanzi diMino, ed., La Villa della Farnesina in Palazzo Massimo alle Terme (Rome, ) is alsouseful.

50 Bragantini and Vos, Le Decorazioni della Villa Romana della Farnesina, pp. .51 On the issue, see the judicious summary in Bergmann, Greek Masterpieces and

Roman Recreative Fictions, p. .

augustan aphrodites: the allure of greek art

the ritual boundary of the city; it has a wealth of rooms, which areoriented towards the Tiber River, with views across to the scenic CampusMartius.52 In this respect it ismuch closer to the new seaside villas aroundthe Bay of Naples than to the old-fashioned townhouses exempli4ed by,for example, the House of Augustus on the Palatine.535e 4ctive pinacothecae, seen in two of the cubicula (bedrooms),

have antique panels, elaborate frames, and fantastic stands that are allillusionistically rendered in fresco.54 Especially noteworthy are thewhite-ground panels, which in style and technique recall the achievementsof 46h-century Greek art.55 5e ancient literary sources suggest that asimilar stylewas deployed inmonumentalGreekwall paintings, althoughwe have no major preserved examples dating to the 46h century bc; it ismore likely that the Villa Farnesina paintings imitated them rather thanvases.56 As in the Augustan Forum, here we see the use of earlier stylesfor expressive purposes. 5e decoration here also assumes a cultivatedviewer, one able to recognize and appreciate these references to earlierstyles. In contrast to the Forum, the excellent preservation of this contextmeans that we can observe how carefully these images in classicizingstyle are presented in the Villa Farnesina as di9erent, set o9 from theirsurroundings by framing devices.

In their display context, these classicizing Aphrodites of the VillaFarnesina di9er from their public counterparts. 5is is suggested, atany rate, by the appearance of the images, as well as their juxtapositionwith other motifs. In cubiculum B, where a white-ground painting ofAphrodite, Eros, and Peitho is the central feature of the south wall, thegoddess is shown in a very di9erent milieu from that of the AugustanForum (4gure .). Seated on an impressive throne, with an ornateheaddress, Aphrodite gazes downward at a beautifully detailed ;ower

52 For the plan and location, see di Mino, ed., La Villa della Farnesina in PalazzoMassimo alle Terme, pp. .

53 On the House of Augustus, see Zanker, !e Power of Images, pp. ; forseaside villas, see Stefano De Caro, 5e Sculptures of the Villa of Poppaea at Oplontis:A Preliminary Report, in Ancient Roman Villa Gardens, ed. Elisabeth MacDougall(Washington, D.C., ), pp. .

54 Bergmann, Greek Masterpieces and Roman Recreative Fictions, pp. ;Hallett, Emulation Versus Replication, pp. .

55 On the panels, see especially Bergmann, Greek Masterpieces and Roman Recre-ative Fictions, pp. . 5e closest preserved parallels are Athenian white-groundvases, particularly lekythoi, onwhich see JohnOakley,PicturingDeath inClassical Athens:!e Evidence of the White Lekythoi (Cambridge, Eng., ).

56 Plin., HN .; Cic., Brut. ..

rachel kousser

Figure .. Frescoed wall of cubiculum B, from the Villa Farnesina,Augustan (ca. bc). Detail showing Aphrodite with Peitho and

Eros. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo alleTerme). Photo courtesy Scala /Art Resource, NY ART.

in her right hand. Her son, Eros, is a fully formed but petite wingedyouth, whose intimate connection to his mother is shown as he standson her footrest, while their legs touch. Peitho, by contrast, is a full-sizeyoung woman, whose costume and gesture, as she leans over the backof the throne, assimilate her to the 4gure of an attendant or maid. 5e

augustan aphrodites: the allure of greek art

ambiance of the scene appears more sensuous than erotic. Its mood andiconography resemble scenes of womens life from late 34h-century bcvase paintings, such as red-3gure scenes attributed to the Meidias andEretria Painters.57 Just as those scenes appear very frequently on vasesmade for women, so here onemight see the decoration as appropriate fora womans bedroom.58 Aphrodite is an imposing model for the mistressof the house.59

Other paintings from the room reinforce the culturally sophisticatedatmosphere of the cubiculum, as well as its emphasis onwomens lives. Onthewest wall, several small white-ground panels display scenes of womenmaking music (3gure .). As with the Aphrodite panel, the absence ofmen seems to locate the depictions within the womens quarters. Indeed,this was a favorite subject of late 34h-century bc vase painting; musicalsoires were evidently the sort of elegant pastime considered appropriatefor the wealthy women of Classical Athens.60 :e central panel of thewest wall likewise depicts a characteristically feminine activity; herewe see a nymph nursing the baby Dionysos, perhaps a prototype forthe motherly activities of the rooms inhabitant. :e panel constitutes astylistic departure from those considered above. Not linear but painterly,it 3nds its best parallels in Late Classical works such as the mourningDemeter 3gure from the Tomb of Persephone at Vergina.61 :e samestyle is deployed in the other small narrative panelswhich show scenesof erotic play and the theatreand in the single mythological 3guresincorporated into the rooms decorative scheme, which include Isis aswell as Venus.:e ensemble of wall paintings in cubiculumB draw on a range of clas-

sicizing styles (from the late 34h to fourth centuries bc), juxtaposed soas to highlight, not obscure, stylistic contrast. What uni3es the paintingsdespite these disparate visual choices is, I would argue, their concernwith

57 Burn, !e Meidias Painter; Adrienne Lezzi-Ha4er, Der Eretria-Maler. Werke undWeggefhrten. Kerameus (Mainz, ).

58 Rachel Kousser, :e World of Aphrodite in Late Fi4h Century Vase Painting,in Greek Vases: Images, Contexts, and Controversies, ed. Clemente Marconi. ColumbiaStudies in the Classical Tradition (Leiden, ), pp. . See also the contributionto this volume by Elizabetta Pala, in chapter .

59 Bragantini andVos, LeDecorazioni della Villa Romana della Farnesina, pp. .60 Claude Brard, :e Order ofWomen, inACity of Images: Iconography and Society

in Ancient Greece, ed. Claude Brard et. al. (Princeton, ), p. .61 J.J. Pollitt, Art in the Hellenistic Age (Cambridge, Eng., ), pp. ; Manolis

Andronikos, Vergina :!e Tomb of Persephone (Athens, ), pls. XXII.

rachel kousser

Figure .. Frescoed wall of cubiculum B, from the VillaFarnesina, Augustan (ca. bc). Detail showing nymph

nursing the young Dionysos. Rome, Museo NazionaleRomano (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme). Photo by LucianoRomano, courtesy Scala /Art Resource, NY ART.

womens lives, as the goddesses and mythological 4gures depicted o5eridealized paradigms of behavior for the cubiculums inhabitant. Together,they o5er a vision of her experience of sensual pleasure: not only of look-ing, of course, but also of hearing (the musicians), touching (the baby

augustan aphrodites: the allure of greek art

nursing), and even scent (the 4ower Aphrodite holds).5ey move com-fortably between what we might call the literal and allegorical levels ofinterpretation, as Aphrodite, accompanied by love and persuasion, is putnext to scenes of amorous couples. Nor is this juxtaposition unique tothe Villa Farnesina. It is found frequently in Pompeii, for example at theHouse of Caecilius Iucundus, where a scene of erotic play featuring mor-tal protagonists is depicted in close association with amythological panelof Mars and Venus.62 Given these associations in art from the privatesphere, it is perhaps not surprising that viewers of Augustan public artwere inclined to read images like the Mars-Venus group literally, havingbeen conditioned to do so by the walls of their own homes.

Conclusions

In this chapter I have examined classicizing images of Aphrodite inAugustan public art, particularly the Forum Augustum, and contrastedthem with the similarly classicizing, but otherwise quite di6erent,Aphrodites of the private sphere, exempli7ed here by the Villa Farnesina.My emphasis has been on analyzing the visual form, styles, and contextsof the monuments in order to appreciate more fully what they meant totheir 7rst viewers, and to understand their suddenwidespread popularityin the Augustan era. In Augustan public art, they served metaphoricallyto represent the attractions of the principate. In the private sphere, how-ever, they functioned more literally, as alluring, idealized paradigms ofbehavior for the villas inhabitants.5ese conclusions o6er an implicit challenge to the current general

interpretation of Augustan art. Recent scholars have emphasized thecontrol of the visual sphere by the princeps and have tended to assumethat his interpretations of images prevailed.63 My sense is that the actualsituation wasmore 4uid, and the princeps control less absolute, than thishypothesis suggests. 5is is particularly the case because the hypothesisfocuses on the creation, rather than the reception, of images; there islittle discussion in such work of the horizon of expectations that viewersbrought to these new images, or of the ways they were conditioned

62 John R. Clarke, Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art,bcad (Berkeley, ), pp. .

63 Zanker,)e Power of Images, pp. .

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to understand them.64 .e possibility of viewers misunderstanding animage is never entertained, but it seems plausible in the case of theMars-Venus group. Here I have sought to analyze images from the privatesphere as autonomous works of art in their own right; this serves as auseful corrective to previous interpretations, where they seem to functiontoo much as re/ections of public monuments and symbols of politicalallegiance.65

My focus on the autonomy of images from the domestic realm, andon the speci0cally private meanings they might have, is also useful foranother reason. It helps to explain why classicizing mythological imageshad such a hold on Roman viewers, so that they 0lled their homes, theirgardens, and eventually their tombs with Aphrodite, Dionysos, and otherGreek deities. For such viewers, classicism o1ered not simply an impres-sive, politically acceptable visual style, but a seductive and compellingmanner with which to represent their hopes and aspirations. Surroundedby these0gures fromClassicalmythology, they could imagine themselvesleading a more attractive and exalted existence, beyond the realm of theeveryday. A history of Augustan classicizing art that focuses on the roleof the princeps ignores too much; we need to incorporate these privatepatrons and viewers who, with their paintings, their statuettes, and theirgems and jewels, testify so emphatically to both the power and the allureof the Classical.66

64 On this issue, the critique of Paul Zankers!e Power of Images by AndrewWallace-Hadrill, Romes Cultural Revolution, Journal of Roman Studies (), p. , isparticularly acute.

65 E.g., Paul Zanker, Augustan Political Symbolism in the Private Sphere, in Imageand Mystery in the Roman World, ed. Janet Huskinson, Mary Beard, and Joyce Reynolds(Gloucester, ), pp. ; Zanker,!e Power of Images, pp. .

66 For amore extended argument along these lines, see Kousser,Hellenistic and RomanIdeal Sculpture, pp. .

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