Biofouling || Front Matter

BLBK203-Durr September 25, 2009 13:47

Biofouling

Edited by

Simone DurrSchool of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University

Liverpool, UK

Jeremy C. ThomasonSchool of Biology, Newcastle University

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

i

Biofouling Edited by Simone Dürr and Jeremy C. Thomason© 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-16926-4


This edition first published 2010C© Blackwell Publishing Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Biofouling / edited by Simone Durr, Jeremy C. Thomason. – 1st ed.P. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4051-6926-4 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Fouling organisms. 2. Fouling. I. Durr, Simone.

II. Thomason, Jeremy.TD427.F68B56 2010628.9′6–dc22 2009023941

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 10/12.5 pt Times by Aptara R© Inc., New Delhi, IndiaPrinted in Singapore

1 2010

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BLBK203-Durr November 17, 2009 19:17

Contents

List of Contributors xiPreface xv

I Processes in Marine and Freshwater Biofouling

i Larvae and Spores

Chapter 1 Reproduction and Larvae/Spore Types 1Jon N. Havenhand and Craig A. Styan

Introduction 1Some Terminology 2Asexual Production of Propagules 3Sexual Reproduction – Mechanisms Facilitating Fertilisation 5Demographic Effects on Fertilisation Success – Allee Effects 7Environmental Factors Affecting Fertilisation 8Links Between Fertilisation and Subsequent Larval Attributes 8Hatching and Development 9Mobility and Survival of Larvae/Spores 10Carry-over Effects 10Conclusions 11References 11

Chapter 2 Larval Supply and Dispersal 16Christopher D. McQuaid and Karen Miller

Introduction 16The Significance of Scales of Larval Dispersal 16Factors Influencing Dispersal Scales 18Estimating Dispersal 21Practical Consequences of Dispersal Scales 22Conclusions 24References 24

Chapter 3 Settlement and Behaviour of Marine Fouling Organisms 30Gabrielle S. Prendergast

Introduction 30Cues 31

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iv Contents

Planktonic Propagules 32Inert Surface Encounter, Followed by (Active?) Attachment or Rejection 45Behavioural Surface Encounter, Exploration and Attachment or Rejection 46Conclusions 51References 51

ii Fouling Community Processes

Chapter 4 Succession on Hard Substrata 60Stuart R. Jenkins and Gustavo M. Martins

Introduction 60Succession and the Role of Disturbance 60Models of Succession 62Extension of General Models 63Life History Characteristics 64Patch Characteristics 65Mode of Colonisation 66Seasonality 67Variable Endpoints of Succession 67Conclusions 68References 69

Chapter 5 Patterns of Fouling on a Global Scale 73Joao Canning-Clode and Martin Wahl

Background 73Is There a Latitudinal Cline in Fouling Organisms? 74The Pattern Revealed by a Global Modular Fouling Experiment 76Are Biofouling Communities Saturated? The RelationshipBetween Local and Regional Diversity 80Discussion and Future Perspectives 81Conclusions 83Acknowledgements 83References 83

Chapter 6 Biofouling Patterns with Depth 87Phillip R. Cowie

Introduction 87Major Forcing Factors Determining Subtidal Sessile Assemblages 89Patterns of Vertical Zonation on Natural Substratum Subtidal Communities 92Patterns of Vertical Zonation in Biofouling Communities onMan-made Structures 94Conclusions 95References 96


Contents v

iii Epibiosis and Anti-epibiosis

Chapter 7 Epibiosis 100Martin Wahl

Sessile Mode of Life 100Consequences of Epibioses 101Distributional Patterns of Epibioses 103Conclusions 106References 106

Chapter 8 Natural Control of Fouling 109Rocky de Nys, Jana Guenther and Maria J. Uriz

Biofouling and Its Biological Consequences 109Defence Mechanisms Against Biofouling 110Conclusions 116References 116

iv Introduction to Microbial Fouling 121Sergey Dobretsov, Anna M. Romanı, David A. Spratt, Derren Ready and Jonathan Pratten

Chapter 9 Marine Biofilms 123Sergey Dobretsov

Biofilm Development 123Composition of Microbial Biofilms 125Biofilm Dynamics 128Signalling in Biofilms 129Prokaryote–Eukaryote Interactions in Biofilms 130Conclusions 132Acknowledgements 133Dedication 133References 133

Chapter 10 Freshwater Biofilms 137Anna M. Romanı

Introduction 137Structure and Architecture of Freshwater Biofilms 138Biofilm Biomass 140Biofilm Metabolism and Its Role on the Aquatic Food Web 143Dynamic Structure–Function in Freshwater Biofilms 145Conclusions 147Acknowledgements 148References 148

Chapter 11 Biofilms in Medicine 154David A. Spratt, Derren Ready and Jonathan Pratten

Introduction 154


vi Contents

Infection of the Head and Neck 155Respiratory Tract 158Gastrointestinal 159Genitourinary 160Surgical and Nosocomial Infections 161Skin and Soft Tissues 162Conclusions 164References 164

II Biofouling Processes in Industry

Chapter 12 Fouling on Artificial Substrata 170Antonio Terlizzi and Marco Faimali

The Influence of the Nature of Artificial Substrata on FoulingAssemblages 170Environmental, Physical–Chemical and Biological InteractionsDuring Fouling Colonisation of Artificial Substrata 171Man-made Structures as Extra Habitat for Biofouling Organisms 176Artificial Substrata for Biofouling Monitoring in Cooling Water Systems 177Conclusions 179References 179

Chapter 13 Paint and Coatings Technology for the Control of Marine Fouling 185Alistair A. Finnie and David N. Williams

Introduction 185Biocidal Antifouling Paints 186Non-biocidal Coatings 193Paint Selection – Economic Considerations 199Future Perspectives 200Conclusions 201References 201

Chapter 14 Fouling on Shipping: Data-Mining the World’s Largest AntifoulingArchive 207Jeremy C. Thomason

Introduction 207Digging the Data-mine 208The First Nuggets 210Conclusions 213Acknowledgements 214References 214

Chapter 15 Consequences of Fouling on Shipping 217Robert Edyvean

Introduction 217


Contents vii

Biofilms and Their Effect on the External Hull of Ships 218The Effects of Biofilms on The Internal Operating Systems of Ships 219The Effects of Biofilms in Water Systems 221Biofilm Effects in Fuel and Hydraulic Systems 222Other Areas of Biofilm Effects 223Conclusions 223References 223

Chapter 16 Consequences of Antifouling Coatings – The Chemist’s Perspective 226Dickon Howell and Brigitte Behrends

Introduction 226History of AF Technologies 227Constituents of Biocidal Coatings 227Biocides in AF Paints 228Distribution of Biocides in the Environment 237Conclusions 238References 239

Chapter 17 Consequences of Antifouling Systems – An Environmental Perspective 243Cato C. ten Hallers-Tjabbes and Simon Walmsley

Introduction 243Antifouling Systems 244Tributyltin – Behaviour and Fate in Natural Systems 244Environmental Risks Associated with AFS and Alternative AFS 245AFS Ecotoxicity 246AFS in the Presence of Other Contaminants 246Sensory–Behavioural Effects 247Conclusions 248References 248

Chapter 18 Fouling and Antifouling in Oil and Other Offshore Industries 252Henry M. Page, Jenifer E. Dugan and Fred Piltz

Introduction 252The Biofouling Assemblage 253Fouling Assemblage Development 258Ecological Effects of the Fouling Assemblage 259Novel and Exotic Species 260Economic Value of the Biofouling Assemblage 261Management of Biofouling and Economic Impacts 262Conclusions 263References 264

Chapter 19 Biofouling and Antifouling in Aquaculture 267Simone Durr and Douglas I. Watson

The Cost of Fouling in Aquaculture 267


viii Contents

The Problems with Fouling in Aquaculture 268Major Fouling Groups 271Antifouling Strategies 277Future Solutions 281Conclusions 282Acknowledgements 282References 282

Chapter 20 Fouling and Antifouling in Other Industries – Power Stations,Desalination Plants – Drinking Water Supplies and Sensors 288Peter Henderson

Microfouling Organisms of Water Intakes and Cooling Systems 288Macrofouling Organisms 289Consequences of Fouling for Plant Operation and Safety 294Control and Mitigation of Fouling 296Consequences of Treatments to the Environment 299Changing Biofouling Threats 302Conclusions 303References 303

Chapter 21 Regulation of Marine Antifouling in International and EC Law 306Ilona Cheyne

The International Law of the Sea 306The International Convention on the Control of HarmfulAntifouling Paints for Ships, 2001 309Implementation of the International Antifouling Convention by the EC 311Authorisation of Biocidal Substances 312Conclusions 313Notes 314

III Research Methodologies and Future Directions

Chapter 22 Techniques for the Quantification of Biofouling 319Alan J. Butler, Joao Canning-Clode, Ashley D.M. Coutts,Phillip R. Cowie, Sergey Dobretsov, Simone Durr, Marco Faimali,John A. Lewis, Henry M. Page, Jonathan Pratten, Derren Ready,Dan Rittschof, David A. Spratt, Antonio Terlizzi and Jeremy C. Thomason

Vessel Hull 319Steel Mariner Barge 327References 329

Chapter 23 Biofouling and Climate Change 333Elvira S. Poloczanska and Alan J. Butler

Introduction 333Recent and Projected Changes in the Ocean–Atmosphere System 333


Contents ix

Climate and Climate-Related Factors Regulating BiofoulingCommunities 334Ecological Impacts of Climate Change Effects on Biofouling 338Economic Impacts of Climate Change Effects on Biofouling 340Environmental Impacts of Climate Change Effects on Biofouling 340Conclusions 342References 342

Chapter 24 Biofouling Invasions 348John A. Lewis and Ashley D.M. Coutts

Invasive Species 348Vectors 349The Translocation Process for Biofouling Organisms 349Historical Translocations 351Modern Translocations 353Proposed Management Measures 356Conclusions 357References 358

Chapter 25 New Directions in Antifouling Technology 366Dean C. Webster and Bret J. Chisholm

Introduction 366Biocidal Antifouling Coatings 367Natural Antifoulants 370Non-toxic Non-fouling Approaches 371Conclusions 379References 380

Chapter 26 Implications of International and European RegulatoryDevelopments for Marine Antifouling 388Ilona Cheyne

The Introduction of New Antifouling Restrictions 388Amendments to the ICAFS 388Ballast Water Management 390Other Relevant Policy Areas in EC Law 391Conclusions 392Notes 392

Chapter 27 Research on Practical Environmentally Benign Antifouling Coatings 396Dan Rittschof

Environmentally Benign Antifouling Coatings 396Fouling and Fouling Control 397Biofouling Management 399The Antifouling Problem in a Nutshell 400Control of Biofouling and Environmental Impacts 400


x Contents

Practical Solutions 401Considerations for a Novel Antifouling Coating 401Coating Application and Removal 403Governmental Oversight 404Perspective 404Theoretical Considerations for a Novel Antifouling Coating 404Environmentally Benign Coatings 404Commercialisation 405Conclusions 406References 406

Index 410

Colour plates appear between pages 332 and 333


Contributors

Brigitte Behrends, Elsfether Zentrum fur maritime Forschung GmbH, An der Weinkaje 4,26931 Elsfleth, Germany

Alan J. Butler, Wealth from Oceans National Research Flagship, CSIRO Marine andAtmospheric Research, Hobart, Tasmania 7000, Australia

Joao Canning-Clode, IFM-GEOMAR – Leibniz Institute for Marine Sciences,Dusternbrooker Weg 20, 24105 Kiel, Germany

Ilona Cheyne, Newcastle Law School, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE17RU, UK

Bret J. Chisholm, Center for Nanoscale Science and Engineering, North Dakota StateUniversity, PO Box 6050, Department 4310, Fargo, ND 58108, USA

Ashley D.M. Coutts, Aquenal Pty Ltd, 244 Summerleas Road, Kingston, Tasmania 7050,Australia

Phillip R. Cowie, University of London Marine Biological Station, Millport, Isle ofCumbrae, KA28 OEG, UK

Rocky de Nys, Head of Discipline – Aquaculture, School of Marine and Tropical Biology,James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia

Sergey Dobretsov, Department Marine Science and Fisheries, College of Agricultural andMarine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al Khoud 123, PO Box 34, Muscat, Sultanate ofOman

Jenifer E. Dugan, Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara,California 93106, USA

Simone Durr, School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John MooresUniversity, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK

Robert Edyvean, Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, The University ofSheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD, UK

Marco Faimali, CNR – Istituto di Scienze Marine (ISMAR) – Sezione Tecnologie MarineGenova, Via De Marini, 6 - IV P., 16149 Genova, Italy

Alistair A. Finnie, Technology Centre – M&PC, International Paint Ltd, Stoneygate Lane,Felling, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, NE10 0JY, UK

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xii Contributors

Jana Guenther, Centre for Research-based Innovation in Aquaculture Technology, SINTEFFisheries and Aquaculture, Brattørkaia 17B, 7465 Trondheim, Norway

Jon N. Havenhand, Department of Marine Ecology – Tjarno, University of Gothenburg,Tjarno, 452 96 Stromstad, Sweden

Peter Henderson, PISCES Conservation Ltd, IRC House, The Square, Pennington,Lymington, Hants, SO41 8GN, UK

Dickon Howell, Newcastle University, c/o 11a Northumberland Terrace, Tynemouth, Tyneand Wear, NE30 4BA, UK

Stuart R. Jenkins, School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, Anglesey,LL59 5AB, UK

John A. Lewis, ES Link Services Pty Ltd, 1 Queensberry Place, North Melbourne, Victoria3051, Australia

Gustavo M. Martins, Departamento de Biologia, Seccao de Biologia Marinha,Universidade dos Acores, Rua da Mae de Deus, 52, 9500 Ponta Delgada, Sao Miguel –Azores, Portugal

Christopher D. McQuaid, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University,Grahamstown 6140, South Africa

Karen Miller, Institute of Antarctic and Southern Ocean Studies, University of Tasmania,Private Bag 77, Hobart, Tasmania 7000, Australia

Henry M. Page, Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara,California 93106, USA

Fred Piltz, Minerals Management Service, Pacific OCS Region 770, Paseo Camarillo,Camarillo, California 99010, USA

Elvira S. Poloczanska, Climate Adaptation Flagship, CSIRO Marine and AtmosphericResearch, PO Box 120, Cleveland, QLD 4163, Australia

Jonathan Pratten, Microbial Diseases, UCL Eastman Dental Institute, 256 Gray’s InnRoad, London, WC1X 8LD, UK

Gabrielle S. Prendergast, School of Biology, Division of Biology and Psychology,Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK

Derren Ready, Microbial Diseases, UCL Eastman Dental Institute, 256 Gray’s Inn Road,London, WC1X 8LD, UK

Dan Rittschof, Duke University Marine Laboratory, Nicholas School of the Environment,135 Duke Marine Lab Road, Beaufort, North Carolina 28516-9721, USA

Anna M. Romanı, Institute of Aquatic Ecology and Department of EnvironmentalSciences, University of Girona, Campus de Montilivi, 17071 Girona, Spain

David A. Spratt, Microbial Diseases, UCL Eastman Dental Institute, 256 Gray’s Inn Road,London, WC1X 8LD, UK


Contributors xiii

Craig Styan, Environment – Energy & Resources, RPS Australia/SE Asia, PO Box 465,Subiaco, Western Australia 6904, Australia

Cato C. ten Hallers-Tjabbes, Oosterweg 1, 9995 VJ Kantens, The Netherlands

Antonio Terlizzi, Laboratory of Zoology and Marine Biology, Department of Biologicaland Environmental Science and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, I-73100Lecce, Italy

Jeremy C. Thomason, School of Biology, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne,NE1 7RU, UK

Iosune (Maria J.) Uriz, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas CSIC, Centred’Estudis Avancats de Blanes CEAB, Acces a la Cala St. Francesc, 14, 17300 Blanes,Girona, Spain

Martin Wahl, IFM-GEOMAR – Leibniz Institute for Marine Sciences, DusternbrookerWeg 20, 24105 Kiel, Germany

Simon Walmsley, 4 Farnham Park, Drive, Upper Hale Farnham, Surrey, GU9 0HS, UK

Douglas I. Watson, Aquaculture and Fisheries Development Centre, Department Zoology,Ecology & Plant Science, University College Cork, Cooperage Building, Distillery Fields,North Mall, Cork, Ireland

Dean C. Webster, Department of Coatings and Polymeric Materials, North Dakota StateUniversity, PO Box 6050, Department 2760, Fargo, ND 58108, USA

David N. Williams, Technology Centre – M&PC, International Paint Ltd, Stoneygate Lane,Felling, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, NE10 0JY, UK


Preface

Fouling is the process of accumulation of unwanted material at an interface1. The materialthat accumulates may be mostly non-living, comprising detritus and organic or inorganiccompounds, but it may also include organisms which may range in size from tiny viruses up togiant kelps, which can go on to form complex multi-species, multi-dimensional communities.By using the prefix bio, we are knowingly focussing the scope of this book on the processesthat lead to the accrual of a biological community at an interface. This deliberately excludesa considerable body of work on fouling in its broadest sense, for example on the chemicalfouling of reverse osmosis membranes in desalination plants, but the reach of the book isalready large enough. Much of what is encompassed by this book is to do with biofoulingin a marine context where the interface is between a hard surface and sea water where it isoften associated with huge monetary losses in industries such as shipping, offshore oil oraquaculture. This is, however, not the full scope of biofouling and neither does it cover thevariety of interfaces (solid/liquid, solid/gas and liquid/liquid) that may become biofouled.Thus this book with its simple title is still very broad in extent.

A cursory list of words relevant to biofouling includes foul, fouled, fouling2, foulant, foulage,antifouling, antifouling coating and paint, as well as more strictly defined words such asepibiont, basibiont, epibiosis and biofilm. Epibiosis refers to the biofouling of living organisms,where the organism being fouled is the basibiont and the organism doing the fouling is theepibiont. Its use seems to be limited to marine and freshwater organisms, though it could beused for all medical biofouling where by definition the basibiont is a human. Biofilm referssolely to a microbial biofouling community and is a fairly recent neologism3. Thus this bookwith its title Biofouling covers both the processes of biofouling and anti(bio)fouling and thedevices to stop the biofouling process, i.e. anti(bio)fouling coatings and paints, as well as theconsequences of the biofouling process, biofouling communities.

This book on Biofouling started life as an off-shoot of the European Union-funded CRABproject when the field trials were being coordinated by us when we both worked in the Schoolof Biology at Newcastle University. It is apt that this book was conceived next to the RiverTyne as the Tyneside area has been a focus for biofouling and antifouling research and themanufacture of antifouling paints for over a century, with academics researching biofouling

1 The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) lists 14 different meanings dating back to the ninth century for the verb foul,only one of which has a nautical derivation.

2 The use of the word fouling both as a noun and a verb is now common, though strictly speaking it is used incorrectlyas a noun.

3 The earliest use of biofilm listed by ISI Web of Knowledge is 1976 but it does not appear in the OED until 1981.The OED does not have a listing for biofouling which appears on Web of Knowledge in 1975.

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at Newcastle University and a company, now known as International Paint Ltd, producingantifouling paints and coatings on the south bank of the Tyne at Felling. This focus developedas a consequence of regional development when Newcastle on the River Tyne, and Sunderlandon the River Wear just a few miles away, were at the heart of the global ship building andarmaments industries throughout the first half of the twentieth century. Whilst the shippingindustry has relocated largely to Asia, a regional maritime emphasis on Tyneside remains. Thefocal dynamism this regionalism engenders ensures that robust and evolving linkages span notonly the UK, but also Europe and the rest of the world, and this we hope is reflected in thisbook with its regional and global spread of contributors. We also hope that we have covered thefield of biofouling in its widest sense by bringing together a suite of reviews that range frombasic and applied research, relevant industries, environmental law and governance, and all theway through to horizon scanning. We also wanted to give space to some of the academicswho are not so widely known at the biennial Biofouling Congresses, because perhaps theysee their work as more mainstream ecology, as well as to those with a non-academic voice,who work at the forefront of dealing with the problems caused by biofouling in shipping andother industries. This we hope has enabled this volume to present some different views andfresh ideas to the field as well as giving space for people to be controversial: it is clear thatquite a few of the contributors would not agree with each other on a variety of issues, butno heavy-handed editing has been done to obtain a bland consensus within the book. Scienceneeds its mavericks and their non-conformist views and we have intentionally encouraged this.Similarly, we have let the authors use the terminology they are most comfortable with, andthus where they have used biofouling or fouling as a noun or the oddly constructed compoundterm foul release coating(s)4, for example, we have used a light editorial hand and left it assuch. The reader thus needs to be aware that the terminology used changes from chapter tochapter according to the authors’ preferences.

Biofouling is governed by the same drivers that affect natural ecological communities andthus at the beginning of this book there are chapters by Havenhand and Styan (Sweden andAustralia) on invertebrate reproductive processes, McQuaid and Miller (South Africa andAustralia) on larval supply and dispersal, Prendergast (Newcastle) on larval settlement andbehaviour, and Jenkins and Martin (UK and Azores) on community succession. These arerounded off by chapters from Canning-Clode and Wahl (Germany), with a review of spatialpatterns of biofouling with a global perspective, and Cowie (UK) who shows us the importanceof depth in marine biofouling. The differences between a natural ecological community ona hard substratum, such as rocky shore, and one developing on an artificial substratum aredescribed in the linking chapter provided by Terlizzi and Faimali (Italy).

As Finnie and Williams (Felling) point out in their chapter on antifouling coatings and paints,one of the main drivers for research and development of novel coatings is the economics of theshipping industry unremittingly trying to reduce costs: this has always been the case. Workingat Felling during the latter half of the twentieth century was Alex Milne, who has been akey contributor of innovation in the antifouling industry, having had a role in developing

4 This terminology is difficult as foul is not normally used as a noun in this context, and the alternative fouling releasecoatings uses the active participle of the verb foul as a noun. It might be better to call them foulage release coatings,though the term antifoulant describing a compound with a specific effect suggests that foulant release coatingsmight also do.


Preface xvii

both tin-based self-polishing coatings (TBT-SPCs) and biocide-free fouling release (FRC)coatings5.

“Fouling prevention is a problem in economics and the environment where 1974 representedan impasse. The top grade antifouling of those years was USN 121 antifouling, a vinyl rosinhigh copper composition which lasted for only 7 to 14 months. But the rules of shipbuildingchanged; instead of annual docking vessels were allowed to stay at sea for thirty months(eventually sixty months). This was also the year of the first oil shock when the price of HeavyFuel Oil went from US$100 per tonne to US$350 per tonne and it doubled again in 1979. Theantifouling industry came under extreme pressure to improve its act by 300 % or more andthis led to much innovation exemplified by the self-polishing organotin antifoulings.”6

Environmental issues also came to the fore from the 1970s onwards reaching a crescendoin the 1980s with the revelation of the substantial environmental impact of leached TBT.However, as Alex notes:

“Tributyltin was not the ‘best’. It was significantly inferior to the organo-mercurials or theorgano-arsenicals. The norm against which all biocides must be measured is phenoxarsineoxide. It would be deceitful to pretend that we [the antifouling industry] gave up organo-mercurials for environmental reasons; they became too expensive. We gave up the arseni-cals also. When airless spray became the norm it was impossible to continue with organo-arsenicals; they were the sternutators and lachrymators of the First World War. Not lethal,just intolerable at 10−6 of the damaging dose.”

The final nail in the coffin of TBT-SPCs has now been hammered in and the legislation thatled to its demise and the future control of product development is reviewed here by Cheyne(Newcastle) with ten Hallers-Tjabbes and Walmsley (Netherlands and UK) giving us whatmust surely be the final word on the environmental impact of TBT. Taking us forwards areHowell and Behrends (Newcastle) who review the potential unwelcome legacy of the otherbiocides currently in use. The collateral impact of biocides also provides a large stick forindustry to develop non-toxic coatings, and as Finnie and Williams remark, although thiscan be traced back at least 50 years, the research was not really successful until Alex Milnedeveloped a silicone fouling release coating (FRC) in the 1970s:

“The universal recommendation at the time was to try the ‘non-stick frying pan’. Curiously,it did not work. This was, in any case, of little use to a marine compositions manufacturerin need of a liquid sprayable polymer. Curable silicones could be sprayed. The absence ofthe self-polishing effect was compensated by the outstanding flow and levelling of the liquidsilicones which meant that the initial roughness of vessels should be less.”

There has been an almost mythical belief in the superiority of TBT-SPCs with a concomitantwariness of their replacements, but as Thomason (Newcastle) shows in his analysis of theworld’s largest database of fouling on ships, this was unfounded and that the response of theindustry was to provide other efficacious solutions.

5 Milne, A. (1975) Coated marine Surfaces. Patent GB1470465A, International Paint Co. Ltd.; Milne, A. (1977)Anti-fouling marine compositions. Patent US4025693, International Paint Co. Ltd.; Milne, A. & Hails, G. (1976)Marine Paint. Patent GB1457590, International Paint Co. Ltd.

6 Written in Newcastle, November 2008. This is Alex Milne’s personal opinion and does not reflect that of anycompany he used to work for.


xviii Preface

Alex Milne found inspiration in the natural world around him and was one of the first toencourage academics to explore the world of natural antifouling mechanisms:

“I have been to the sea shore and admired its variety. But natural fouling prevention is a vastand only partly explored field. From ‘tide-boat research’, children or grandchildren a suitabledisguise, one notes that echinoderms are conspicuously clean, as are beadlet anemones.”

This arms race between epibiont and basibiont is as old as life itself with biofilms beingrecorded from the 3400 to 3500 Ma Warrawoona chert7 and the earliest record of an organismliving on another is from the 1400 to 1500 Ma Gaoyuzhuang Formation8. In this book ourunderstanding of epibiosis and how the organisms that are affected deal with the threatof biofouling are reviewed in detail by Wahl (Germany) and de Nys, Guenther and Uriz(Australia, Norway and Spain).

Although the impact of biofouling is often emphasised by the consequences for the marineshipping industry, herein reviewed by Edyvean (UK), there are also less obvious but veryimportant areas in our lives where we are affected by biofouling. The dramatic growth of theaquaculture industry has reached over 60 million tonnes with a value of over US$70 billion andthis has resulted in a demand for specific solutions to biofouling. Durr and Watson (Newcastleand Ireland) review the impacts caused by biofouling in this industry, which affect not onlythe infrastructure but also the organisms being cultured, and compare the specific antifoulingneeds of this sector with respect to the mainstream maritime industry. Likewise, Page, Duganand Piltz (USA) and Henderson (UK) thoroughly review biofouling in the oil, gas and otherindustries, which also require industry-specific antifouling solutions.

Historically, most of the issues with fouling in maritime and other industries have beenat the macro-scale, i.e. dealing with barnacles, mussels and algae, but the recent successof the latest generation of antifouling coatings has focused research efforts on reducingthe impact of microbial fouling, the biofilms. Thus, we provide in this book three chaptersto comprehensively cover biofilms, with Dobretsov (Oman) and Romanı (Spain) giving uscomparative works on marine and freshwater biofilms, respectively. Outside of medicine, theimpact of biofilms on implanted devices and prosthetics is largely overlooked and thus toremedy this we have included the gruesomely detailed chapter by Spratt, Ready and Pratten(UK).

The final section of the book is broadly defined as horizon scanning where we aim togive the reader information not only about where legislation (Cheyne, Newcastle), technology(Webster and Chisholm, USA) and research (Rittschof, USA) should lead us in the comingdecade, but also where global climate change (Poloczanska and Butler, Australia) and theimpact of not using adequate antifouling strategies will take us (Lewis and Coutts, Australia).Also included in the ultimate section is a summary of biofouling measurement techniques thatare, or may be, useful across the spectrum of biofouling research.

We hope that by providing our reader with such a broad range of information from diversefields this book bridges gaps, and thus is not simply a collection of scientific articles from anysingle individual’s view point, but is an authoritative international multi-author compendium

7 Schopf, W., Bonnie, M. & Packer, B.M. (1986) Newly discovered early Archean (3.4-3.5 Ga Old) microorganismsfrom the Warrawoona Group of Western Australia. Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres, 16, 339–340.

8 Seong Joo, L., Golubic, S. & Verrecchia, E. (1999) Epibiotic relationships in Mesoproterozoic fossil record:Gaoyuzhuang Formation, China. Geology, 27, 1059–1062.


Preface xix

on biofouling and antifouling strategies suitable for the specialist in this field, as well as fornon-specialists in biology, chemistry, medicine, law, industry and government.

Simone Durr (Newcastle & Liverpool) and Jeremy C. Thomason(Newcastle & Paris)

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Biofouling || Front Matter