Costs and implications of food safety flaws - Epralima · 3.2.1 CAUSED BY PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POP) 26 3.2.2 CAUSED BY HEAVY METALS 26 4 BIBLIOGRAFIA 27. 2 Costs and implications

Costs and implications of food safety flaws

1 Costs and implications of food safety flaws

General Objectives

Index

- Reconhecer a necessidade de segurança alimentar

1 FORBORNE ILLNESSES 3

2 COSTS AND IMPLICATIONS OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES 4

3 FOODBORNE INTOXICATIONS 15

3.1 BIOLOGICAL INTOXICATIONS 15 3.1.1 CAUSED BY BACTERIA 15 3.1.2 CAUSED BY VIRUSES 20 3.1.3 CAUSED BY PARASITES 20 3.1.4 CAUSED BY PRIONS 21 3.1.5 CAUSED BY OTHER BIOLOGICAL TOXINS 21 3.2 CHEMICAL INTOXICATIONS 24 3.2.1 CAUSED BY PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POP) 26 3.2.2 CAUSED BY HEAVY METALS 26

4 BIBLIOGRAFIA 27


Costs and implications of

food safety flaws

According to the World Health

Organization (WHO), each year

30% of the habitants of

industrialized countries get

sick due to the ingestion of

food contaminated by

microorganisms. In Portugal,

with a population of

approximately 11 million (2001

Census), the estimate is about

3 million, and although some

cases are not reported or do

not require medical assistance,

they end up having some

economical impacts, such as

direct expenses (due to the

necessity of medical assistance

or medicine), and other type

of expenses (loss of revenue,

work absence, etc.).

These situations frequently

occur due to lack of basic food

handling care, especially in

preparation and retail selling

places. The lack of care during

food and food product handling

can have other consequences,

not only health wise but

economically. Each year

millions of tons of products are

removed from vending points

or retained even before they

become available to the

consumer, due to various

problems, the main cause is

the presence of substances

that can bring harm to the

consumer.

There are many agents that

cause foodborne illnesses:

bacteria or its toxins; toxins

produced by mold; viruses;

natural or introduced chemical

substances during production

and/or processing; etc. The

presence of these agents can

be avoided or limited, by

simply following some easy to

apply rules.

Knowing or recognizing the

economic implications of food

safety flaws during food

handling or food and/or food

product preparation, expenses

wise such as health expenses,

should and must allow people

to become conscious about the

necessity to be rigorous about

the application of basic

measures, necessary to

prevent the introduction of

food and/or food products in

the market that may cause

illnesses.


1 Forborne illnesses

According to the World Health

Organization, a foodborne

illness is generally a disease of

an infectious or toxic nature,

caused by agents that enter

the body through the ingestion

of food or water.

It is estimated that about 30%

of the population of

industrialized countries suffer

this kind of illness per year.

a. Food infections

Food infections occur by

ingesting food contaminated

with a pathogenic

microorganism that is capable

of growing and colonizing the

gastrointestinal tract.

Symptoms start to show after a

period of incubation, initiated

by food ingestion and may last

a couple of hours, various days

or weeks, because this is the

time needed for the

microorganism to multiply and

to carry out its pathogenic

action.

b. Food Poisoning

Food poisoning occurs by

ingesting a food that contains

poisonous substances. These

substances can be of different

origins:

- Food itself:

In certain conditions, some

vegetable products (potatoes,

tomato, etc.), animals

(namely some fish), or other

organisms (poisonous

mushrooms), produce toxins

that are ingested when these

foods are eaten.

- Microbiological:

Sometimes, we eat food

where a microorganism

previously grew and produced

toxins that end up being

ingested along with the food.

The pathogenic agent could

have disappeared before

ingesting the food but it toxins

can still be present.

- Chemical

The prolonged consumption of

food contaminated with

chemical toxins, such as heavy

metals or dioxins, may result

in the accumulation of these

toxins, which in the

middle/long term may trigger

various diseases of an

oncological or neurological

nature, among others.

Generally, these toxins are

transported by water, air, soil

or by materials in contact with

food.

c. Food Intoxication

Food intoxication can occur by

the ingestion of food that

contains pathogenic

microorganisms. Once they get

into the intestine, these

microorganisms develop and

produce toxins that are

responsible for symptoms.


Table 1 – Classification of foodborne diseases

Infection Ingestion of food contaminated with harmful

microorganisms that grow and colonize the digestive

system.

Poisoning Ingestion of food that contains poisonous symptoms.

Intoxication Ingestion of food with harmful microorganisms that

grow and produce toxins in the digestive system.

2 Costs and implications of foodborne illnesses

Sometimes, just like it happens

in this text, we use the term

intoxication to designate any

type of foodborne illness,

whether if it’s an infection,

poisoning or intoxication.

Most of these illnesses have

common symptoms (Diarrhea,

abdominal cramps, nausea and

dehydration) what makes it

difficult to differentiate them

exclusively based on symptoms.

These symptoms are also

characteristic of other illnesses

that are not food related which

can lead to wrong diagnosis.

In 1994 it was estimated by the

World Health Organization that

between 6,5 and 33 million

people got sick due to the

presence of microorganisms in

food, resulting in about 9 000

unnecessary deaths.

For most victims, the

consequences of the sickness

are “only” discomfort and

absence from work. For others,

especially preschoolers, elderly

that require health care and

those that have a frail immune

system, foodborne illnesses can

result in more severe

consequences and eventually

be life threatening.

If you are ever a “victim” of

food poisoning, most likely it’s

going to be an experience that

you will not like to repeat. The

symptoms are not at all

enjoyable and generally include

one or more of the following:

diarrhea, vomiting, headaches,

nausea and dehydration.

Whatever the impact that food

intoxications may have on each

one of us as an individual

person, the annual cost in

terms of suffering, reduced

productivity and medical

expenses are estimated in

hundreds of millions of Euros.

In the United States of America

(USA) the predicted costs for

the year 2000 were 6.9 billion

dollars, only counting the costs

associated to the cases caused


by five pathogenic

microorganisms.

Collecting information about

the incidence of food poisoning

is normally complicated due to

various factors. The main factor

seems to be undeclared cases

by persons responsible for this

(doctors), or by not associating

the symptoms to food

poisoning. In many cases, and

although these may result in

severe damage or even death,

people don’t look for medical

assistance due to the presence

of weak symptoms.

Some pathogenic

microorganisms do not only

spread by food but also by

water and even person to

person, making it more difficult

to associate them to food.

Aside from these difficulties,

there are some available data

that allow us to assess the real

impact that these situations

may have. Figure 1 shows the

evolution of the number of food

poisoning cases reported in the

United Kingdom (UK) between

1985 and 2004.

The situation in Portugal,

where the “habit” of not

registering such occurrences

exists (only cases of typhoid

fever, paratyphoid fever,

salmonellosis, brucellosis and

shigellosis are listed as

mandatory communicable

diseases), is not very different

from the situation verified in

other countries, as shown in

figure 2 as a result of data

obtained from the “8th Report

1999-2000” of the World Health

Organization (WHO)

(Surveillance Programme for

Control of Foodborne Infections

and Intoxications in Europe,

2003) and data from the Dr.

Ricardo Jorge National Health

Institute (NHI) about identified

outbreaks by the Institute in

Lisbon in 2001 to 2005. These

data are frequently used to

estimate the real number of

cases of foodborne diseases.

There are many areas along the

food production chain, from the

“field” to the final consumer,

where food can be

contaminated and/or poorly

handled. That is why it is

important for all areas, from

production to the final

consumer, to be monitored and

controlled in a way to reduce

the risks of causing foodborne

diseases.

Many of the existing cases

happen due to poor handling

practices in the places where

meals are served and in retail

vending posts (Figure 3).

In these establishments,

monitoring and controlling risks

becomes more critical.


1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000

78921

79087

81551

95551

98076

96866

105060

105596

94925

92603

91129

76711

72139

59497

59721

59214

49864

34800

28887

23556

nº de casos

Figure 1 – Evolution of the number of food poisoning cases reported in the (UK).

Source: Health protection Agency Centre for infections/ Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre, Health Protection Scotland and Communicable Disease

Surveillance Centre.


0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

surtos e casos afectados hospi talizados

FIGURE 2 – Food Intoxications 2001-2005

Evolution of the number of food poisoning cases reported in Portugal that occurred between 2001

and 2005. The data only refers to the cases registered by NHI – Lisbon. Data given by Dr. Rosario

Novais (NHI-Lisbon).

The analysis of data that refer

to contamination in

acquisition/consumption

places, allow us to verify that it

is in restaurants where most of

the outbreaks and cases of food

intoxication have occurred.

Although the 2001-2005 data

indicates an increase of cases

related to the ingestion of food

prepared/consumed at home,

surveillance and control of the

referred establishments should

not be obscured by competent

entities responsible for this

matter.

Epidemiological data of

repeatedly occurred outbreaks,

identified 5 main risk factors,

related to food handlers’

behaviour and food

handling/preparation practices

in establishments that prepare

and sell food, as being the ones

that most contribute to food

poisoning cases:

1- Maintaining food at

improper temperatures;

2- Inadequate

processing/cooking;

3- Use of contaminated

equipment;

4- Food from unsafe sources;

5- Lack of food handlers’

personal hygiene.


36%

32%

26%

3%

3%

0,0% 10,0% 20,0% 30,0% 40,0%

pastelaria

serv.catering

restaurantes

refeitório

casa particular

FIGURE 3 – Food Intoxications 2001/2005; acquisition/consumption places

Distribution of food poisoning cases by the diverse food handling places. The data only refers to the

registered cases at the NHI-Lisbon. Data given by Dr. Rosario Novais (NHI-Lisbon).

FIGURE 4 - Food intoxications (1999-2000) – contributing factors

Data available in Portugal, regarding main risk factors, also indicate the previously referred factors

as the main factors responsible for foodborne intoxications (figure 4).

Home

Canteens

Restaurants

Catering services

Pastries

Anticipated food preparation

Inadequate refrigeration

Inadequate maintenance temperature

Inadequate cooking

Food obtained from unsafe sources

Mination by infected people


The implications related to the

lack of personal hygiene when

manipulating food products are

not limited to the previously

mentioned. The presence of

some microorganisms or other

contaminants in food

frequently leads to the

withdrawal of great quantities

of food products from the

market. In Europe, there exists

the RAPID ALERT SYSTEM FOR

FOOD AND FEED (RASFF) which

aims to group and disseminate

all cases in which were

detected foods that may cause

risk to consumers in one way or

another. The legal basis for the

RASFF is Regulation (EC) n. º

178/2002, whose article 50

establishes the rapid alert

system for food as a network

that involves all State

Members, the Commission and

the European Food Safety

Authority (EFSA). This network

emits two types of alerts:

-Alert notification:

Whenever, in any State

Member, a food is detected on

the market that in any way

may put at risk the consumer,

for this, rapid action is

required –

withdrawal/retrieval form the

market.

-Information notification:

Whenever, in any State

Member, a food is detected

that is not yet found on the

market, and in any way may

put the consumer at risk, for

this the remainder State

Members do not need to take

immediate measures (in most

cases, this is related to

imported and rejected

products at border controls of

the State Members).

When we compare data from

2004 to previous years, it is

evident that the tendency is

the existence of a greater

number of notifications (Figure

5).

This increase may not mean

that there are more risky

products for consumers, but

that surveillance is tighter. As

previously referred, the

existence of a greater number

of notifications referred by a

certain country (figure 6),

doesn’t mean that the

situation regarding food safety

in that country is bad. On the

contrary, it can mean, that

that the entities responsible

food safety surveillance are

more attentive/active (greater

number of inspections) in that

country.


0

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

alerta ad.

alerta

informação

informação ad.

Figure 5 - Evolution of emitted notifications by RASFF from 1999 to 2004

Data obtained from: Annual report on the functioning of the RASFF. 2004

itália (I) 576

espanha (E) 305

reino unido (RU) 231holanda (H) 146frança (F) 124

grécia (G) 95

noruega (N) 85bélgica (B) 59

dinamarca (D) 53

finlândia (Fi) 52

suécia (S) 44república checa (RC) 41

austria (Au) 32

eslovénia (Es) 27

portugal (P) 25

eslováquia (El) 24

chipre (C) 23

hungria (Hu) 22

lituânia (L) 21

polónia (Po) 17

irlanda (Ir) 16

letónia (Lt) 15

luxemburgo (Lu) 13

malta (M) 8

estónia (Et) 6

islãndia (Is) 2

liechtenstein (Li) 0

alemanha (A) 526

Figure 6 – Number of notifications according to each Country

Distribution of total number of notifications, registered by RASFF in 2004. Distribution by Country

of origin: Annual report on the functioning of the RASFF.2004.


According to the RASFF report,

most of the alert notifications

that occurred in 2004 were due

to the presence of undefined

chemical contaminants,

followed by microbiological

contaminants (figure 7).

No data was found about the

number of withdrawals verified

in these countries neither

about the quantity (tons or kg)

of retrieved products.

In Portugal, it has been

possible to verify a greater

activity of the entity

responsible for this matter

(ASAE), although there is no

data available exclusively on

food safety; based on the

presented data it is possible to

deduce that violating rules

involves great costs. The data

presented by ASAE does not

make reference to the cause of

the withdrawal/retrieval from

the market. In the meantime

and according to data referring

to the United States, each year

millions of tons of food

products are withdrawn (figure

9).

Just between January 2005 and

June 2006, 130 000 tons of

products were declared for

withdrawal, being that 98%

(126 000 tons) of the

withdrawals were due to

microbiological originated

problems.

químicas (outras)

microbiológicas

micotoxinas

residúos de produtos médicos/vet.

parasitas

não determinadas

corpos estranhos

metais pesados

microrganismos patogénicos

outros

FIGURE 7 - Alert notifications according to type of risk (hazard)

Distribution of total number of notifications, registered by RASFF in 2004. Distribution by Country

of origin: Annual report on the functioning of the RASFF.2004.


Table II – Operational activity until November 30th (ASAE)

JAN FEV MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AGU SEP OCT NOV TOTAL

Food safety 12 9 71 46 89 100 109 94 157 168 158 1013

Economic inspection 11 24 65 37 67 98 117 110 152 166 125 972

Inspected operators 319 1026 1668 1529 1770 1320 2468 1750 1709 1970 1851 17381

Suspended activity 3 1 22 29 58 61 51 35 55 53 80 448

Crime procedure 1 15 35 47 69 122 75 110 50 55 132 711

CO procedures 111 199 640 430 796 573 598 570 651 694 702 5966

Detentions 0 2 17 14 17 17 21 12 11 29 24 164

Violation Rate 35% 21% 40% 31% 49% 52% 27% 39% 41% 38% 45% 38%

Apprehended material Weight (ton) 125,40 7,62 262,71 501,15 49,96 98,49 215,86 86,97 85,08 249, 25 220,82 1903,28

Volume

(m3) 0,00 0,05 179,16 1148,39 627,57 0,04 33,91 35,15

25949,0

2 73,97 139,48 28186,70

Quantity

(x1000) 1,8 5,9 8,7 84,4 141,1 285,2 1757,5 50,4 53,4 67,1 113,0 2568,50

Value

(million €) 181,2 128,0 676,2 1742,8 1701,1 681,3 1123,1 768,8 8917,5 868 1058,9 17846,8

Source: www.asae.pt


Figure 8 - Press release emitted by ASAE (14/02/07) regarding apprehended food products.

Source: www.asae.pt


The presented data refers to

the withdrawal notifications

emitted by the Food Safety

and Inspection Service (FSIS) -

public health agency of the

United States Department of

Agriculture, responsible for

surveillance of commercialized

meat, eggs and egg products

and these only refer to a total

of 33 withdrawal notifications,

of which 22 were due to

microbiological problems and

the remainder to other

problems (6 – presence of

allergic substances;

1 – insufficient labeling; 1 –

presence of pieces of metal; 1

– presence of pieces of bone; 1

– Overprocessing; 1 – presence

of pesticides). In the

meantime, it’s important to

point out that this isn’t the

only entity in the United States

responsible for the emission of

food product withdrawal

notifications. The Food and

Drug Administration is another

entity responsible for the

emission of notifications of

other products that are not

meat or egg based (cereals and

cereal products, nuts, etc.).

Figure 9 – Volume of withdrawals in the USA (2005-2006)

Volume of withdrawals (tons of products) verified in the USA between 2005 and June 2006. These

are classified according to the cause of withdrawal. Source: http://www.fsis.usda.gov/

Microbiological

Others


3 Foodborne Intoxications

Currently there are 200 known

illnesses transmitted by food.

The causes of foodborne

illnesses include viruses,

bacteria, toxins, parasites,

metals, etc. Symptoms vary

from a simple gastroenteritis

to neurological (botulism),

hepatic (hepatitis A), and

kidney failure (E. coli 0157:H7)

problems that can be life

threatening.

Surveillance and collection of

concrete data about foodborne

intoxications is generally

complicated, because many

factors are involved, as

previously mentioned.

3.1 Biological Intoxications

Bacteria are responsible for

most foodborne intoxications,

not only in number but in

frequency, although other

agents such as viruses or

parasites may also cause them.

For this reason, this document

will emphasize more on the

aspects related to biological

intoxications.

When we are studying

foodborne intoxications, it is

convenient to know what foods

are more frequently associated

to outbreaks or microbiological

food poisoning cases, as well

as, which are the main toxic or

infectious agents present in

those foods. It is still

convenient to know what are

the main symptoms related to

the main cases. Table III

presents some foods frequently

involved in food poisoning

cases and the main associated

agents.

3.1.1 Caused by bacteria

Bacteria are simple structured

unicellular organisms, which

allow them to multiply very

rapidly in the presence of

nutrients and favorable

temperature, pH, humidity and

oxygen concentration

conditions. In some cases, 20

minutes are sufficient for the

number of bacteria to

duplicate. This means that an

initial number of 10 bacteria in

a certain food, with favorable

conditions, will multiply in a

way that they will become 640

bacteria in two hours.

Generally, foodborne bacterial

infections are referred to

simply as food infections. The

main symptoms are diarrhea,

abdominal cramps, vomiting,

dehydration and sometimes

fever. These usually show up

after an incubation period of a

couple of hours or various days

and can last during a period

that goes from a day to a

week. In the last decades,

Salmonella has been the origin

of most food infection cases.

These generally result from the

ingestion of eggs, chicken and

turkey and other meats, raw

milk and chocolate.


Table III - Food and agents generally associated to foodborne intoxications

Food

Generally associated microorganisms

Raw seafood

Vibrio sp., Hepatitis A virus, Norovirus (Norwalk-like viruses)

Raw eggs

Salmonella

Undercooked meat

Salmonella and Campylobacter, Escherichia coli STEC, Clostridium

perfringens

Unpasteurized milk or juice

Salmonella, Campylobacter, Yersinia, STEC

Unpasteurized soft cheese

Salmonella, Campylobacter, Yersinia, Listeria sp., STEC

Homemade conserves

Clostridium botulinum (botulism)

Hotdogs, ham, etc.

Listeria sp.


However, the prevalence of

Campylobacter jejuni

infections (supposedly present

in raw milk, raw or

undercooked poultry and in

drinking water) have increased

in the last years in a way, that

in some countries Salmonella

has become its rival. Even

though it still has a low

incidence rate, the appearance

of infections caused by Listeria

monocytogenes (caused by

raw milk, pasteurized milk

contaminated afterwards,

cheeses, ice cream and

salads), have caused some

preoccupations over the last

decades, because these

bacteria can cause severe

damage, sometimes fatal, to

infants, children, pregnant

women, elderly and people

with compromised immune

systems. These bacteria are

also able to grow at low

temperatures such as in a

refrigerator.

A bacterial intoxication

occurs when the growth of a

microorganism in the

gastrointestinal tract is related

to the production of toxins,

being Clostridium perfringens

one of the most common

responsible agents. The term

intoxication needs to be

interpreted with some

precaution, because it is used

many times to generally

describe a set of infections and

food poisonings, as was

previously mentioned and used

in this document.

The consumption of food

where bacteria previously grew

and produced toxins, which

end up being eaten along with

the food, can trigger food

poisoning. The toxins act

directly over the

gastrointestinal tract and

symptoms appear few hours

later (two to four) after the

ingestion of the contaminated

food.

Poisonings caused by Yersinia

enterocolitica and some

Escherichia coli strains have

increased over the last years,

although there exist other

bacteria such as

Staphylococcus aureus,

Clostridium botulium or

Bacillus cereus related to food

poisonings.

In bacterial intoxications,

there are four agents (some

authors consider only three)

that are frequently responsible

for collective intoxication

cases: Salmonella; Clostridium

perfringens; S.aureus and

Campylobacter. Table IV

presents the main

characteristics of diseases

caused by the main bacterial

agents, relatively to

symptoms, incubation periods

and food most frequently

associated to diverse

microorganisms.


Table IV – Characteristics of main foodborne Intoxications

Microorganism Type of illness Symptoms Probable food Incubation period Duration

Campylobacter jejuni Infection

Diarrhea, sometimes followed by

fever; abdominal pain, nausea;

headaches and muscle pain

Raw poultry and other food

contaminated by raw poultry,

unpasteurized milk, untreated water

2-5 days Various days

Clostridium perfringes Intoxication Intense abdominal cramps;

diarrhea

Meat and meat products, sauces,

products rich in protein 8-16 hours 24 hours

Cryptosporidium

parvum Infection

Severe watery diarrhea; abdominal

pains, low fever, pulmonary and

trachea problems

Contaminated water; food

contaminated with fecal matter;

fruits and vegetable contaminated

with water.

1-6 weeks

2-4 days (can

go up to 4

weeks)

Escherichia coli

(various types: EPEC;

EIEC; ETEC; and EHEC)

Infection

Watery diarrhea, abdominal

cramps, low fever, nausea, MAL

ESTAR

Contaminated water, undercooked

minced meat, unpasteurized milk and

juice; pieces of melon.

12-72 hours

48-288 hours

(EHEC)

6 – 72 hours

2-8 days

(EHEC)

Listeria monocytogenes Infection

Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, with

possible progression for

headaches, confusion, loss of

balance and convulsions, may

cause spontaneous abortion

Ready to eat foods contaminated

with bacteria, including milk, cheese,

ice cream, raw vegetables, raw

fermented hotdogs, raw and cooked

poultry and raw and smoked fish.

Unknown; can go

from some days to

3 weeks

Various days

to weeks

Salmonella spp. Infection

Abdominal cramps, diarrhea,

fever, headaches

Animal based food; other food

contaminated due to the contact with

feces, raw animal based food or

infected handlers. Poultry, eggs, raw

milk and meat are often found

contaminated.

12-72 hours 3 – 4 weeks


Table IV – Characteristics of main foodborne Intoxications

Microorganism Type of illness Symptoms Probable food Incubation period Duration

Shigella spp. Infection Fever, abdominal pain and cramps,

diarrhea.

Food with fecal contamination. 12-48 hours 5 – 7 days

Giardia lamblia Infection Diarrhea; abdominal cramps;

nausea

Water and food that were in contact

with contaminated water 1-2 weeks 2 – 6 weeks

Trichinella spiralis Infection Nausea; diarrhea; vomiting;

fatigue; fever; abdominal cramps

Raw and undercooked pork and pork

products 1 – 2 days Some months

*Bacillus cereus Poisoning

Watery diarrhea, cramps

Nausea and vomiting

Cooked products left uncovered;

milk, meat, vegetables, fish; rice and

food rich in starch.

Cooked products left uncovered;

milk, meat, vegetables, fish; rice and

food rich in starch

8 – 20 hours

1 – 6 hours

24 hours

24 hours

Clostridium botulinum Poisoning

Lethargy, weakness, dizziness,

double vision; difficulty talking,

swallowing and/or breathing,

paralysis, possible death

Inadequate processing of homemade

conserves; hotdogs, marine products,

canned minced garlic; honey 12 – 36 hours

Various days

after an

antitoxin

treatment

Staphylococcus aureus Poisoning

Nausea, vomiting, abdominal

cramps

Contaminated food due to inadequate

handling and storage temperatures –

meat and meat products; poultry and

egg products; salads rich in proteins,

sandwich fillings, pastry products

with creams and fillings.

1 – 6 hours 24 – 48 hours

B. cereus produces two types of toxins – emetic and diarrheal


3.1.2 Caused by viruses

Viruses are infectious

agents with a very simple

organization: a molecule

of a nucleic acid (DNA or

RNA) enclosed within a

protein coat. They are

much smaller than

bacteria and require a

living cell for replication,

from a specific species,

that will act as a host.

Some viruses cause

foodborne illnesses.

Although they don not

multiply on food (because

they are specific for

human cells), their

destruction does not

occur unless the food is

properly prepared. Its

specificity also implicates

that the viruses that

infect animals, such as

the swine pest virus, do

not represent any danger

to human health, being

its control justified only

as a question of animal

health.

The viruses most

frequently related to

foodborne illnesses are

the Hepatitis A and

hepatitis E, rotavirus

(main cause of infant

diarrhea) and the Norwalk

family viruses (cause

gastroenteritis).

Mollusks such as oysters,

and other shellfish,

caught near the coast in

polluted areas, are the

main foods involved in

foodborne viruses.

Fruits and salads are

another group of foods

frequently related to

intoxications. The

contamination of these

products normally occurs

during their production

due to the use of human

excrements as fertilizers.

Any food that is not

reheated after being

manipulated by an

infected individual is a

potential infection

conveyer.

3.1.3 Caused by Parasites

Vermin and protozoa are

parasites; these are

organisms that live on or

inside another organism

(host). They benefit from

this association by

obtaining nutrients while

the host is harmed.

Foodborne illnesses

provoked by these

parasites are a lot less

frequent than the ones

caused by bacteria. These

parasites, which are a lot

bigger than bacteria, can

grow and reach the adult

state in the human

gastrointestinal tract, or

can be directly ingested

by eating contaminated

animal tissue. In some

cases, the symptoms can

last various weeks,

disappearing or reducing

at the end of this time to

reappear later on.

Among the main parasites

that cause foodborne

illnesses we can find


Giardia lamblia (G.

intestinalis),

Cryptosporidium parvum

(protozoa) and Trichinella

spiralis (vermin). Table VI

presents the main

characteristics of the

illnesses caused by these

parasites.

3.1.4 Caused by prions

A prion is an infectious

protein particle that is

presumed to be the cause

of Transmissible

Spongiform

Encephalopathies (TSEs),

like the Bovine

Spongiform

Encephalopathy (BSE –

mad cow disease) and its

human variant, sheep and

goat scrapie and the

Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease

(CJD). The prion is

constituted by a modified

protein that when in

contact with a healthy

protein it modifies it

converting it in a

pathogenic protein, which

in its turn will modify a

healthy protein and so

forth causing a chain

reaction.

3.1.5 Caused by other

biological toxins

All mycotoxins, toxins

produced by algae and all

toxins produced by food

are put together in this

group.

Mycotoxins result from

the growth of known

molds. The Aflatoxins

produced by Aspergillus

flavus and Aspergillus

parasiticus, in walnuts,

peanuts and other oily

seeds, are the most

common and most serious

mycotoxins. Some have a

strong cancerous action.

Other toxins, such as

Ochratoxin A, patulin and

fumonisim of other

species of the fungal

genus, like Penicillium

and Fusarium are a lot

less toxic.

Mushroom intoxications

(by poisonous fungi) can

result from eating any

kind of the many existing

species. The intoxication

potential can vary within

the same species, in

different moments of the

growth season and how

they are prepared.

Muscarin is a dangerous

substance that can be

present in some

mushroom species (Figure

10).

Plant and shrub

intoxications can result

from eating its leaves and

fruit, whether wild or

not. The fava beans can

cause the red blood cells

to rupture (favism), in

persons genetically

susceptible. The roots or

green sprouts that grow

beneath the soil and

contain solanin A may

cause light nauseas,

vomiting, diarrhea and

weakness.


Figure 10 - Some mushrooms of the Inocybe genus – Inocybe lanuginose and Inocybe bongardii

Photos from: http://www.dipbot.unict.it/funghi/photogallery/page_04.htm


Table V – Characteristics of foodborne illnesses caused by viruses

Virus Incubation period Symptoms Duration of the

illness

Most involved

Food

Hepatitis A 28 days Weakness, diarrhea,

cramps, jaundice 2 weeks to 3 months Not specified

Hepatitis E 6 weeks Weakness, diarrhea,

cramps, jaundice 1 month Water

Rotavirus 1 – 3 days

Vomiting, watery

diarrhea and

moderate fever

48 hours Not specified

Norwalk 14 – 48 hours

Nausea, vomiting,

abdominal cramps,

diarrhea, fever,

myalgia and

headaches

12 hours to 3 days Not specified

Astrovirus 10 – 72 hours

Vomiting, watery

diarrhea and

moderate fever

2 to 9 days Not specified

Table VI – Characteristics of foodborne illnesses caused by parasites

Parasite Incubation period Symptoms Duration of the

illness

Most involved

Food

Giardia lamblia (G.

intestinalis) 2 days

Diarrhea,

nausea,

abdominal

cramps and

flatulency

Months (without

treatment)

Water,

salmon, fruits

and

vegetables

Cryptosporidium

parvum 10 days

Diarrhea,

abdominal

cramps, low

fever and

headaches

? Water

Trichinella spiralis

1-2 days

2-8 weeks (larvae

infection)

Nausea,

diarrhea,

vomiting,

fatigue, fever

and abdominal

cramps

?

Ingested raw

or

undercooked

pork and meat

products


Solanin is naturally found

in potatoes; the quantity

of solanin increases when

potatoes are exposed to

light as they turn a

greenish colour. This

toxin is not destroyed by

cooking and can be fatal.

Ergot of rye poisoning

occurs when the cereal is

contaminated by the

fungus Claviceps

purpurea (Figure 11). This

fungus is responsible for

an illness called ergotism,

also known as “Ergot

poisoning” and “Saint

Anthony fire”.

Marine Intoxications can

be caused by fish or

seafood. Normally fish

intoxications are a result

from one of three toxins:

ciguatera, tetrodotoxin,

or saxitoxin.

The ciguatera toxin is

produced by certain

microscopic algae, which

are eaten by ocean finned

fish of the sub-tropical or

tropical regions, and

accumulates in their

meat. Among the fish

most commonly

associated to ciguatera

are: Dusky Grouper,

Barracuda, red,

triggerfish e mackerel.

The saxitoxin is produced

in some algae known to

cause red waves. This

toxin is filtered and

retained by mussels,

oysters and other shellfish

without causing any harm

to them.

However, the ingestion of

contaminated shellfish by

humans can provoke a

very acute intoxication

known as Paralytic

Shellfish Poisoning. This

toxin, just like ciguatera,

continues alive, even

after it is cooked and

eaten.

The tetrodotoxin is a

strong marine biotoxin,

produced by a large

number of animal

species, but in particular

by the globe fish. This

fish that is mostly found

in the Japanese seas

constitutes a much

appreciated meal in

Asiatic countries. Because

of its high toxicity it is

also used by many to

commit suicide.

Intoxication by histamine

that is produced by fish

like mackerel, tuna and

yellowfin tuna happens

when the fish tissue

begins to decompose

after their capture

liberating high levels of

histamine. After the

ingestion of this toxin, it

causes immediate redness

of the face. The levels of

histamine found in fish

products are regulated at

the European level.

3.2 Chemical

Intoxications

Intoxication by

contaminants can affect

people that have ingested


Figure 11 – Picture of infected cereal by the Claviceps purpurea fungi.

Photos: http:/www.wetterzentrale.de/np/galerie/index.php


unwashed fruits and

vegetables pulverized

with arsenic, lead or

organic insecticides or

that have ingested acidy

liquids served in glassed

lead recipients or food

stored in recipients

covered with cadmium.

The main non biological

agents responsible for

food poisoning are called

POP (Persistent organic

pollutants) and heavy

metals.

3.2.1 Caused by

Persistent organic

pollutants (POP)

POPs are composts that

accumulate in the

environment, human body

and animals. The most

known examples are

dioxins that are

undesirable sub-products

of some industrial

processes and of

incineration residue, PCBs

used in the production of

electrical equipments

industry and

hexachlorobenzene used

as an additive in the

paper industry,

production of PVC or as

an intermediate agent of

the manufacturing of

other substances.

3.2.2 Caused by heavy

metals

Lead, mercury and

cadmium are heavy

metals that have mostly

contributed to cases of

prolonged or chronic

poisoning through food

(including drinking

water). Lead and mercury

cause neurological

damage to infants and

children and cadmium

causes kidney damage,

normally observed on the

elderly. Just like the POP,

these contaminate food

through air, water and

soil pollution.

The Chinese restaurant

syndrome.

Contradicting what is

usually heard about what

is vulgarly known as the

Chinese restaurant

syndrome, it isn’t a type

of food poisoning caused

by chemical products. It’s

rather a hypersensitive

reaction to monossodic

glutamate (MSG), a

substance that is used to

intensify the taste of food

that is normally used in

Chinese cuisine. In

persons susceptible to

monossodic glutamate it

may cause a pressure

sensation on the face,

chest pain and burning

sensations all over the

body. The quantity of

monossodic glutamate

capable of provoking

these symptoms varies

from person to person.


4 Bibliography

Adams, M.R. and Moss, M.O.; “Food Microbiology”; The

Royal Society of Chemistry. Guildford; UK;1995

Banwart, G.J.; “Basic Food Microbiology”; 2 ed.; Chapman & Hall; New York; 1989

Eley, A.R.; “Microbial Food Poisoning”; 2 ed.; Chapman

& Hall; London; 1996

International commission on Microbiological Specifications

for Foods (ICMSF); “Microbial Ecology of Foods Vol I -

Factors affecting life and death of microorganisms”;

Academic Press, Inc.; San Diego; 1990

Jay, J. M.; “Modern Food Microbiology”; 5 ed.; Chapman

& Hall; New York; 1996

Lacasse, D., “Introdução à Microbiologia Alimentar”;

Instituto Piaget; Lisboa; 1995

Mead, P.S.; Slutske.r L.; Dietz, V.; McCaig, L. F.; Bresee,

J. S.; Shapiro, C.; Griffin, P. M.; and Tauxe, R. V.; “Food-

related illness and death in the United States”; Emerg

Infect Dis.; 5:607-625; 1999

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2 of 06-04-2005) “Annual Report on the Functioning of the

RASFF”; 2004

Rocourt J and Cossart P.; “Food Microbiology –

Fundamentals and Frontiers”; A S M Press; Washinghton;

1997

World Health Organisation (WHO); “Surveillance

Programme for Control of Foodborne Infections and

Intoxications in Europe”; 8th Report 1999-2000.

On-line:

http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.html; Julho de

2006

http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/foodborn.html; Julho

de 2006

http://www.fsis.usda.gov/; Julho de 2006

http://www.ine.pt/censos2001/censos.asp; Julho de 2006

http://www.manualmerck.net/; Julho de 2006

http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/science-technology/data-

sheets/bacillus-cereus.pdf; Julho de 2006


Documents

Costs and implications of food safety flaws - Epralima · 3.2.1 CAUSED BY PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POP) 26 3.2.2 CAUSED BY HEAVY METALS 26 4 BIBLIOGRAFIA 27. 2 Costs and implications