esckþIepþIm...RKb;viTüasaRsþ rab;bBa©ÚlTaMgsgÁmsaRsþpgEdr beRmI[EpñkepSg²KñaehAfa" viFIviTüasaRsþ "EdlCa RbBn½§mYyxiteTArkkarRsavRCav. Ca]TahrN¾ citþviTUr Kat;cg;dwgGMBi

1

esckþIepþIm (Introduction)

KImIviTüa³ karsikSaBI bERmbRmYl (The study of change)

KImIKWCakarsikSaGMBIrUbFatu nig karrgnUvbERmbRmYlrbs;va. KImIeKEtgEtehAfa mCÄmNÐlviTüa saRsþ BIeRBaH cMeNHdwgmUldæanelIKImIKWmansarsMxan;sMrab;nisSitCIvviTüa rUbviTüa PUKBÖsaRsþ eGkULÚsIu nig muxviCa¢epSg²eTOtCaeRcIn. EmnehIy vaCamCÄmNÐl sMrab; KnøgCIvitrbseyIg . RbsinebIKμanKImI CIviténkar rs;enAkan;EtxøI kñúgGVIEdleyIgKYr Etbgðaj kñúglkçxNÐdMbUg edayK μan rfynþ GKÁIsnI kMuBüÚT½r sIuDI nigGIV² gay RsYlepSg²eTot. fVIt,itEtKImIKWCaviTüasaRsþburaN EtvaCamUldæanTMenIb)anlatRtdagtaMgBIstvtSTI 19 enAeBlEdl GñkR)aCJ nig bec©kviTüamansmtßPaBnaMmuxGñkviTüasaRsþedIm,IbMEbk sarFatueTACaPaKpSMtUcCag nig Capl vi)akedIm,IBnül;BIlkçN³rUb nig lkçN³KImIrbs;eK. karGPivDÆy:agqab;rh½sénkarekIneLIgénbec©kviTüad¾ eCOnelOnkñúgstvtSTI19TaMgmUl )anpþl;[eyIgnUvmeFüa)ayd¾viessvisalsMrab;sikSaBIGVIEdleyIgminGac emIleXIjeday EPñk TeT. kareRbIR)as;kMuBüÚT½r nig mIRkUsáúbeGLicRtugCa]TahrN¾ GñkKImIGacviPaKTMrg;xñat RKwHén GatUm nig m:UelKul eTAelIGVIEdlsikSaGMBIKImIedayEp¥keTAelITMrg;énsarFatuf μ IEdl manlkçN³BIess dUcCa ]sf nig kareRbIR)as;plitplRbkbedaykarEfrkSabrisßan. viFIviTüasaRsþ ( The Science Method)

RKb;viTüasaRsþ rab;bBa©ÚlTaMgsgÁmsaRsþpgEdr beRmI[EpñkepSg²KñaehAfa" viFIviTüasaRsþ "EdlCa RbBn½§mYyxiteTArkkarRsavRCav. Ca]TahrN¾ citþviTUr Kat;cg;dwgGMBi faetIsMelgCH\T§iBl eTAelIlT§PaB rbs;mnusSedIm,IeronKImI ehIyKImIviTUr)ancab;GarmμN¾ kñúgkarvas;EvgkMedAEdl)anbeBa©j kalNa]s½μn GIuRdUEsneqHkñúgxül;EdlCakarlM)akmYydUc KñaeTAniglMnaMeénkaresIubGegátrbs;eK. CMhanTI1 RtUvkMNt;[ )anc,as;las;BIbBaðaenH. CMhanbnÞab; bgðajtamry³BiesaFn¾ eFVIkarGegát[)anc,as;las; nig kt;RtaB’t man b¤ Tinñn½y GMBIRbBn½§ EdlCaEpñkmYyCasaklEdlsßiteRkamkarGegát. (kñúg]TahrnN¾ xagelI RbBn½§KW CaRkummnusScitþviTUrnwgsikSaGMBIl,ay GIuRdUEsnkñúgxül;) . Tinñn½yEdlTTYl)anBIkarRsavRCavGacCa lkçN³ekItmaneLIgénkarGegátCaTUeTAGMBIRbBn½§ nigCabrimaNEdlCacMnYn)anmkedaykarvas;xus²KñaénRbBn½§.CaTUeTAKImIviTUreRbInimitþsBaaØ

2

Casþg;da nig smIkarkñúgkar kt;RtanUvkarvas;nigkarGegátrbs;eK. enHCaTMrg;énkarbgðaj minEmnRKan;EtCaPaBgayRsYlelIlMnaMénkarrkSakMNt;Rtab:uEnþk¾pþl;[eyIgpgEdrnUvmUldæan EdlniymsMrab;karR)aRs½yTak;TgKñaCamYyKImIviTUrepSg eTot. rUb1>21 kMritTaMgbIénkarsikSaKImI nig TMnak;TMngrbs;eK. Tak;TgeTAnigkarGegátRBwtþikarN¾ kñúgBiPB mIRkUsáúb GatUmnig m:UelKulCabnSMénBiPBmIRkUsáúb. karbgðajxøI²EbbviTüasaRsþ sMrab;BiB’Nna BiesaFn¾CatMNag nig smIkarKImI. KImIviTUr eRbIcMeNHdwgrbs;eKelIGatUm nigm:UelKuledIm,IBnül; Gegát )atuPUt.

rUbTI1>2karEjksrésEdkBIl,ayesμ Isac;. dUcKñabec©keTs)aneRbIeTAelImaRtdæanFM edIm,IEjkEdknigEdk EfbBI vtßúminEmnm:aejTic dUcCa GaluymIjÚm Ekv nig )øasÞIk. enAeBlBiesaFn¾)ancb;sBVRKb;nig Tinñn½y)ankt;Rta CMhanbnÞab;kñúgviFIviTüasaRsþKW karbk Rsay xøwm sar Edl)anmkBIkarRbwgERbgrbs;GñkviTüasaRsþ edIm,IBnül;BI)atuPUtEdl)an Gegát.Ep¥keTAelITinñn½y Edl eyIgRbmUl)an GñkRsavRCavrUbmnþKWCa smμtikmμ Cakar sakl,gedIm,IeFVIkarBnül;sMrab;dak;ecjnUvkar Gegát. BiesaFn¾eRcIneTotbegáIteLIg edIm,I eFVIetsþeTAelIsuBlPaBrbs;smμtikmμkñúgrebobCaeRcInRbsinebI GaceFVIeTA)an ehIylMnaMenH cab;epþImmþgeTot. rUb 1-3 segçbBIdMNak;kalsMxan;²rbs;lMnaMénkarRsavRCav.

bnÞab;BIbrimaNTinñn½yd¾eRcIn)anRbmUl enHKWeKEtgEtcg;)anedIm,IsegçbBIB’tmankñúg viFIlMGitEdlCac,ab;.kñúgviTüasaRsþc,ab;KWCakareFVIkMNt;ehtusegçbb¤karR)ab;d¾Cak;lak;én TMnak;TMngrvag)atuPUtEdlEtg EtdUcKñaeTAnwgeRkamlkçxNçdUcKña. ]TahrN¾ c,ab;TIBIr Sir Isaac Newton's énclnaEdlGñkGaccgcaMBI viTüal½yelImuxviC¢aviTüasaRsþ eBalfa

karGegát karbgðaj karbkRsay

3

kMlaMgesμIeTAnwgm:as;KuNnigel,On (F = ma) . etIc,ab;enHmann½y y:agdUemþc ? KWbegáInm:as b¤ el,OnénvtßúenaHkMlaMgrbs;nwgekIneLIgsmamaRtnigva ehIyebIm:as b¤el,On)anbnßy enaH kMlaMgk¾fycuHEdr.

sm μtikm μEdlEdlenAEtrkSasMrab;kareFVIetsþBiesaFn¾CaeRcInénsuBlPaBrbs;eKGac Tak;TgeTAkñúg RTwsþI. RTwsþIiKWCakarbBa©ÚlKñaéneKalkarN¾EdlBnül;BIeRKagénkarBit b¤ c,ab;TaMg enHEdlEp¥keTAelIva.

RTwsþIk¾CaetsþEdl)aneFVIedayminmankarERbRbYl. RbsinebIRTwsþIenHminRtwmRtUvtam BiesaFn¾ bnÞab; mkRtUv )aneKecalva b¤ EkERb eFVIdUecñHvakøayCaminERbRbYl CamYyBiesaFn¾ Gegát. GMNHGMNag b¤ KμanGMNH GMNan eTAelIRTwsþIGaccMNayeBleRcInqñaM rhUtdl;stvtS kñúgEpñkxøH edaysarEtRtUvkarbec©kviTüamin GaceCosput.RTwsþIGatUmEdl nwgsikSakñúgCMBUk TI2 KWCacMnucsMxan;. vacMnayeBleRcInCag2000qñaM edIm,IeFVIkic©karenHedayEp¥kelIeKal karN¾CamUldæanénKImIEdl)andak;esñIeLIgeday Demoncritus EdlCaTsSn³viTUrburaNCn CatiRkic. viTüasaRsþkMrmankarrIkcMerInRbsinebICayUryarmkehIy)anbegáIteLIgkñúgPaBRbTak; RkLaKñatamKMrUBICMhanmYyeTACMhanmYyeTot.CYnkalc,ab;manmunRTwsþIb¤ RTWsþImanmunc,ab;. GñkviTüsaRsþBIrrUbGac cab;epþImkargarelIKMeragmYyCamYysuRkitPaBdUcKñaeTAnigvtßúbMNg b:uEnþnwgbBa©b;karcUlrYmPaBxusKñay:agxøaMgkøaxitCit. GñkviTüasaRsþKWbnÞab;BIRKb;karrs;enA rbs;mnusS nig KMrUrbs;eKénkarKitnigkargar nwg)anCH \Ti§BledayBgSavta karbMBak;bMb:n nig buKÁliklkçN³rbs;BYkeK . karGPivDÆénviTüasaRsþmanlkçN³eTogTat; nig CYnkalminsmehtusmpl. kar rkeXIjd¾Gs©arü KWCanic©kalCalT§plénkarsnSMpþl;[ nig bTBiesaFn¾rbs;kmμkrCaeRcIn eTaHbICaTMnukcitþsMrab;karbegáIn el,OnRTwsþI b¤ c,ab;KWEtgEtpþl;[cMeBaHbuKÁlEtmYyKt;. Emn ehIy manFatuEtmYyKt;EdlmansMNag)an Tak;TgkñúgrbkKMehIjviTüasaRsþ b:uEnþeK)an eBalfa " »kasGnueRKaH )anerobcMeLIgedayKMnit " ( Chance favor the Prepared Mind )

vacUlrYmy:agRbugRbytñ½ nig bNþúHbNþalbuKÁlenaH[)anl¥sMrab;TTYlsÁal; sar³sMxan;én rbkKMehIjEdlGacekIteLIg nig edIm,IcUlrYmeBareBjedayGtßRbeyaCn¾rbs;va. karenHEtg EtekItmaneLIgkareronCasaFarN³EtmYyKt;rbs;viTüasaRsþd¾Gs©arübMEbkTaMgRsug. RKb; erOgr:ayEdlTTYl )aneCaKC½yy:agNak¾edaymankrNIrab;ryEdlGñkviTüasaRsþ)ancMNay

4

eBl yUrGEgVgsMrab;kargar elIKMeragEdlTIbMputnaMeTArkesckþIsøab;enATIbMputehIyEdlsñaéd viC¢man)anmkbnÞab;BImankarxusqøgvij ehIyenACabeNþIr²EdleKmincg;dwgnUvGVIEdlfμ I.min Tan;manGVIpøas;bþÚrnUvTIbBa©b;énkarpþl;[nUvGVI²edIm,IbnþnUvkarlUtlas;éncMeNHdwgTaMgmUlGMBI lkçN³rUbCasaklenHCakarcUlcitþRsavRCavEdlrkSaGñkviTüasaRsþCaeRcInkñúgTIBiesaFn¾. cMNat;fñak;rUbFatu (Classification of Matter)

eyIg[niymn½yKImIenAeBlcab;epþImkñúgCMBUkenHfaCakarsikSaBIrUbFatunigkarrgnUvbERmbRmYlrbs;va. rUbFatu KWGVI²TaMgGs;EdltaMgTIkñúglMh nig manm:as. rUbFaturab; bBa©Úl TaMgGVI²EdleyIgeXIjnigb:H)an (dUcCa Twk dI nig rukçCati) k¾dUcCaGVI²EdleyIg minGac emIleXIj (dUcCa xül;) . dUecñH vtßúGVI²kñúgsalkTak; TgeTAnig " karP¢ab;eTAeTA nigsar FatuKImI " . KImIviTUsMKal;cMeNamRbePTbnÞab;mYycMnYnénrUbFatuedaysMGagelIPaKpSM nig lkçN³ . cMNat;fñak; énrUbFatuman sarFatu l,ay Fatu nig smasFatu manTaMg GatUm nig m:UelKulpgEdrEdlnigBIPakSaenACMBUk bnÞab;. sarFatu nig l,ay ( Substances and Mixtures)

sarFatuKWCasNæanmYyénrUbFatuEdlmanTItaMgkMNt;nigmanlkçN³xus²Kña. ]TahrN¾ dUcCa Twk Gam:Ujak; sárs (s‘uyRkUs) mas nig GuksIuEsn . sarFatuxusKña BIPaKpSMrbs;va nigGacRtUv)ankMNt;eday Gakar³xageRkA dUcCa køin rsCati nig lkçN³ epSg²eTot. l,ay CakarcUlpSMénsarFatuBIr b¤ eRcIn EdlsarFatuenaHEtrkSaPaBdUc Kña c,as; las;rbs;eK. ]TahrN¾ lkçN³Rbhak;RbEhlKñamYycMnYn dUcCa xül; ePsC¢³ TwkedaHeKa nigsIum:gd¾.PaKpSMénl,ayminmansßirPaBeT. dUecñHPaKsMNakénxül;EdlRbmUl)ankñúg TIRkugxus²KñaKYrEtmanlkçN³xus²KñakñúgPaK pSM BIeRBaHva)anmkBIRbPBbMBulxus²Kña>>>.l. l,ayGacCa l,ayes μ Isac; nig l,ayminesμ Isac;. enAeBlsármYysøab RBaeBj rlaykñúgTwk eyIg TTYl)anl,ayes μ Isac; EdlkñúgenaHsmasPaBénl,ayKWdUcKñaTaMgRsug. ebIxSac;)anlayCamYyGacmn¾Edk enaHRKab;xSac;nigkMeTcEdkRtUv)anEjkdac;ecjBIKña (rUb1.4).dUecñH l,ayRbePTenHehAfa l,aymines μ I sac; eRBaHsmasPaBmindUcKñaTaMgRsug. l,ayepSgeTotfaetICal,ayesμ Isac;b¤minesμ Isac;GacRtUv)anbegáIteLIehIy bnÞab;

5

mkRtUv)anEjkedayviFIrUbeTAkñúgPaKpSMsuT§edayminmankarpøas;bþÚrlkçN³edIménPaKpSM. dUecñH sárGacRtUv)anrkeXIj BIsUluysüúgTwkedaykarkMedAsUluysüúg nig karrMhYtva [eTA CaPaBs¶Üt. kMNkcMhay nwgpþl;[eyIg RtLb;mkvijnUvPaKpSMénTwk. edIm,IEjk l,ay xSac;-Edk eyIgeRbIemEdkedIm,ITayyksrésEdkecjBIxSac; BIeRBaHxSac;min RtUv)anRsUb TajedayemEdk (rUb 1.4b) . bnÞab;BIkarEjk PaKpSMénl,aynwgmansmasPaB nig lkçN³dUcKñadUcedleK)ancab;epþIm. Fatu nig smasFatu (Elements and Compounds)

sarFatuGacCaFatu b¤ smasFatuTaMgLay. FatuCasarFatuEdlminGacEjkeTA CasarFatu gayCagedayviFIKImI. rhUtmkdl;sBVéf¶enH Fatu 112 RtUv)ansÁal;CaviC¢man. manFatucMnYn 83 rkeXIjBIFmμCati elIEpndI. cMENkFatuEdlenAsl;RtUv)an begáIteLIg edayGñkviTüasaRsþtamlMnaMnuyekøEG‘r EdlCavtßúbMNg énkarsikSaenACMBUkbnÞab;. edIm,ImanPaBgayRsYl GñkKImIeRbInimitþsBaaØénGkSr mYy BIr b¤ bIedIm,IdMNag[Fatu. GkSrTI1énnimitþsBaaØ Canic©kalCaGkSrFM b:uEnþminRKb;krNITaMgGs;eT. ]TahrN¾ Co

CanimitþsBaaØrbs;FatukU)al; cMENkÉ CO Ca rUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;kabUnm:UNUGuksIut. tarag 1.1bgðajBIeQ μaHnignimitþsBaaØénFatumYycMnYnEdleRcInCYb RbTH. nimitþsBaaØénFatu mYycMnYn )anmkBIeQ μaHLataMgrbs;eK ]TahrN¾ Au mkBI aurum (mas) Fe mkBI ferrum (Edk) nig Na mkBI natrium (sUdüÚm) enAeBlEdlFatuPaKeRcIn)anmkBIeQμaHPasa Gg;eKøs. ]bsm<n½§ 1 pþl;[nUveQ μaHedImnigtaragénGñkrkeXIjénFatuCaeRcIn. FatuCaeRcInGacmanGMeBICamYyFatumYyb¤FatueRcInepSgeToteTACasmasFatu. ]TahrN¾]sμ½nGIuRdUEsneqHkñúgGuksIuEsn[plCaTwkEdlmanlkçN³xusBIvtßúFatuedImEdl cab;epþIm.Twk)anbegáIteLIgBI BIr Epñk GIuRdUEsn nig mYyEpñkGuksIuEsn. smasFatu enHminmankarERbRbYleT minKitdl;faTwk)anmkBIk,alr:Ub‘Íen kñúgshrdæGaemrik bwgenAkñúg Outer Mongolia b¤ kMBUlTwkkkenApáayRBHGgÁar_ (Mars) . dUecñHTWkKWCasmasFatu EdlbMEbkénGatUménFatuKImIBIr b¤ eRcIn)ancUlrYmKñakñúgsmamaRtkMNt;. mindUcl,ay smasFatuGac RtUv)anEjkedaymeFüa)ayKImIEtmYyKt;eTACaPaKpSMsuT§rbs;eK. tarag 1.1 FatumYycMnYnEdlniym nig nimitþsBaaØrbs;va

6

eQ μaH nimitþsBaaØ eQμaH nimitþsBaaØ eQμaH nimitþsBaaØ GaluymIjÚm Al PøúyGrY F GuksIuEsn O

Gaesnic As mas Au pUsV½r P

)ar:üÚm Ba GIuRdUEsn H )aøTIn Pt

b‘Ísμuút Bi GIuy:Ut I b:UtasüÚm K

RbUm Br Edk Fe sIulIsüÚm Si

kal;süÚm Ca sMN Pb R)ak; Ag

kabUn C m:aejsüÚm Mg sUdüÚm Na

kør Cl m:g;kaENs Mn s<an;F½r S

RkUm Cr )ar:t Hg sMN)ahaMg Sn

kU)al; Co nIEkl Ni tg;Esþn W

Tg;Edg Cu GasUt N sgá½sI Zn

rUb3³ cMNat;fñak;énrUbFatu ( Classification of Matter)

PaBTaMgbIénrUbFatu ( The Three States of Matter)

RKb;sarFatu Gacy:agehacNas;tameKalkarN¾ GacmankñúgPaBTaMgbI³ rwg rav nig ]sμ ½n. dUcbgðaj kñúgrUb6 ]sμ ½nxusBIGgÁFaturwg nig rav kñúgcMgayrvagm:UelKul mYyeTA m:UelKulmYyeTot. kñúgGgÁFaturwg m:Uel Kulcgsm<½n§y:agCitKña bMputkñúglMdab; lMeday CamYyclnaedayesrItictYc.m:UelKulGgÁFaturavcgsm<½n§CitKña b:uEnþminsUvrwgmaMtamTItaMg

rUbFatu

l,ay

l,ayminesμIsac;l,ayesμIsac;

sarFatusuT§

smasFatu Fatu

karEjkedayviFIrUb

karEjkedayviFIKImI

7

nwgGacpøas;TIBImYyeTAmYyeTot. krNI ]sμ½n m:UelKul)anEjkdac;BIKñaedaycMgaymYyEdl FM ebIeRbobeFobnigTMhMénm:UelKulrbs;va.

sNæanTaMgbIénrUbFatuGacpøas;bþÚr)anedayK μankarERbRbYlsmasPaBénsarFatu. GaRs½y elIkarkMedA GgÁFaturwg (]TahrN¾ Twkkk) nwgrlayeTACasNæanGgÁFaturan (Twk) . (sItuNðPaBEdlEdl PaBqøgekIteLIg ehAfa cMnucrMBuH) . ebIbnþkarkMedAenaH GgÁFatu ravnwgbMElgeTACa]sμ ½n. (karbMElgcUlrYm enAcMnucrMBuHénGgÁFaturav) .

mü:ageTotkareFVI[RtCak;én]sμ½nnigbgávaeTACakMnkeTACaGgÁFaturav.kalNaGgÁFatu ravTuk[RtCak;vanwgkkeTACasNæanGgÁFaturwg (rUb 4) .

lkçN³rUbniglkçN³KImIénrUbFatu(Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter)

rUbFatuGacsMKal;)anedaylkçN³ nigPaKpSMrbs;eK. B’N cMnucrlay nig cMnucrMBuH KWCalkçN³rUb. lkçN³rUbGacvas;nig Gegát)anedayK μankarERbRbYlsmasPaB b¤PaBdUcKña énsarFatu. ]TahrN¾ eyIgGacvas;cMnucrMBuHénTwkkkedaykarkMedAdMuTwkkkrYckt;RtasItuNð PaBenAeBlEdlTwkkkkøayeTACaTwk. TwkxusBI TwkkkRtWmEtGakar³xageRkAminEmnsmas PaB dUecñHenHCabERmbRmYlrUb. eyIgGaceFVI[Twk[kkedIm,Irk [eXIjnUvPaBedIménTwkkk. dUecñH cMnucrlayénsarFatuKWCalkçN³rUb. Rbhak;RbEhlKñaEdr kalNaeyIg niyayGMBI ]sμ ½neGlüÚmKWRsalCagxül; enHKWsMedAeTAelIlkçN³rUb.

müa:geTot karR)ab; " cMehHGIuRdUEsnkñúgGuksIuEsn[plCaTwk " Bnül;BIlkçN³rUb énGIuRdUEsn BIeRBaH kúñgkrNIcMehHenH tamkarGegátCaTUeTAénlkçN³enH eyIgRtUvEtnaMmknUv

rUbTI4³ GgÁFaturwg rav nig ]s μ ½n emIltammIRkUsáúb

8

bNþÚrKImI . bnÞab;BIkarERb RbYl sarFatuKImIedIm Ca]s½ μnGIuRdUEsnnwg)at;bg; nwgsarFatu EdlenAsl;KWCasaFatuKImIxusKñaKWTwk. eyIgmin GacrkeXIjGIuRdUEsnBIkñúgTwktamviFIbNþÚrrUb dUcCacMnucrMBuH b¤ kMNk.

ral;eBlEdleyIges¶ars‘ut eyIgnaMmknUvbNþÚrKImI. enAeBlEdlvtßúenHRtUv kMedARbmaN 100oC CatielOgéns‘ut nig s‘utsrgnUvbERmbRmYlEdlxusKña minRtwmEtGakar³ rUbxageRkAb:ueNþaHeT b:uEnþ EfmTaMglkçN³KImI)anbegáIteLIgpgEdr. enAeBl)anbriePaKs‘ut KW vaERbRbYlCafμ I edaysarFatuenHenAkñúg sarBagÁkayrbs;eyIgehAfa " Gg;sIum " enHCa skmμPaBrMlayGaharKWCa]TahrN¾epSgeToténbNþÚrKImI. etImanGVIekIteLIgkMLúgeBleBlrMlayGahar vaGaRs½yelIlkçN³KImITaMgGg;sIumnigGahar. RKb;lkçN³EdlGacvas;)anénrUbFatuFøak;eTAkñúgRbePTbEnßmmYy b¤ BIr³ lkçN³ GaMgtg;sIuv nig lkçN³Giuctg;sIuv . tMélvas;)anKWCalkçN³GaMgtg;sIuv GaRs½yeTAelI faetImanm:asrUbFatub:unμan)anbgðajcMENk ÉbrimaNrUbFatu)anpþl;[BIPaKsMNakénsarFatu KWCalkçN³Giuctg;sIuv . rUbFatueRcInmann½yfaman m:aseRcIn. tMélénlkçN³Giuctg;sIuv dUcKñaGacRtUv)anbEnßmKñaeTAvijeTAmk. ]TahrN¾ kak;eFVIBITg;EdgBIr nigbBa©Úlm:asKñaEdl CaplbUkm:asrbs;kak;nImYy² ehIyRbEvgénkak;TaMgBIrKWCaRbEvgénkarbUkRbEvgénkak; nImYy². maD kMNt;)andUcCaRbEvgKUb enHCalkçN³Giuctg;sIuvepSgeTot. tMélénbrimaN Giuctg;sIuv GaRs½yelIbrimaN (amount)énrUbFatu . tMélvas;)anénlkçN³GaMgtg;sIuvminGaRs½yelI faetImanrUbFatub:un μan)anbgðaj. dg;sIuet kMNt;fa Cam:asénvtßúEck[maDrbs;va enHKWCalkçN³GaMgtg;sIuv. ebIeyIgbBa©ÚlKña edIm,IbegáItbrimaNmYyénrUbFatu enAkñúgEkvEb‘rEsrFMCag sItuNðPaBénbrimaNeRcInCag énTwknigmanlkçN³dUcKñanigEkvEb‘rEsrBIrEdl)an EjkecjBIKña . mindUc m:as RbEvg nig maD sItuNðPaB k¾CalkçN³GaMgtg;sIuv min)anbEnßm.

cMehHGIuRdUEsnkñúgxül;[plCaTwk

9

rgVas;rgVal; (Measurement)

rgVas;rgVal;GñkKImIniymeRbIkñúgkarKNnaedIm,ITTYl)anTMnak;TMngbrimaNxus²Kña. ]bkrN¾xusKña Gac[eyIgvas;lkçN³énsarFatudUcteTA³ Em:RtbnÞat;vas;RbEvg b¤ Rkit b‘uyEr:t BIEb:t sIuLaMgRkit nig Ekv vas;maD sMrab;vas;maD (rUb 1>8) CBa¢Igføwgm:as ETm:UEm:Rtvas;sItuNðPaB. ]bkrN¾TaMgenH pþl;[rgVas; rgVal;énlkçN³m:aRkUsáúb (Macroscopic properties) EdlRtUv)ankMNt;edaypÞal;. lkçN³mIRkUsáúbenAelI maRtdæanGatUm b¤ m:UelKulRtUvEt)ankMNt;edayviFIminpÞal; EdleyIgnwgeXIjkñúgCMBUkbnÞab;.

b‘uyEr:t BIEb:t sIuLaMgRkit Ekvvas; tarag 1>2 RbBn½§xñatGnþrCatiCamUldæan ( SI Base Units)

brimaNCamUldæan (Base quantity) eQμaHxñat (Name Unit) nimitþsBaa Ø(Symbol)

RbEvg Em:Rt m

m:as KILÚRkam Kg

ry³eBl vinaTI s

crnþGKÁIsnI GMEB A

sItuNðPaB Eklvin K

brimaNénsarFatu m:Ul mol

tarag 1>3 buBVbT)aneRbICamYyRbBn½§xñatGnþrCati (SI)

buBVbT nimitþsBaaØ Gtßn½y ]TahrN¾ etRta T 1.000.000.000.000 b¤ 1012 1etRtaEm:Rt (Tm) = 1 x 1012m

RhÁIRhÁa G 1.000.000.000 b¤ 109 1RhÁIRhÁaEm:Rt(Gm) = 1 x 109m

emRhÁa M 1.000.000 b¤ 106 1emRhÁaEm:Rt (Mm) = 1 x 106m

KILÚ k 1.000 b¤ 103 1KILÚEm:Rt (km) = 1 x 103m

edsIu d 101 b¤ 10-1 1edsIuEm:Rt (dm) = 0,1m

sg;TI c 100

1 b¤ 10-2 1 sg;TIEm:Rt (cm) = 0,01m

10

mIløI m 1000

1 b¤ 10-3 1mIløIEm:Rt (mm) = 0,001m

mIRkU μ 000,000,1

1 b¤ 10-6 1 mIRkUEm:Rt( μ m) = 1x10-6m

NaNU n 000,000,000,1

1 b¤ 10-9 1 NaNUEm:Rt (nm) =1x10-9m

BIkU p 000,000,000,000,1

1 b¤ 10-12 1BIkUEm:Rt(pm) =1x10-12m

brimaNvas;)anEtgEtRtUv)ansresrCacMnYnCamYyxñatsmrmü. edIm,IniyayfacMgayrvag New York eTA San Francisco edayrfynþmancMgaypøÚv 5166

KWKμanGtßn½y. eyIgRtUvbBaa¢k;[c,as; cMgayKW 5166 KILÚEm:Rt. dUcKñaeRbIkñúgKImI xñatKWmansar³sMxan;Nas;edIm,Ivas;[)anRtwmRtUv. RbBn½§xñat SI CaeRcInqñaMmkehIyGñkviTüasaRsþ)ankt;RtargVas;rgVal;CaxñatrgVas;rgVal; EdlTak;Tg eTAnigcMnYnTs PaK KWCa sV½yKuNén 10 . kñúgqñaM 1960 mhasnñi)atsþIBITm¶n; nig rgVas; GaCJaFrGnþrCatielIÉkta(Units))andak;esñIeLIg[pøas;bþÚrRbBn½§rgVas;rgVal;ehAfa "RbBn§½Gnþr Cati SI " énÉkta sresrkat; SI mkBIPasa )araMg Système Internationale d'Units . tarag 1>2 bgðajBI RbBn½§xñatGnþrCatiCamUldæanTaMg 7 enH. cMENkxñatepSgeTot)an mkBIxñatCa mUldæanTaMgenH. dUcCaxñatRbEvg Ékta SI KWsMKal;kñúgrebobTsPaK edayes‘rIbuBVbT dUcbgðajkñúgtarag 1>3 . eyIgnwgeRbIxñatrgVas; nig xñat SI kñúgÉksarenH. rgVas;rgVal;EdleyIgeRbIjwkjab;kñúgkarsikSaKImIrYmman ry³eBl m:as maD dg;sIuet nig sItuNðPaB. m:as nig Tm¶n; (Mass and Weigth) Bakü " m:as " nig "Tm¶n; " KW)aneRbIjwkjab;kñúgPaBEdlGacpøas;bþÚr)an eTaHbICakar niyayedaym:dæ ct;k¾edayKWmancMnYnxus²Kña. dUecñH m:asKWCargVas;énbrimaNrUbFatukñúgvtßú Tm¶n; Cabec©keTskñúgkarniyay KWCakMlaMgEdlTMnajEpndITajeTAelIvtßú. Epøe):amEdlFøak; BIelIedImKWCaTMnajcuHeRkamedayTMnajEpndI. m:asénEpøe)a:mKWminERbRbYl ehIyminGaRs½y eTAelITItaMg b:uEnþvamanTm¶n;rbs;va. ]TahrN¾ enAelIépÞén RBHcn½ÞEpøe)a:mKYrEt manTm¶n; RtwmEt

61 énm:asrbs;vaenAelIEpndI eRBaHTMnajRBHcn½ÞKWmanEt

61 énEpndI.TMnajRBHcn½Þ

tUcCaglT§PaByanGavkasehaHedayesrIRbesIrCagelIépÞrbs;va fVIebIPaBsMBIgsMeBag nig

11

]bkrN¾vak¾eday. KImIviTUrcab;Garm μN¾CabzmeTAelIm:as EdlGackMNt;)anCaeRscCamYy nigCBa¢Ig rebobvas;m:asmanPaBcMELk KW ehAfakarføwg. mUldæanxñat SI énm:asKWKILÚRkam (kg) b:uEnþkñúgKImIRkamKWtUcCagehIymanlkçN³ gayCag ³ 1kg = 1000g = 1 x 310 g

Gg;RsþÚNUsenAelIépÞRBHcn½Þ

maD (Volume)

xñat SI énRbEvgKWEm:Rt (m) nigxñat SI sMrab;maDKWEm:RtKUb (m3) . CaTUeTA KImIviTUr eFVIkarCamYynig maDtUcCagKWsg;TIEm:RtKUb (Cm3) nigedsIuEm:RtKUb (dm3) . 1cm3 = (1 x 10-2m)3 = 1 x 10-6m3 1dm3 = (1 x 10-1m)3 = 1 x 10-3m3

xñatmaDEdleKniymeRbIepSgeTotKWlIRt(L).lIRtKWCamaDtaMgTIedaymYyedsIuEm:Rt KUb. maDmYy lIRtes μ Inig 1000 mIløIlIRt (mL) b¤ 1000cm3 . 1L = 1000mL = 1000cm3 = 1dm3

nig 1mL= 1cm3

rUb1>4 eRbobeFobTMnak;TMngénmaDBIr. 1mL nig 1000mL

12

dg;sIuet (Density)

smIkarsMrab;dg;sIuetKW ³ dg;sIuet = m:as /maD b¤ d = vm d, m nig v tag

[ dg;sIuet m:as nigmaD erogKña. edaydg;sIuetKWCalkçN³GaMgtg;sIuv nigminGaRs½yelI brimaNénvtþmanrbs;m:asénrUbFatuEdlpþl;[EdlsmamaRteTAnigm:asehIynigmaDEdlCalkçN³efr. kalNa V ekInenaH m k¾ekInEdr. xñat SI éndg;sIuetKW)anmkBIKILÚRkamkñúgmYyEm:RtKUb (kg/m3) . xñatenHKWman tMélFMNas;sMrab;kar GnuvtþkñúgKImI. dUecñH RkamkñúgmYysg;TIEm:RtKUb (g/cm3) KWsmmUlnigva RkamkñúgmYymIløIlIRt(g/mL) KWeK nimyeRbIsMrab;dg;sIuetGgÁFaturwg nig rav. eday dg;sIuetén]sμ ½nTabNas; eyIgbgðajvakñúgxñatCaRkamkñúgmYylIRt(g/L) . 1g/cm3 = 1g /mL = 1000kg/m3 1g /L =0,001g / mL

]TahrN¾xageRkambgðajBIkarKNnadg;sIuet. ]TahrN¾1>1³masCaelah³mantMélEdlGskm μKImI.eRbICacMbgkñúgeRKOgGlgáa

nigeRbIkñúgeRKOgeGLicRtUnic. dMumass¥itCamYynigm:as 301g nigmanmaD 15,6cm3 . KNnadg;sIueténm:as ?

cMelIy³ dg;sIueténelah³masKW³ d =

vm = 36,15

301cmg = 19,3g/cm3

lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾ ³ dMuelah³)aøTInmandg;sIuet 21,6 g/cm3 manmaD 4,49cm3 . KNnam:aséndMu elah³)aøTInenH ?

]TahrN¾1>2³ eGtaNulKWCaGgÁFaturavKμanB’NEdleKniymsÁal;faCaGal;kulFBaØCatimandg;sIuet 0,798g/mL . KNnam:asénGal;kulenH EdlRtUvnigmaD 17,4mL ?

cMelIy³ m:asénGal;kulKWrkeXIjtamry³smIkar d =

vm

m = d x v = 0,798 x g/mL x 17,4mL = 13,8g

13

lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾³ dg;sIueténGasIuts‘ulpYricEdleRbIkñúgGaKuyKW1,14g/mL.KNnam:as énmaD 242mL énGgÁFaturavenH ?

maRtdæansItuNðPaB (Temperature Scales)

maRtdæansItuNðPaBEdlniymeRbImanbI. xñatrbs;eKman oF (GgSahVarinéh) oC

(GgSaes) nig K (Eklvin).maRtdæanhVarinéhKWCamaRtdæanEdleKniymeRbIkñúgshrdæGaemrik xageRkATIBiesaFn¾ kMNt;cMnuc kMNknigrMBuHénTwkKW 32oF nig 212oF erogKña. GgSaesEck[karerobrvagcMnuckMNk (0oC) nigcMnucrMBuH (100oC) énTwkeTACa 100oC . dUcbgðajkñúgtarag 1>2 EklvinKWCaxñat SI CamUldæanénsItuNðPaB enHCa maRtdæansItuNðPaB dac;xat .edaytMéldac;xatKWsUnüenAelImaRtdæanEklvin sMKal;eday0K KWCasItuNðPaB TabbMputEdlGacTTYl)antamRTwsþI. mü:agvijeTot 0oF nig 0oC KWEp¥keTAelIlkçN³ énkareRCIsykrbs; sarFatudUcCaTwk.

rUb1>5 eRbobeFobmaRtdæansItuNðPaBTaMgbI. maRtdæanGgSaes haVrinéh nig Eklvin. sMKallfakarEck 100 b¤ 100 GgSarvagcMNuckMNk nig cMnucrMBuHénTwkelImaRtdæanGgSaes nig karEck180 b¤ 180GgSa rvag sItuNðPaBdUcKñaBIrkMNt;elImaRtdæanhaVrinéh.

14

TMhMGgSaelImaRtdæanhVarinéhKW 180100 b¤

95 énGgSaes . edIm,IbMElgGgSahaVrinéh

eTAGgSaeseyIg)an³ ? oC = (oF − 32oC) x

FC

o

o

95

smIkarTUeTA)aneRbIedIm,IbMElgBIGgSaeseTAGgSahaVrin ³ ? oF =

CF

o

o

59 x (oC) + 32oF

TaMgmaRtdæanGgSaesnigEklvinsuT§Etmanxñates μ IKña KWmYyGgSaessmmUleTA nig mYyGgSaEkl vin. bTBiesaFn¾tamry³karsikSabgðajfatMéldac;xatsUnüelI maRtdæan EklvinsmmUleTAnig – 273,15oC elImaRtdæanGgSaes. dUecñH eyIgeRbIsmIkardUcteTA edIm,IbMElgBIGgSaeseTAGgSaEklvin³

? K = (oC + 273,15oC) CK

o11

eyIgnigeFVIkarEsVgrk RbsinebIkrNIcaM)ac;edIm,IeFVIkarpøas;bþÚrBIGgSaeseTAGgSahaVrinéh b¤GgSaeseTAGgSaEknvin. ]TahrN¾1>3³ (a) elah³FatuepSg²sMrab;pSaKWCasMelah³Edl)anbegIáteLIgBIsMN)a:haMg nig sMN)aneRbIR)as;kñúgesoKVIGKÁIsnI. elah³FatuepSg²sMrab;pSamancMnucrMlay224oC. etIcMnuc rMlayrbs;vaKitCa GgSa haVrinéhesμIb:un μan ? (b) eGlüÚmmancMnucrMBuHTab bMput kñúgcMeNamFatuTaMgGs;KW – 452oF . cUrbMElg sItuNðPaBenHKitCaGgSaes. (c) )art Caelah³EtmYyKt;EdlsßitkñúgPaBCaGgÁFaturavenAsItuNðPaBbnÞb; rlayenA –38,9oC . bMElgcMnucrlayenHeTACaEklvin . cMelIy³

(a) bMElgcMnucrlayBIGgSaeseTACaGgSahaVrinéh

CF

o

o

59 x (224oC) + 32oF = 435oF

(b) bMElg sItuNðPaBenHKitCaGgSaes (452oF –32oF) x

FC

o

o

95 = - 269oC

(c) cMnucrlayén)artKitCaEknvinKW ³ (-38,9oC + 273,15oC) x

CK

o11 = 234,3K

15

lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾³ cUrbMElg (a) 327,5oC (cMnucrlayénsMN) eTAGgSahaVrinéh (b) 172,9oF(cMnucrMBuHrbs;eGtaNul) eTACaGgSaes

(c) 77K (cMnucrMBuHrbs;GasUtrav) eTACaGgSaes

elah³sMrab;pSaeRbIy:ageRcInkñúgsMNg;esoKVIGKÁIsnI kareRbobeFobmaRtdæansItuNðPaBTaMgbI³maRtdæanGgSaes haVrinéh nig maRtdæandac;xat Eklvin. cMNaMfa mankarEcknig 100 b¤ 100GgSa rvag cMnuckMNknigcMnucrMBuH énTwk enAelImaRtdæanGgSaes nig karEck 180 b¤ 180 GgSa rvagsItuNðPaBBIr dUcKñakMNt;elImaRt dæanhaVrinéh. kareRbIR)as;elx ( Handling Numbers)

mankarsÞabsÞg;GMBIxñat)aneRbIkñúgKImI\LÚvenHeyIgRtLb;emIlBIbec©keTssMrab; kareRbIR)as; elxEdlTak;TgeTAnigkarvas;³ karkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ nig tMélelxCak;lak; (significant figures) . karkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ ( Scientific Notation)

KImIviTUrEtgEteRbIelxEdlmantMélFMGenk b¤ tUcGenk. ]TahrN¾ 1g

FatuHIuRdUEsnmantél Citesμ IeTAnig ³ 602.200.000.000.000.000.000.000

cMeBaHGatUmGIuRdUEsn GatUmGIuRdUEsnnImYy²manm:asEt ³ 0,0000000000000000000000166g

cMnYnTaMgnHKWCacMnYnEdlBi)aknigeRbIR)as; EdlgaynigRcLMenAeBleRbIvakñúgkarKNnaelxnBVnþ. bgðajBIkarKNna³ 0,0000000056 x 0,00000000048 =0,000000000000000002688

vamanPaBgayRsYlsMrab;eyIgkñúgkarRcLMsUnümYyb¤ bEnßmsUnümYybnÞab;BIek,os. Canic©kal kalNaeyIgeFVIkarCamYynigelxd¾FM b¤ elxd¾tUc

16

eyIgeRbIRbBn½§mYyehAfakarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ. kareFVsRbEhsénTMhMrbs;eKcMnYnTaMgGs; GacbgðajCaTMrg; ³ N x 10n

Edl NCacMnYnrvag 1 nig 10 nig n CasV½yKuN EdlCacMnYnKt;viC¢man b¤ GviC¢man (cMnYnsarub). cMnYnepSgeTotbgðajtamrebobenH KWeKniyayfaedIm,IsresrvakñúgkarkMNt; EbbviTüasaRsþ. ]bmafaeyIg[cMnYnBitnigsYredIm,IbgðajtamrebobénkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ. EpñkelIlMhat;enHR)ab;eyIgedIm,IrkcMnYn n .eyIgrab;cMnYnkEnøgEdlxageRkayek,osRtUv)an rMkiledIm,Ipþl;[cMnYn N (cMnYnenHenAcenøaHBI 1 nig 10) . ebIek,osRtUv)anrMkileTAxageqVg bnÞab;mk n CacMnYnKt;viC¢man . ebIek,os RtUv)anrMkileTAxagsþaM enaH n CacMnYnKt;GviC¢man. ]TahrN¾xageRkambgðajBIkareRbIR)as;karkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ ³

(a) bgðaj 568,762 tamrebobénkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ³

568,762 = 5,68762 x 102

(b) bgðaj 0,00000772 tamrebobénkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ³ 0,00000772 = 7,72 x 10-6

rkSaTukkñúgcitþkñúgkrNIBIrdUcCa³TI1=0

eRbIsMrab;cMnYnEdlmin)anbgðajtamEbbviTüasaRsþ. ]TahrN¾ 74,6 x 100 ( n=0) smmUleTAnig 74,6 . TI2 kñúgkarGnuvt CaTUeTARtUv)an lb;ecalsV½yKuN kalNa n=1. dUecñH tamrebobénkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþsMrab; 74,6 KW 7,46 x 10 minEmn 7,46 x 101 . karbUk nig kardk ( Addition and Subtraction)

edIm,IbUk b¤ dk edayeRbIrebobénkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ TImYyeyIgsresr brimaNnImYy² N1 nig N2 CamYynigsV½yKuN n . bnÞab;mk bUk N1 nig N2 sV½yKuNenA sl;dUcKña . bgðajtamry³]TahrN¾ xageRkam³ (7,4 x 103) + (2,1 x 103) = 9,5 x 103 (4,31 x 103) + (3,9 x 103) = (4,31 x 103) + (0,39x 104) = 4,70 x 104 (2,22 x 10-2) – (4,10 x 10-3) = (2,22 x 10-2) – (0,41 x 10-2) = 1,81 x 10-2

karKuN nig karEck ( Multiplication and Division)

edIm,IKuNcMnYntamrebobénkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ eyIgKuN N1 nig N2 kñúg rebobdUcKña b:uEnþ bUksV½yKuNCamYyKña. edIm,IEck tamrebobénkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþeyIg

17

Eck N1 nig N2 dUcTmøab;nigpl dksV½yKuuN. xageRkamenHCa]TahrN¾bgðajBIkar eRbIR)as;Edl)anbegáIteLIg ³ (8,0 x 104) x (5,0 x 102) = (8,0 x 5,0) ( 10 24+ ) = 40 x 106 = 4,0 x 107 (4,0 x 10-5) x ( 7,0 x 103) = (4,0 x 7,0)(10 35+− ) = 28 x 10-2 = 2,8 x 10-1

5

7

100,3109,6

−xx =

0,39,6 x 10 )5(7 −− = 2,3 x 1012

9

4

100,5105,8

xx =

0,55,8 x 10 94− = 1,7 x 10-5

rUb1>6 CBa©IgviPaKfasmYy tMélelxCak;lak; ( Significant Figures)

krNIelIkElgkalNaRKb;cMnYn)anTak;TgnigsV½yKuN (]TahrN¾kñúgkarrab; cMnYnnisSitkñúgfñak;) krNIenHminGacmanedIm,I)antMélCak;lak;énbrimaNeRkamkarGegát. cMeBaHkrNIenH vamansar³sMxan;Nas; edIm,IbgðajkartMrwmkMritel¥ogenAkñúg karvas;eday karbgðajy:agc,as;BIcMnYntMélelxCak;lak; EdlCaxÞg;man n½ykñúgkarvas;)an b¤ brimaN )anKNna. ]TahrN¾eyIgKYrEtvas;maDénbrimaN)an[rbs;GgÁFaturavedayeRbIsIuLaMgRkit CamYymaRtdæan)an[minCak;lak; 1mL kñúgkarvas; . ebImaDrkeXIjKW 6mL bnÞab;mkmaDBit R)akdteRmobBI 5mL eTA 7mL . eyIgtagmaDénGgÁFaturaveday (6±1)mL . kñúgkrNIenH mantMélelxCak;lak;EtmYyKt;(xÞg;TI 6) EdlCacMnYnminCak;lak;GacbEnßm b¤ dk 1mL. sMrab;tMélCak;lak;FMCag eyIgnigeRbIsIuLaMgRkitEdlmankarEcktUcCagdUecñHKWmaDEdl

18

eyIgvas;KW\LÚvenHminCak;lak;RtwmEt 0,1mL . ebI maDénGgÁFaturav)anrkeXIjGacCa 6,0mL dUecñHeyIgGacbgðajbrimaNenHeday (6,0±0,1) ehIytMélCak; lak;KWsßitenAcenøaHrvag 5,9mL nig 6,1mL. eyIgGaceFVI[RbesIreLIgeTAelI]bkrN¾rgVas; nig TTyl)an tMélCak;lak;Cag b:uEnþkñúgRKb;krNI xÞg;xageRkayKWCaTUeTAminCak;lak; brimaNénPaBminCak;lak;enH GaRs½yeTAelI]bkrN¾rgVas;edayEpñkEdleyIgeRbI. rUb 1>6 bgðajBICBa©IgTMenIb. CBa©IgEbbenHKWGaceRbIR)as;kñúgTIBiesaFn¾ KImITUeTACaeRcIn eKeRbI sMrab;m:asvas;énvtßúrhUtdl;xageRkayek,osbYnxÞg;. dUecñH RbePT m:asEdlvas;)annwgmantMélelxCak; lak;bYn (]TahrN¾ 0,8642g) b¤ eRcInCag (]TahrN¾ 3,9745g ) . rkSakartamdancMnYnelxCak;lak;kñúg karvas; dUcCakarKNnaEdlTak;Tg eTAnigTinñn½ynwgCH\T§iBleTAelIPaBCak;lak;énkarvas;. eKalkarN¾skmμPaBedaypÞal;sMrab;kareRbIR)as;tMélelxCak;lak; (Guidelines for Using Significant Figures)

Canic©kal eyIgeFVIkarEbbviTüasaRsþy:agRbugRbytñ½edIm,IsresrcMnYnsmrmüéntMélelxCak; lak;. CaTUeTAvamanlkçN³gayRsYlbgÁÜredIm,IkMNt;faetImantMélelxCak;b:un μanCacMnYn)an Rbtibtþi tam c,ab; ³

ral;xÞg;minEmnCaelxsUnüKWsMxan;. dUecñH 845cm mantMélelx Cak;lak;bIxÞg; cMENk 1,234kg mantMélelxCak;lak;bYnxÞg; >>> .l.

xÞg;sUnürvagxÞg;minsUnüKWsMxan;Nas;. dUecñH 696m mantMélelx Cak;lak;bIxÞg; 40.501kg mantMélelxCak;lak;R)aMxÞg; >>>>.l.

elxsUnüenAxageqVgénxÞg;minsUnüTImYyKWminsMxan;. eKalbMNgrbs;eKKWedIm,IbgðajBI karCMnYscMNucek,os. ]TahrN¾ 0,08L mantMélelxCak;lak;mYy 0,0000348g man tMélelxCak;lak; bI nig >>>.l.

ebIcMnYnFMCagmYy bnÞab;mkRKb;elxsUnü)ansresreTAxagsþaMcMNucek,os rab;CatMél elxCak;lak;. dUecñH 2,0g mantMélelxCak;lak;BIr 40,062mL

mantMélelxCak;lak; R)aM nig 3,040dm mantMélelxCak;lak;bYn.

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ebIcMnYnticCagmYy bnÞab;mkmanEtelx sUnüenAcugbBa©b;éncMnYn nig elxsUnüEdlsßitenArvagxÞg;minsUnüKWsMxan;. dUecñHman n½yfa 0,090kg

mantMélelxCak;lak;BIr 0,3005L mantMélelxCak;lak;bYn 0,00420min mantMélelxCak;lak;bI>>>>.l.

sMrab;cMnYnEdlminmanek,osxageRkayelxsUnü(KWfaelxsUnüenAbnÞab;elxxÞg; min sUnübMput) Gac b¤ minGacsMxan;. dUecñH 400cm

GacmantMélelxCak;lak;EtmYy (xÞg;TI4) tMélelxCak;lak;BIr (40) b¤ tMélelxCak;lak;bI(400).eyIgminGacsÁal; NamYyRtwmRtUvedayK μan B’tman. edakareRbIR)as;karkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ GaRs½yehtuenH eyIgeCosvagPaBminc,as;las;enH. kñúgkrNIedayELkenH eyIgGac bgðaj cMnYn 400 eTACa 4x102 sMrab;tMélelxCak;lak;mYy 4,0 x 102

sMrab;tMélelxCak;lak; BIr b¤ 4,00 x 102 sMrab;tMélelxCak;lak;bI .

xageRkamenHCa]TahrN¾bgðajBIkarkMNt;tMélelxCak;lak;³ ]TahrN¾1>4 ³ kMNt;cMnYntMélelxCak;lak;sMrab;karvas;dUcteTA³ (a) 478cm (b) 6,01g (c) 0.825m (d) 0,043kg (e) 1,310x 1022 (f) 7000mL

cMelIy³ (a) mantMélelxCak;lak;bI (b) mantMélelxCak;lak;bI (c) mantMélelxCak;lak;bI (d) mantMélelxCak;lak;BIr (e) mantMélelxCak;lak;bYn (f) enHCakrNIminc,as;las;. cMnYntMélelxCak;lak;GacmanbYn (7,000x

104) , manbI (7,00x 104) ,manBIr (7,0x 104) b¤ mYy (7x104) . lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾³ kMNt;cMnYnéntMélelxCak;lak;kñúgkarvas;dUcteTA³

(a) 24mL ; (b) 3001g ; (c) 0,0320m3 ; (d) 6,4 x 104 m:Ul ; 560kg

dak;ecjnUvc,ab;yfaRbePTTI2 faetIRtUveRbIR)as;karKNnatMélelxCak;lak; y:agdUemþc?

20

kñúgkarbUkb¤ dk cMnYnéntMélelxCak;lak;enAxagsþaMek,oskñúg plbUkcugeRkay b¤ xusKñaRtUv)ankMNt;edaycMnYntUcbMputéntMél elxCak;lak;eTAxagsþaMek,oskñúgral; cMnYnedIm. karbgðajtamry³ ]TahrN¾ ³ 89,332 tMélelxCak;lak;mYybnÞab;BIek,os +1,1 90,432 bgÁt;Rtwm 90,4 2,097

- 0,12 tMélelxCak;lak;mYybnÞab;BIek,os

1,977 bgÁt;Rtwm 1,98

lMnaMénkarbgÁt;mandUcteTA³ edIm,IbgÁt;cMnYnenAcMnucCak;lak;NamYy eyIgeFVI [gayedaylb; ecalxÞg;EdlCab;tam ebIxÞg;TI1rbs;vaticCag 5. dUecñH 8,724 bgÁt;eTACa 8,72 ebIeyIgcg;)anEtBIrxÞg;bnÞab; Biek,os. ebIxÞg;TImYyeTAtamek,osén karbgÁt;KWes μ I eTAnwgtMélFMCag 5 eyIgbUkmYyeTAelIxÞg;BImun. dUecñH 8,727 bgÁt;eTACa 8,73 nig 0,425

bgÁt;eTACa 0,43. cMeBaHkarKuN nig karEck cMnYnéntMélelxCak;lak;kñúgplitpl cugeRkay b¤ plEckKWRtUv)ankMNt;eday cMnYnedImEdlmanelxtUc bMputéntMélelxCak;lak;

xageRkamenHbgðajBIc,ab;enH ³ 2,8 x 4,5039 = 12,61092 bgÁt;eTACa 13

04,112

85,6 = 0.0611388789 bgÁt;eTACa 0,0611

rkSaTukkñúgcitþnUvcMnYnBitR)akd)anmkBIniymn½yénvtßúGacRtUv)anbBaa©k;edIm,ITTYl)ancMnYnmin kMNt; éntMélelxCak;lak;. RbsinebIvtßúmanm:as 0,2786g bnÞab;mkm:as énvtßúTaMgR)aMbIKW ³ 0,2786g x 8 = 2,229g

eyIgminbgÁt;plitplenHeTACatMélelxCak;lak;eT eRBaHelx 8 KW 8,00000...

tamniymn½y. Rbhak;RbEhlKñaEdr edIm,ITajrktMélmFüménRbEvgBIrEdl)anvas;KW 6,64cmnig 6,68cm eyIgGacsresr³

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2

68,664,6 cmcm + = 6,66cm

edaysarelx 2 KW 2,00000... tamniymn½y . xageRkamenHCa]TahrN¾bgðajBItMélelxCak;lak;)aneRbIkñúgKNitsaRsþ . ]TahrN¾ 1>5 ³ cUrKNnatMélelxdUcteTA³

(a) 11.254,1g + 0,1983g (b) 66,59L - 3,113L (c) 8,16 m x 5,1355 (d) 0,0154kg ÷ 88,3mL (e) 2,64 x 103 cm + 3,27 x 102 cm

cMelIy³ (a) 11.254,1g + 0,1983g

11.254,2983g bgÁt;eTACa 11.253,3g (b) 66,59L

- 3,113L

63,477L bgÁt;eTACa 63,48L

(c) 8,16 m x 5,1355 = 41,90568m bgÁt;eTACa 41,9m

(d) mL

kg3,88

0154,0 =0,000174405436kg/mL bgÁt;eTACa 0,000174kg/mL

b¤ 1,74x10-4kg/mL

(e) CadMbUgeyIgbþÚr 3,27 x 102cm eTA 0,327 x 103

rYcbnÞab;mkeFVIkarbUk (2,64cm+0,327cm) 103 . Gnuvtþn¾tamlMnaM(a)

eyIgTTYl)ancMelIy ³ 2,97 x 103cm .

lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾³ edayeRbIKNitviTüa cUreqøIytMélelxCak;lak;smrmüdUcteTA³

(a) 26,5862L + 0,17L (b) 9,1g + 4,682g (c) 7,1 x 104dm x 2,2654x102 (d) (7,55 x 104m) – (8,62 x 103m)

lMnaMbgÁt;xagelIGnuvtþn¾eTAelICMhanmYyénkarKNna. kñúgbNþajKNna KWkarKNna Tak;Tg eRcInCagmYyCMhan eyIgeRbIlMnaMpøas;bþÚr. karbgðajBIkarKNnatamCMhanTaMgBIrKW ³ CMhanTI1 ³ A x B x C

CMhanTI2 ³ C x D = E

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]bmafa A = 3,66 B = 8,45 nig D = 2,11. PaBGaRs½yelI faetIeyIgbgÁt; C

eTACatMélelx Cak;lak;bYn eyIgTTYl)ancMnYnxusKñasMrab; E ³ viFITI1 viFITI2 3,66 x 8,45 = 30,9 3,66 x 8,45 = 30,93 30,9 x 2,11 = 65,2 30,93 x 2,11 = 65,3

dUecñH ebIeyIgeFVIkarKNnadUcCa 3,66 x 8,85 x 2,11 tamm:asIun KitelxedayK μanbgÁt;lT§pl Gnþrkal eyIgTTYl)an 65,3 dUccMelIy E. CaTUeTA eyIgnig bgðajcMnYnRtwmRtUvéntMélelxCak;lak;kñúg CMhannImYy²énkarKNna. dUecñH kñúgg]TahrN¾ xøH manEtcMelIycugeRkayKW)anbgÁt;eTACacMnYnRtwmRtUvén tMélelxCak;lak;. cMelIyénRKb; GnþrkalKNnanigTTYl)antMélmYyCabEnßm. PaBRtwmRtUv nig PaBCak;lak; ( Accuracy and Precision)

kñúgkarBiPakSaBIrgVas;rgVal;nigtMélelxCak;lak;KW)aneRbIedIm,IeFVI[xusKñarvagPaBRtwmRtUv nig PaBCak;lak;. PaBRtwmRtUv R)ab;eyIgfaetIrgVas;rgVal;CiteTAnwg tMélBitén brimaNEdl)anvas;dUemþc. cMeBaHGñkviTüasaRsþ manPaBxusKñarvag PaBRtwmRtUv nig PaBCak;lak;. PaBCak;lak; R)ab;eyIgfaetIman rgVas;rgVal;BIrb¤eRcInénbrimaN RbmeRBog dUcKñamanTMnak;TMngCamYyKña (rUb 1>7) . PaBxusKñarvag PaBRtwmRtUv nig PaBCak;lakKWl¥itl¥n; b:uEnþsMxan; . ]bmafa Ca]TahrN¾ man sisSbInak;)ansYredIm,IkMNt;m:aséndMusrésTg;Edg. lT§plBIrCabnþbnÞab; énkarføwgedaysisSnImYy²KW³

sisS A sisSB sisSC 1,968g 1,972g 2,00g 1,978g 1,968g 2,002g

tMélmFüm 1,971g 1,970g 2,001g

m:asBiténsrésTg;EdgKW 2,000g . dUecñHlT§plrbs;nisSit B KWmanPaB Cak;lak;CaglT§pl rbs;sisS A nig sisS B (1,972g nig 1,968g gakecjtictYcBI 1,970g

Cag 1,964g nig 1,978g BI 1,971g) b:uEnþ minEmnTaMgBIrEdlCalT§ply:agRtwmRtUv. lT§plrbs;sisS C minRtwmEtCak;lak;CageK b:uEnþEfm TaMgRtwmRtUveTotpg edayehtufa

23

tMélmFümKWCitbMputeTAnigtMélBit. rgVas;rgVal;PaBRtwmRtUvx<s;KWEtgEt manPaBCak;lak ;x<s;Edr. mü:ageTot rgVas;rgVal;Cak;lak;x<s;mincaM)ac;FanalT§plPaBRtwmRtUv. ]TahrN¾ karRkitEm:RtbnÞatmminRtwmRtUv b¤ mankarRcLMlMnwg naM[GMNanCak;lak;KWmanPaBlMeGog.

rUb1>7 r)ayénRBYjenAelIpÞaMgRBYjbgðajBIPaBxusKñarvagPaBRtwmRtUvnigPaBCak;lak; . (a)

PaBRtwMRtUvl nig PaBCak;lak;l¥ (b) PaBRtwmRtUvminl¥ nig PaBCak;lak;l¥ (c) PaBRtwmRtUv minl¥ nig PaBCak;lak;minl¥. segçb nig smIkarKnøwH ( Summary and Key Equations)

* d =vm smIkarsMrab;dg;sIuet

* ? oC = (oF – 32oF) x FC

o

o

95 karbMElgBI oF eTA oC

* ? oF = CF

o

o

59 x (oC) + 32 oF karbMElgBI oC eTA oF

* ?K = (oC + 273,15oC) CK

o11 karbMElgBI oC eTA K

segçbBIkarBit nig bBaØtiþ ( Summary of Facts and Concepts)

1> karsikSaBIKImITak;TgeTAnigbICMhan³ karGegát karbgðaj nig karbkERb. karGegátTak;TgeTAnig karvas;enAkñúgBiPBmIRksáúb. karbgðajTak;TgeTAnigkar eRbIR)as;nimitþsBaaØCasMKal;ehIynigsmIkar sMrab;TMnak;TMng. karbkERbKWsMGageTA elIGatUm nig m:UelKulEdlCakmμsiT§rbs;BiPBmIRkUsáúb. 2>viFIviTüasaRsþKWCaRbBn§½eq<aHeTArkkarRsavRCavEdlcab;epþImCamYykarRbmUlB’tmantamry³kar Gegátnig karvas;. kñúglMnaM smμtikmμ c,ab; nig RTwsþIEdl)anbegáIteLIg nig)aneFVIetsþ. 3>GñkKImIsikSaGMBIrUbFatu nig bERmbRmYlrbs;va. sarFatuEdlbegáItrUbFatumanman lkçN³rUbdUcKñaEdlGaceFVIkarGegátEdlK μanERbRbYlPaBdUcKñaniglkçN³KImIdUcKña

24

enAeBleK)anbgðaj eFVIkarERb RbYlPaBdUcKñaénsarFatu l,ay faetIes μ Isac; b¤ mines μ Isac; GacRtUv)anEjkeTACaPaKpSMsuT§eday viFIrUb. 4>sarFatugaykñúgKImIKWFatu. smasFatuekIteLIgedaykarcUlpSMtamEbbKImIén GatUmrbs;Fatuxus KñakñúgsmamaRtkMNt;. 5> RKb;sarFatu CaeKalkarN¾ GacmankñúgPaBTaMgbI³ rwg rav nig ]sμ ½n. GnþrbNþÚr rvagPaBTaMgenH GacCH\T§iBledaykarpøas;bþÚrsItuNðPaB. 6> xñat SI eRbIedIm,IbgðajbrimaNrUbkñúgRKb;viTüasaRsþ rab;bBa©ÚlTaMgKImIpgEdr. 7> elx )anbgðajtamkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþEdlmansNæan N x 10n Edl n

enAcenøaHBI1 eTA 10 nig n CacMnYnKt;viC¢man b¤ GviC¢man. karkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ CYyeyIgkñúgkareRbIR)as;nUvbrimaNy:ag FM b¤ y:agtUc. BaküKnøwH ( Key Words) sMnYr nig cMeNaT ( Questions and Problems)

viFIviTüsaRsþ(Scientific Method)

1>cUrBnül; etIviFIviTüasaRsþmann½yy:agdUemþc? 2> etIPaBxusKñarvagTinñn½yCaKuNPaB nig Tinñn½yCabrimaNmanlkçN³y:agdUemþc? cMeNaT(Problems)

3> cUrcat;fñak;karR)ab;EbbKuNPaB b¤ brimaN tamKMnitrbs;Gñk. (a) RBHGaTitümancMgayRbmaN 93 lanm:ayBIépÞEpndI (b) CagKMnUr Leonardoda Vinci KUsKMnUrs¥atCag Michelangelo (c) TwkkkENnticCagTwk . (d) b½rmanrsCatiRbesIrCag Margarite (RbePTb½rm:üagplitBIeRbg

rukçCati xøaj;stV nig TwkedaHeKa) . 4>cMNat;fñak;sNæandUcteTACa sm μtikm μ c,ab; ³

(a) karpþl;[ Beethoven'seTAelItRnþIKYrEtmanlkçN³RbesIrCagebIsin Kat;)anerobkar (b) srTrdUv søwkeQIvilvl;eq<aHeTAdIedaysarEtkMlaMgTMnajrvagsøwknig

EpndI.

25

(c) RKb;rUbFatuKW)anbMEbkeTACaPaKl¥itd¾tUcehAfaGatUm. cMNat;fñak;niglkçN³énrUbFatu ( Classification and Properties of Matter)

sMnYrrMlwk 5> cUr[]TahrN¾sMrab;BakünImYy²dUcteTA³ (a) rUbFatu (b) sarFatu (c) l,ay 6>cUr[]TahrN¾ énl,ayesμ Isac; nig l,aymines μIsac;. 7> kareRbI]TahrN¾ cUrBnül;BIPaBxusKñarvag lkçN³rUb nig lkçN³KImI.

8>etIlkçN³GaMgtg;sIuv nig lkçN³Giuctg;sIuvxusKñadUcemþc ?etIlkçN³dUcteTA enHNaxøHCalkçN³ GaMgtg;sIuv nig lkçN³Giuctg;sIuv ³ (a) RbEvg (b) maD (c)

sItuNðPaB (d) m:as . 9> cUr[]TahrN¾énFatu nig smasFatu. etIFatu nig smasFatuxusKñay:agdUemþc ? 10>etImanFatub:un μanehIyEdleyIg)ansÁal; ? cMeNaT ( Problems)

11>cUrcat;fñak;sNæandUcteTACalkçN³rUb b¤ lkçN³KImI³ (a) ]sμ ½nGuksIuEsnpþl;cMehH (b) CICYybegáInplitplksikm μ (c) TwkBuHeRkam 100oC enAelIkMBUlPñM (d) sMNENnCagGaluymIjÚm (e) sármanrsCatiEp¥m 12> cUrcat;fñak;karBiB’NnadUcteTA etICabNþÚrrUb b¤ bNþÚrKImI ? (a) ]sμ ½neGlüÚmenAxagkñúg)aLúgmanTMenarRCabecjeRkAbnÞab;BIry³eBlBIreTAbI

em:ag. (b) karcaMgBnøWPøwbEPøtyWt²TTYlPaBRsGab;ehIyTIbMputggwtsUnü (c) TwkRkUckkKWkekIteLIgvijedaykarbEnßmTwkeTAelIva (d) karlutlas;rbs;rukçCatiGaRs½yeTAelIfamBlRBHGaTitükñúglMnaMehAfarsμ IsM

eyaK (e) GMbilmYysøabRBarlaykñúgcans‘ub

26

13> cUrehAeQ μaH tMNag[nimitþsBaaØdUcteTA³ Li ; F ; P ; Cu ; As ; Zn ; Cl ; Pt ;

Mg ; U ; Al ; Si ; Ne (emIltaragxagkñúgRKbesovePA) . 14> cUrsresrnimitþsBaaØénFatudUcteTA ³ (a) b:UtasüÚm (b) (b) sMN)ahaMg (c) (c) RkUm (d) (d) b½r (e) (e) )ar:üÚm (f) (f) PøúytUjÚm (g) (g) s<an;F½r (h) (h) Gakug (i) (i) )ar:t (emIltaragxagkñúgRKbesovePA) . 15> cUrcat;fñak;saFatudUcteTACaFatu b¤ smasFatu ³ (a) GIuRdUEsn (b) Twk (c) mas (d) sár 16>cUrcat;fñak;dUcteTA etICaFatu smasFatu l,ayes μ Isac; b¤ l,aymines μ Isac;³ (a) TwksmuRT (b) ]sμ ½neGlüÚm

(c) sUdüÚmkørY (GMbilsML)

(d) TwksMrab;pwk

(e) TwkedaHeKaRkLúk

(f) xül; (g) )ayG

rgVas;rgVal; ( Measurement)

27

17> eQ μaHxñatmUldæan SI Edlmansar³sMxan;kñúgKImI. cUrR)ab;xñat SI

sMrab;bgðajkenSamdUcteTA³ (a) RbEvg (b) maD (c) m:as (d) eBlevla (e) famBl (f) sItuNðPaB 18> cUrsresrCaelxtMNag[buBVbTdUcteTA³ (a) emRhÁa (b) KILÚ (c) edsIu (d) sgÞI (e) mIløI (f) mIRkU (g) NaNU (h) BIkU 19>etIxñatGVIEdlGñkKImIniymeRbIsMrab;dg;sIuetvtßúrav nig rwg ? cuHcMeBaH]sμ ½n ? cUrBnül;BIPaBxusKña? 20> Gfib,ayBImaRtdæansItuNðPaBTaMbIeRbIkñúgTIBiesaFn¾nigkñúgkarrs;enArbcaMéf¶. maRtdæanhaVrinéh maRtdæanGgSaes nig maRtdæanEklvin.

cMeNaT (Problems)

21>RbUmCaGgÁFaturavB’NRkhm-etñat. KNnadg;sIuetrbs;va (KitCa g/mL)

ebIvamanm:as 586g taMgTIkñúg 188mL . 22>)ar:tCaelah³EtmYyKt;EdlmanlkçN³ravenAsItuNðPaBbnÞb;. dg;sIuetrbs;vaKW 13,6g/mL. etI)ar:tnwgmanm:asb:un μanEdlnwgtaMgTIkñúgmaD 95,8mL ?

28

23> cUrbMElgsItuNðPaBeTACaGgSaes³ (a) 95oF CasItuNðPaBenArdUvekþAeBléf¶ (b) 12oF CasItuNðPaBenArdUvRtCak;eBléf¶ (c) 102oF enAeBlRKunekþA (d) kareRbIR)as;L (furnance) enA 1852oF

24> (a) Fm μtakMedAxøÜnmnusSGacFn;nigsItuNðPaB 105oF sMrab;ry³xYbxøIéneBlevla edaymineFVI[ xUcCaGciéRnþeTAxYrk,alehIynig srIr³sMxan;².EtIsItuNðPaBenHKitCa GgSaes esμ Ib:unμan?

(b)eGTIELnKøIkulCasmasFatusrIragÁravEdleRbIRbqaMgnigkarkkkñúgr:aDIy:aT½rrfynþ. vakkenA –11,5oC . KNnasItuNðPaBkMNkenHKitCaGgSahaVrinéh.

(c)sItuNðPaBelIépÞRBHcn½ÞKWRbmaNCa 6300oC. etIsItuNðPaBenHKitCaGgSahaVrinéh esμ Ib:unμan?

25>cUrbMElgsItuNðPaBKitCaEklvin ³ (a) 113oC CacMnucrlayéns<an;F½r (b) 37oC CasItuNðPaBFm μtakñúgxøÜnmnusS (c) 357oC CacMnucrMBuHrbs;)art

26> cUrbMElgsItuNðPaBKitCaGgSaes³ (a) 77K cMnucrMBuHrbs;GasUtrav (b) 4,2K CacMnucrMBuHrbs;eGlüÚmrav (c) 601K CacMnucrlayrbs;sMN

kareRbIR)as;elx (Handling Number)

sMnYrrMlwk (Review Questions)

27> etIGVIeTACasar³sMxan;énkareRbIR)as;karkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþelIkarkMNt;ek,os ? 28> kMNt;tMélelxCak;lak;. BiPakSasar³sMxan;énkareRbIR)as;elxsmrmüén tMélelxCak;lak; kñúgkarvas; nig kñúgkarKNna.

29

cMeNaT (Problems)

29>bgðajcMnYnTaMgenHtamkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ³ (a) 0,000000027 (b) 356 (c) 47.764 (d) 0,096

30> bgðajcMnYndUcteTACakarkat;ek,os³ (a) 1,52 x 10-2 (b) 7,78 x 10-8

31> bgðajcMelIyeTAtamKNnatamkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ³ (a) 145,75 + (2,3 x 10-1) (b) 79.500 ÷ (2,5 x 102) (c) (7,0 x 10-3 ) – (8,0 x 10-4) (d) (1,0 x 104) × (9,9 610× )

32> bgðajcMelIyeTAtamKNnatamkarkMNt;EbbviTüasaRsþ³ (a) 0,0096 + (8,5 x 10-3) (b) 653 ÷ (5,75 x 10-8) (c) 850.000 – (9,0 x 105) (d) (3,6 x 10-4) x (3,6 x 106)

33>etIcMnYnéntMélelxCakénkarvas;;dUcteTAenHesμ Ib:unμan ? (a) 4867 m:ay (b) 56mL (c) 60.104 etan (d) 2900 Rkam (e) 42,2g/cm3 (f) 0,0000003cm (g) 0,7 naTI (h) 4,6 x 109 etan

34>etImantMélelxCak;lak;b:un μanEdlmandUcteTAenH? (a) 0,006L (b) 0,0605dm (c) 60,5mg (d) 605,5cm2 (e) 960 × 10-3g (f) 6kg (g) 60m

35>ykecjBIkareRbIR)as;dUcteTAdUcEdleK)aneFVIkñúgkarKNnaBIlT§plBiesaFn¾nigbgðajcMelIy nImYy²[RtwmRtUvtamxñatCamYycMnYnRtwmRtUvéntMélelxCak;lak;³

(a) 5,6292m + 0,6m + 4,33m

30

(b) 3,70g – 2,9133g (c) 4,51cm × 3,6666cm

35>ykecjBIkareRbIR)as;dUcteTAdUcEdleK)aneFVIkñúgkarKNnaBIlT§plBiesaFn¾nigbgðajcMelIy nImYy²[RtwmRtUvtamxñatCamYycMnYnRtwmRtUvéntMélelxCak;lak;³

(a) 7,310km ÷ 5,70km (b) (3,26×10-3mg) – (7,88 ×10-5mg) (c) (4,02×106dm) + ( 7,74×107dm)

31

CMBUkTI 1 GatUm m:UelKul nigGIuyu:g Atoms Molecules and Ions

336t336

taMgBIsm½yburaNmkem:øH EdlmnusSeyIg)anKitBicarNaBIFm μCatirbs;rUbFatu. KMnit

rIkcMerInrbs;eyIg sþIBITMrg;énrUbFatu)ancab;epþImecjCarUbragenAedImstvtSTI19enHtamRTwsþI GatUmrbs;elak DALTON. \LÚvenH eyIgdwgfaRKb;rUbFatuTaMgGs;KWbgáeLIgBIGatUm m:UelKulnigGIuy:ug. RKb;EpñkénKImITaMgGs;KWTak;TgeTAnwgEpñkmYykñúgcMeNamEpñTaMgGs;enH.

1- RTWsþIGatUm enAstvtSTI15TsSnviTUCnCatiRkicmñak;eQ μaH Democritus )anbBa¢ak;nUvkareCOCak;fa rbs;Kat;fa RKb;rUbFatuTaMgGs;pSMeLIgBIPaKl¥ittUcbMputEdleKminGacemIleXIj EdlKat;[ eQ μaHfaGatUm. eTaHbICaKMnit rbs;elak Democritus minRtUv)anmnusSmYycMnYnkñúgsm½y kalrbs;Kat;TTYlykk¾eday k¾vaR)akdedayRbkarNamYyEdrenAkñúgsm½yenaH. Psþútag tamkarBiesaFEdlGegátedayGñkviTüasaRsþsm½ymun²)anpþl; karKaMRTcMeBaHsBaØaNén GatUm ehIyk¾)anelIkeLIgnUvniymn½yénFatu nigsmasFatu[manlkçN³TMenIb bnþicmþg². karsegátenHKWRtUv)aneFVIeLIgenAkñúgqñaM 1808 edayGñkviTüasaRsþCnCatiGg;eKøs nigCa RKUbeRgonmñak;eQ μaHJohn Dalton EdlKat;)anbegáIteLIgnUvniymn½ymYyy:agc,as;sþIGMBIFatu bgáénrUbFatu[eQμaHfa GatUm. karBiesaFrbs; Dalton )anKUsbBa¢ak;BIcMnuccab;epþIménKImIsm½yTMenIb. smμtikmμ EdlniyayBIFmμCati rbs;rUbFatuEdleKEp¥keTAelIRTwsþIrbs; Dalton enaHKWeKGacsegçb)an dUcxageRkam³

1> GgÁFatuKWpSMeLIgBIPaKl¥ittUc²bMputEdleKehAfaGatUm.RKb;GatUménFatumYydUcKña KWvamanm:as dUcKña maDdUcKña niglkçN³KImIdUcKña. GatUménFatumYyKWvaxusBI GatUménFatumYyeTot.

2> smasFatuKWbgáeLIgBIGatUménFatumYyb¤eRcIn. enAkñúgRKb;smasFatuTaMgGs; pleFobéncMnYnGatUménFatuBIr EdlmanenAkñúgsmasFatuenaHKWCacMnYnKt; b¤Ca cMnYnRbPaKgay.

32

3> kñúgRbtikmμKImImYyKWvaTak;TgeTAnwgkarpþac; karbnSM nigkarerobcMGatUmeLIgvij vaK μanplb:HBal; dl;karbegáItb¤karbMpøajrbs;GatUmTaMgenaHeT.

rUb1 KWCarUb tMNagénsmμtikmμBIrdMbUg. bBaØtirbs;elak Dalton cMeBaHGatUmmYyKWmanlkçN³l¥itl¥n; nigc,as;CagRTwsþIrbs; elak Democritus. smμtikmμTImYy KWbBa¢ak;faGatUmTaMgGs;énFatumYy KWmanlkçN³ xusKñaBIGatUménFatumYyeTot. elak Dalton Kat;KμanKMnitGVIedIm,IBnül;faGatUmvamanragdUc GVIenaHeT b:uEnþKat;BitCadwgfa lkçN³xusKñaEdlbgðajedayFatunImYy² dUcCaGIuRdUEsn nig GuksIuEsnGacRtUv)aneKBnül;)anedaykarsn μt;faGatUmGIuRdUEsnTaMgGs; KWmindUcGatUmrbs; GuksIuEsneT. smμtikm μTI2)anesñIeLIgfa edIm,IbegáIt)ansmasFatumYyBitR)akdeyIgminEmn RtUvkarEtGatUménFatu EdlmanRbePTRtwmRtUvb:ueNÑaHeT b:uEnþeyIgRtUvkarcMnYnCak;lak;én GatUmenaHpgEdr. KMnitenHKWCaKMnitEdlbnþBI c,ab;mYyEdle)aHBum<pSayenAqñaM 1799eday elak Joseph Proust CaKImIviTUCnCati)araMgmñak;. c,ab;smamaRtkMNt;rbs;elak Proust

)anbBa¢ak;fa PaKsMNakxusKñaénsmasFatudUcKñaEtgEtmanFatupSMrbs;vakñúgsmamaRtCa m:asdUcKña. dUecñHRbsinebIeyIgRtUvviPaKeTAelIPaKsMNakrbs;]sμ ½nkabUnDIGuksIut EdlTTYl )anmkBIRbPBxus²KñaenaH eyIgnwgRbTHeXIjfaenAkñúgPaKsMNaknImYy² pleFobCam:as rbs;vadUcKñaBIkabUneTAGuksIuEsn dUcenHvasmehtuplEdlfa RbsinebIpleFobCam:asén FatunImYy²xusKñakñúgsmasFatumYy EdleK[vakMNt;enaHpleFobGatUmrbs;GgÁFatuTaMg Gs;enAkñúgsmasFatuenaHk¾RtUvEtefrpgEdr. smμtikm μTI2rbs;elak Dalton KaMRTeTAelIc,ab;d¾mansarsMxan;mYyepSgeTot KWc,ab; BhusmamaRt. tamc,ab;enaH RbsinebIFatuBIrGacpSMKñaedIm,IbegáItsmasFatumYy b¤eRcInenaH m:asénFatumYyEdlpSMCamYym:askMNt;énFatud¾éT²eTotKWsßitenAkñúgpleFobcMnYnsrubtUc. RTwsþIrbs;elak Dalton Bnül;c,ab;BhusmamaRty:agsamBaØbMputfa smasFatuxusKña EdlbegáIteLIgBIFatuxusKña KWcMnYnGatUménFatunImYy²EdlpSMKñaenaHk¾xusK μñaEdr ]TahrN_ kabUnbegáItsmasFatuesßrPaBBIrCamYyGuksIuEsn KW kabUnm:UNUGuksIut nigkabUnDIGuksIut. bec©keTsénrgVas;d¾TMenIbmYy )anbBa¢ak;faGatUmmYyrbs;kabUn pSMCamYyGatUmmYyrbs; GuksIuEsnenAkñúgsmasFatukabUnm:UNUGuksIutnigCamYyGatUmBIrrbs;GuksIuEsnenAkñúgsmas FatukabUnDIGuksIut.dUecñHpleFobénGuksIuEsnenAkñúgkabUnm:UNUGuksuItCamYyGuksIuEsnenA

33

kñúgkabUnDIGuksIutKW 1 : 2 lT§plenHKWvaRsbeTAnwgc,ab; BhusmamaRt.

GatUménFatu X GatUménFatu Y smasFatuénFatu X nigFatu Y

¬k¦ ¬x¦ rUb1 k> edayeyageTAtamRTwsþIGatUmrbs;elak Dalton GatUménFatudUcKña KWmanlkçN³ dUcKña b:uEnþGatUménFatu mYyKWxusBIGatUménFatu mYyeTot. x> smasFatuEdlbegáIteLIgBI GatUménFatu X nigY. enAkñúgkrNIenHpleFobénGatUmrbs;Fatu X eFobCa mYy GatUm énFatu YKW 2:1.

sm μtikm μTI3rbs;elakDaltonKWCameFüa)aymYyepSgedIm,ICacMnuccab;epþImkñúgkarsikSa c,ab;rkSam:asEdlEcgfarUbFatuTaMgGs;KWeKminGacbegáItb¤k¾bMpøajva)aneT edaysarEtrUb FatuKWbegáIteLIgBIGatUmEdleKminGacpøas;bþÚr)anenAkñúgRbtikmμKImIehIyvak¾EcgpgEdrfa m:asKWrkSaenAdEdl.KMnitTUlMTUlayrbs;elak Dalton cMeBaHFmμCatiénrUbFatuenaHKWCakar elIkTwkcitþd¾sMxan;sMrab;karrIkcMerIny:agqab;rh½sénEpñkKImIviTüaenAkñúgkMLúgstvtSTI19enH.

2 TMrg;énGatUm tamlkçN³RKW³énRTWsþIrbs; Dalton eyIgGackMNt;faGatUmmYyKWCaxñatRKw³rbs;Fatu mYy EdlGaccUleTAbnSMKImI. elak Dalton )anRsém:faGatUmCaPaKl¥itmYy EdltUcbMput ehIyeKminGacemIlvaeXIj. eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday k¾karGegátCaeRcIn Edl)ancab;epþIm enAkñúgTsvtSqñaM1850 ehIy)anbnþmkdl;stvtSTI20 enH)anbBa¢ak;y:agc,as;faGatUm Bit CamanTMrg;xagkñúgrbs;va ebIeTaHbICavabgáeLIgBIPaKl¥ittUcCagenHEdleKehAfaPaKl¥itbgá GatUmk¾eday. karRsavRCavenHnaM[mankarrkeXIjBIPaKTaMgbIenHKW eGLicRtug RbUtug nigNWtRtug.

34

2>1 eGLicRtug enAkñúgTsvtSqñaM 1890 GñkviTüasaRsþCaeRcIn)aneFVIkarsikSaeTAelIviTüúskmμ karbBa¢Ún kMedAb¤k¾karbeBa©jkMedAtamry³lMhGakaskñúgTMrg;Carlk. Bt’man EdlTTYl)anBIkarRsav RCavenH)anpþl;KMnitCaeRcIn dl;karyl;dwgrbs;eyIgcMeBaHTMrg;GatUm. ]bkrN_mYy EdleK eRbIedIm,IGegát)atuPUtenHKWbMBg;kaMrsμ IkatUt ¬dUc rUb2¦. vaCabMBg;EkvmYy Edlxül;PaKeRcIn RtUv)aneKdkecj. enAeBlEdlbnÞHelah³BIrRtUv)aneKtecjeTA rkRbPB EdlmanCnita x<s; bnÞHEdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢manRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHfakatUtEdlCaGñkbeBa©jkaMrsμIemIlmin eXIj. kaMrsμ IkatUtKWCakaMrsμ IEdlTajeTArkbnÞHelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man EdleK[eQ μaH fa GaNUt Edlvaqøgkat;rn§mYy ehIybnþeFVIdMeNIreTAcugmçageToténbMBg;. enAeBlEdlkaM rsμ IeTAbuképÞeRsabd¾BiessenaHva begáItCalkçN³bBa¢ÚnBnøWd¾xøaMgmYy b¤BnøWd¾PøWmYy .

enAkñúgBiesaFxøHbnÞHelah³EdlmanbnÞúkGKÁisnIBIr nigemEdkmYy KWRtUv)aneKbEnßm eTAEpñkxageRkAénbMBg;kaMrs μ IkatUt ¬emIlrUb2¦.

rUb2 bMBg;kaMrs μ IkatUtEdlmanEdnGKÁisnI Edlkat;EkgeTAnwgTisedAénkaMrs μ IkatUt nig

Ednm:aej:TicxagkñugnimitþsBaØa N nig S sMKal;[b:UlxageCIg nigxagt,ÚgénemEdk. kaMrsμ I katUt nwgbukeTAcugmçagénbMBg;enARtg;cMnuc AedaymanvtþmanénEdnm:aej:TicmYy ehIyenA cMnuc C

enAeBlEdlmanvtþman énEdnGKÁisnI nigenAcMnuc B enAeBlEdlKμanEdnenAxagkñúg nig enAeBlEdlmanplénEdnGKÁisnI nigEdnm:aej:TiclubelIKñaeTAvijeTAmk.

enAeBlEdlEdnm:aej:TicebIk ehIyEdnGKÁisnIebIk kaMrsμ IkatUtbukcMnuc A. enAeBl EdlmanEtEdnGKÁisnIebIkkaMrsμIbukcMnuc C. enAeBlEdlEdnm:aej:Tic nigEdnGKÁisnIbiT

35

b¤enA eBl EdlvaebIkTaMgBIr b¤k¾enAeBlEdlvamanlMnwg dUecñHvalub\T§iBlKñaeTAvijeTAmk kaMrsμI enaHbukeTAcMnuc B. tamRTwsþIeGLicRtUm:aej:Tic kareFVIclnarbs;GgÁFatu EdlmanbnÞúk KWRbRBwtþeTAdUcemEdkEdrehIyGacGnþrCamYy EdnGKÁIsnInigEdnm:aej:Tictamry³kEnøg Edl vaqøgkat;eTotpg.

edaysarkaMrs μ IkatUtRtUv)anTajedaybnÞHelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkviC¢manehIyRtUv)an rujRcaneTAvijedaybnÞHelah³EdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢man. vaR)akdCapÞúknUvPaKl¥it Edlman bnÞúkGviC¢man. eyIgcat;TukPaKl¥it EdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢manTaMgenHfaCaeGLicRtug.

rUb 3 bgðajBIplb:HBal;énr)aemEdkeTAelIkaMrs μ IkatUt. rUbviTUCnCatiGg;eKøsmñak; eQ μaH J.J. Thomson )aneRbIbMBg;kaMrsμIkatUtmYy

ehIycMeNHdwgrbs; Kat;BIRTwsþIeGLicRtUm:aej:Tic edIm,IkMNt;pleFobénbnÞúkGKÁisnIeTAnwg m:as éneGLicRtugnImYy². cMnYnEdl Kat;elIkeLIgenaHKW - 1,76. 108 C/g Edl C KitCaKULM EdlCaxñatrbs;bnÞúkGKÁisnI. cMENkÉenAkñúgBiesaFmYycMnYn EdleK)anGnuvtþenAcenøaHBIqñaM 1908 dl;qñaM 1917 elak R.A. Millikan )anrkeXIjbnÞúkéneGLicRtug mYymantMéles μ I -1.60.10-19 C. BITinñn½yenHKat;)anKNnam:aséneGLicRtugtamrUbmnþdUcxageRkam ÷

m:aséneGLicRtugmYy=

= 8

19

1076,11060,1

×−×− −

= 9,09.10-28 g

m:asenHKWCam:asEdltUcbMput. 2>2 viTüúskmμ enAqñaM 1895 rUbviTUCnCatiGaLWm:g;mñak;eQμaH Wilhelm Rontgen )ankt; sMKal; eXIjfakaMrsμ IkatUtKWbNþal[Ekv nigelah³bBa¢ÜnkaMrsIμminFmμta. karbeBa©jkMedAviTüúskmμ

bnÞúk bnÞúk¼m:as

36

Edl manfamBlx<s;enH)anFøúHcUleTAkñúgrUbFatu ehIy)aneFVI[BN’exμAenArMuB½T§bnÞHpUtURkahVI nwgbNþal[mansarFatuepSg²eTotCaeRcInmanBnøW.kaMrsμITaMgenHminGaccaMgRtLb;eday em Edk)aneT dUecñHvaminGacmanPaKl¥itEdlmanbnÞúkdUcCakaMrs μ IkatUtenaHeT. elak Rontgen

)an[eQμaHvafaCakaMrsμI X edaysarEtkaMrsμ Irbs;vaminRtUv)aneKsÁal;. eRkaymkminyUrb:unμankarRsavRCavrbs;elakRontgen nigelak Antoine Becquerel

EdlCasaRsþacarürUbviTüamñak;enATIRkug):arIs )ancab;epþImsikSaBIlkçN³PøWrbs;sarFatu. Kat; )anrkeXIjfakarpÞúHEdlbNþal[mankarrMuBT½§BIeRkAy:agRkas;enAbnÞHpUtURkahVI CYnkalman eRKaHfñak;eTotpgcMeBaHsarFatusuT§G‘uyra:j:Úm EdlbNþal[vaeLIgexμA ebIeTaHbICaK μankar CMrujBIkaMrs μ IkatUtk¾eday. edaykaMrs μ I X EdlCakaMrsμ I)anmkBIsmasFatuG‘uyr:aj:Um KWman famBlx<s;ehIyminGacgakedaysaremEdkeLuIy b:uEnþvaxusKñaBIkaMrsμI X edaysarvaelc eLIgy:agrh½s.sisSmñak;rbs;elak Becquerel eQ μaH MarieCurie)anesñIeQ μaHeLIg faviTüú skmμedIm,IBiBN’naBIbnSayedayÉkÉgrbs;PaKl¥itb¤skmμPaBviTüúskm μ.bnÞab;mkedaysar EtFatunImYy²bnSayedayÉkÉgRbtikm μviTüúskm μenaHRtUv)aneK[eQμaHfa viTüúskm μ.

kaMrsμI 3 RbePTRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedaykarbMEbksarFatuviTüúskmμdUcCaGuyr:aj:ÚmCa edIm. kaMrsμ IBIrkñúgcMeNamkaMrsμ ITaMgbIKWRtUv)angakecjedaysarbnÞHelah³ EdlmanbnÞúk viC¢man¬emIlrUb4¦.kaMrsμ I α manpÞúkPaKl¥itEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man EdleK[eQ μaHfaPaKl¥itα dUecñHvaRtUveFVI[lMgak edaybnÞHEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man. kaMrsμ I β b¤PaKl¥it β KWCaeGLicRtug ehIyRtUv)aneFVI[gakedaybnÞHelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢man. skmμPaBviTüúskm μRbePTTI 3

manpÞúknUvkaMrsμ IEdlmanfamBlx<s;EdleK[eQμaHfakaMrsμ I γ . dUckaMrsμ I X Edr kaMrsμ I γ K μanbnÞúkeT ehIyk¾Kμanplb:HBal;edaysarEdnxagkñúgeT.

rUb 4 RbePTbIy:agrbs;kaMrsμ IEdlbeBa©j edayFatuviTüúskmμ. kaMrsμI β manpÞúknUvPaK l¥itEdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢man ¬eGLicRtug¦ehIy dUecñHvaRtUv)anTajedaysnøwkelah³ Edlman

37

bnÞúkviC¢man. cMeBaHrn§BitR)akdenAEpñk mçageTotsMrab;kaMrs μI α vamanbnÞúkviC¢man ehIyRtUv )aneKTaj[eTArksnøwkelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢man. edaysarkaMrsμ I γ K μanbnÞúkpøÚvrbs; vaKWK μanplb:HBal;edayGKÁisnIxagkñúgrbs;vaeT. 2>3 RbUtug nigNWtRtug mkRtwmedImTsvtSqñaM 1900 lkçN³BIry:agénGatUmRtUv)aneKbkRsayy:agc,as; favamanpÞúkeGLicRtugehIyvamancrnþGKÁisnINWt. edIm,IrkSaPaBNWtGKÁisnIGatUmmYy RtUv EtmanbnÞúkbUk nigbnÞúkdkes μ IKña. dUecñHelak Thomson )anesñIeLIgfa GatUmmYyeKGaccat; TukfaCaGatUmÉksNæanehIyes<orviC¢manénrUbFatu EdlmanenAkñúgeGLicRtug KWRtUv)aneK bgáb;dUcTMBaMg)ayCUreRkomEdleKbgáb;enAkñúgnMmYyGBa©wg ¬emIlrUb5¦ eFVIEbbenHRtUv)aneK ehAeQ μaHfaTMrg;nMmYydMu (plum pudding model) ehIyCaRTwsþIEdleKTTYlykCaeRcInqñaMmk ehIy . KMeragenHRsedogKñanwgkartMerobrbs;RKab;BN’ex μAenAkñúgEpøRskanaK . enAqñaM1910 GñkrUbviTUrbs;RbeTs New Zealand mñak;eQ μaH Ernest Rutherford Edl )ansikSaCamYyelak Thomson enAsklviTüal½y Cambridge )ansMerccitþeRbIPaKl¥it α

edIm,IBinitüemIlBITMrg;rbs;GatUm. elak Rutherford rYmCamYyCMnYykarrbs;Kat;eQ μaH Hans

Geiger nigsisSeRkay]tþmsikSarbs;Kat;mñak;eTot eQμaH Ernest Marsden )aneFVIBiesaFn_ CaeRcInedayeRbIsnøwkmasesþIg² nigsnøwkelah³d¾éT²mkeFVICatMruy sMrab;PaKl¥it α EdleK ykmkBIRbPBEdlmanFatuviTüúskmμ ¬rUb6¦. eBlenaHeKsegáteXIjfa

rUb 6 (a) karkMNt;tamry³kareFVIBiesaFrbs;elak Rutherford edIm,I vas;BIkarBRgay énPaKl¥itα tamry³snøwkmasmYydMu. PaKl¥itα PaKeRcInqøgkat;tamry³snøwkmastUc²b¤k¾ snøwkmasK μanlMgak.manEtBIrbIb:ueNÑaHEdlRtUveFVI[gakedaymMud¾FM.CYnkal manPaKl¥it α

RtUvgakeTAeRkayvij. (b) CarUbBRgIkénPaKl¥itα [qøgkat;b¤[manlMgakedayéNVyU:.

38

PaKl¥itPaKeRcIn)anTMluHcUlsnøwkenaHTaMgPaKl¥itmingakecj TaMgPaKl¥it Edlgak ecjtictYc.b:uEnþTaMgeBl)aj;TaMgeBleRkay)aj;PaKl¥it α enaHKWenAray):ay b¤k¾gakecj edaybegáItCamMud¾FMmYy. enAkñúg]TahrN_ xøHPaKl¥it)anbnþKñaCaerogrhUttamTisedA Edlva)anmk. enHKWCakarrkeXIjd¾KYr[PJak;ep¥IlbMputenAkñúgGatUmKMrUrrbs;elak Thomson ehIybnÞúkviC¢manrbs;GatUmKWsayxøaMgNas;EdlPaKl¥itα viC¢manKYrEtqøgkat;tamry³ snøwk EdlmanlMgaktictYc.edIm,IdkRsg;Rbtikm μdMbUgrbs;RutherfordenAeBlEdlniyay BIrbk KMehIjEdlfavaminKUr[eCOeTenAeBlEdlGñk)aj;RKab;mYymanGgát;p©it #% sg;TIEm:Rt sMedA eTArkRkdasCUtmat;EtmYysnøwkehIyeFVI[sMbkRKab;enHnwwgRtLb;mkbukGñkÉgvijenaH.

elak Rutherford eRkaymkeTotGacBnül;)anBIlT§plénBiesaFBRgayPaKl¥it α tamm:UEdlfμ Irbs;GatUm. tamelak Rutherford GatUmPaKeRcInRtUvEtCalMhTeTr. karBnül;faetIehtuGVI)anCaPaKl¥it α eRcInelIslb;)anqøgkat;snøwkmas edaymanlMgak tictYcb¤KμanlMgakenaH elak Rutherford )anesñIreLIgfa bnÞúkviC¢manrbs;GatUmTaMgGs; KWsßit enAkñúgéNVy:U EdlCasñÚlkNþalkkmYyenAkñúgGatUm. eBlNaEdlPaKl¥it α mkCit éNVy:U mYyenAkñúgkareFVIBiesaFBRgayenaHvaeFVI[mankMlaMgcMranecjd¾xøaMgmYy ehIydUecñH lMgak rbs;va k¾xøaMgEdr. eTaHbICay:agNak¾edayPaKl¥it EdleFVIdMeNIrRtg;eq<aHeTArkéNVy:U nwgRtUv )aneKRcanecjTaMgRsug ehIyTisedArbs;vak¾ RcasmkvijEdr. PaKl¥itEdlmanbnÞúkviC¢manenAkñúgéNVy:UKWRtUv)aneK[eQμaHfaRbUtug. enAkñúgkar BiesaFdac;edayELk mYyvaRtUv)aneKrkeXIjfa RbUtugnImYy²mancMnYnbnÞúkesμI²KñadUc eGLic RtugEdr ehIymanm:as 1,67252 x 10-24 g KWRbEhlnwgm:asrbs;eGLicRtug Edlman bnÞúk pÞúyKuNnwg 1840dg.

cMeBaHkarGegátenAcMnucenHGñkviTüasaRsþBicarNaeTAelIGatUmdUcxageRkamenH m:as énéNVy:UmYypSMeLIgBIm:as PaKeRcInénGatUmTaMgmUl b:uEnþéNVy:UpÞúkmaDrbs;GatUmEtRbEhl 1/1013 b:ueNÑaH. eyIgGacsMEdgvimaRtrbs;GatUm nigm:UelKultamxñat SI EdleKehAfa BIkUEm:Rt ehIy 1 pm = 1 x 10-12 m. kaMGatUmmYyKWmanRbEvgRbEhl 100 pm cMENkÉ kaMénéNVy:UGatUmKWRbEhl 5 x 10-3 pm. eyIgGacelIkykTMhMEdl Tak;TgénGatUmmYy nig éNVy:Urbs;vaedayRsém:fa RbsinebIGatUmmYyCaTMhMrbs;sþatGULaMBik maDénéNVy:Urbs;va KWGaceRbobeFob)aneTAnwgfμb:Rb:HTwkd¾tUcmYy. enAeBlEdlRbUtugRtUv)aneK kMNt;RBMEdn[

39

enARtwméNVy:UénGatUmeGLicRtugenaHnwgRtUveKsμanfaCaeGLicRtugEdlRtUvray):ayenACMu vij éNVy:UEdlq¶ayBIvaxøHEdr. bBaØtiénkaMGatUmKWmansarRbeyaCn_xøaMgNas;kñúgkareFVIBiesaFn_ b:uEnþeKminKYrbBa¢ak; vafaGatUmmankar cgsMB½n§ b¤manépÞkMNt;)anl¥enaHeT. enAeBleRkayeTot eyIgnwgeronBI tMbn;xageRkAénGatUmKWvaTak;Tg eTAnwgGVIEdlminc,as;. TMrg;GatUmKMrYrrbs;elak Rutherford )anbnSl;nUvbBaðad¾FMmYy EdlminTan;)anedaH Rsay. bBaðaenaHKW bBaðaGatUmGuIRdYEsnEdlCaGatUmmYysamBaØbMput ehIymanEtRbUtug mYy nigGatUmeGlüÚm EdlmanEtRbUtugBIr. dUecñHpleFobCam:asénGatUmeGlüÚm nigGatUm GIuRdUEsnKW 2:1 ¬edaysareGLicRtugKW RsalCagRbUtug dUecñHkar Eckm:as; GatUmmicKW eKGacecal)an¦ b:uEnþeTaHbICay:agNak¾edaykarBitpleFobKW 4:1. elak Rutherford

nigGñkdéTeTot)andak;Ca]bkrN_faRtUvEtmanPaKl¥itbgáGatUmmYyRbePT eTotenAkñúgéNVy:U GatUm. PsþútagKW RtUv)anpþl;[edayrUbviTUmñak;epSgeToteQμaH James Chadwick enAkñúgqñaM 1932.

rUb7 RbUtug nigNWtRtug énGatUmmYyKW RtUv)anx©b;enAkñúgéNVy:Ud¾tUcbMputmYy. eGLicRtugEdleKbgðajenH CaBBkEdlenACMuvijéNVy:U.

enAeBlelak Chadwick )anbMEbksnøwkesþIgmYyénelah³ebrIlüÚm edayPaKl¥it α eBlenaHRbtikmμviTüúskm μ EdlmanfamBld¾x<s;RsedogKñaeTAnwgkaMrsμ I γ RtUv)anelah³ bBa¢Ünecj. karBiesaFn_eRkaymkeTot )anbgðaj[eXIjfakaMrs μITaMgenaHBitCamanpÞúknUv

40

PaKl¥itbgáGatUmRbePTTI3mYyepSgeTotEdlelak)anehA eQμaHfaNWtRtug BIeRBaHeK)anrk PsþútageXIjfavaCaPaKl¥itEdlmanbnÞúkGKÁisnINWt ehIymanma:sFMCagRbUtugEtbnþicbnþÜc. Gaf’kM)aMgénpleFobm:as\LÚvenHeKGaceFVIkarBnül;)an. enAkñúgéNVy:U eGlüÚmmanRbUtugBIr nigNWtRtugBIr b:uEnþenAkñúgéNVy:UGIuRdUEsnmanEtRbURtugmYyehIy K μanNWtRtugeT dUecñHpl eFobrbs;vaKW 4:1. tarag 1 ma:s nigbnÞúkénPaKl¥itbgáGatUm

bnÞúk PaKl¥it m:as; (g)

KitCaKULM (C) xñatbnÞúk eGLicRtug RbUtug NWtRtug

9,1095>10-28

1,67252.10-24

1,67495. 10-24

-1,6022.10-1

+ 1,6022.10-19

0

-1

+1

0

rUb7)anbgðajBIPaKl¥itbgádMbUgTaMgGs;enAkñúgGatUmmYyKWPaKl¥it ¬RbUtug eGLicRtug nigNWRtug¦ manPaKl¥itbgáGatUmdéT²eTotCaeRcIn b:uEnþeGLicRtug RbUtug nigNWRtug KWCaFatu bgábICamUldæanénGatUm EdlmansarsMxan;enAkñúgmuxviC¢aKImIviTüa. tarag1 bgðajBIm:as nig bnÞúkénPaKl¥itdMbUgTaMgbIenH. 3 elxGatUm cMnYnm:as nigGIusUtUb eKGacsMKal;GatUmTaMgGs;)antamry³cMnYnRbUtug nigeGLicRtugEdlvaman. cMnYn GatUmEdleKtag eday Z KWCacMnYnRbUtugenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUmnImYy²rbs;FatumYy. enAkñúg GatUm GatUmNWtmYycMnYnRbUtugKWesμI nigcMnYneGLicRtug dUecñHelxGatUmk¾bBa¢ak;BIcMnYn eGLicRtugEdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgGatUmenaHpgEdr. lkçN³sMKal;KImIrbs;GatUmmYy Gac[ eKkMNt;BIelxGatUmrbs;va)an. Ca]TahrN_ elxGatUménGasUtKWes μ I 7 enHmann½yfa GatUmGasUtNWtnImYy²manRbUtug 7 nigeGLicRtug 7 b¤k¾tamTsSn³ epSgeToteKfa enAelI BiPBelakeyIgenHRKb;GatUmTaMgGs;EdlmanRbUtugcMnUn 7 eKtMrUv[ehAeQμaHvafaCaGasUt. cMnYnm:asEdleKtageday A KWCacMnYnsrubrbs;RbUtug nigNWtRtugEdlmanvtþman EdlmanenAkñúgéNVy:U rbs;GatUménFatumYy. elIkElgEtTMrg;d¾samBaØbMputrbs;GIuRdUEsn EdlmanEtRbUtugmYyehIyK μanNWRtug. RKb;éNVy:UénGatUmTaMgGs;manEtRbUtug nigNWtRtug eT. CaTUeTAeKKNnacMnYnm:aseday

41

cMnYnm:as = cMnYnRbUtug + cMnYnNWRtug = cMnYnGatUm + cMnYnNWRtug cMnYnNWRtUgenAkñúgGatUmmYyKWes μ Inwgplsgrvag cMnYnm:as nigelxGatUm b¤es μ I ( A-

Z). ]TahrN_m:as rbs;PøúyGrKWes μ I 19 ehIyelxGatUmrbs;vaKWes μ I 9 ¬bBa¢ak;fa 9 RbUtug enAkñúgéNVy:U dUecñHcMnYnRbUtugenAkñúgGatUm mYyrbs;PøúyGrKW 19 - 9 = 10. cUrkt;sMKal;fa elxGatUm cMnYnNWtRtug nigcMnYnm:asTaMgGs;RtUvEtCacMnYnKt;viC¢man. GatUménFatumYyminmanm:asdUcKñaTaMgGs;enaHeTeRBaHfa FatuPaKeRcInKWmanGIusUtUb eRcIn ¬GIusUtUb KWGatUmEdlmanelxlMdab;dUcKña b:uEnþcMnYnm:as;rbs;vaxusKña¦. ]TahrN_ GIuRdUEsnmanGIusUtUbcMnYnbI mYyKWGIuRdUEsnFmμta EdlmanEtRbUtugmYy ehIyKμanNWRtugeT. GIusUtUbdWetrüÚmmanRbUtugmYy nigNWtRtugmYy cMENkÉ GIusUtUmRTIcUm manRbUtugmYy nig NWtRtugBIr. viFIEdlGacTTYlyk)anedIm,Ikt;sMKal;elxlMdab; nigm:asGatUmrbs;GatUmén FatumYyRtUv)ansMKal;dUcxageRkam³

cMnYnm:as; XA

Z elxlMdab; dUecñHcMeBaHGIusUtUbrbs;GIuRdUEsneyIgGacsresr ÷

H11 H2

1 H31

GIuRdUEsn dWetrüÚm RTIcUm Ca]TahrN_mYyepSgeTot cUrBinitüemIleTAelIGIusUtUbsamBaØBIrrbs; G‘uyr:aj:Úm Edl manm:aserogKñaKW 235 nig238. U235

92 U23892

GuIsUtUbTI1KWRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IeFVIerGak;T½rnuyekøEGr nigRKab;EbkGatUmic. cMENkÉ GIusUtUbTIBIrKWxVH lkçN³caM)ac;sMrab;TegVIenHeT. edaymankrNIelIkElgcMeBaHGIuRdUEsn Edl maneQ μaHxus²KñaBIGIusUtUbmYyeTAGIusUtUbmYy. ehIyGIusUtUbénFatuKWsMKal;edaycMnYnm:as rbs;va. dUecñHGIusUtUbBIrxagelIKWeK[eQ μaHfa G‘uyr:aj:Úm 235 nigG‘uyr:aj:Úm 238 .

lkçN³KImIénFatumYy RtUv)aneKkMNt;CadMbUgedayRbUtug nigeGLicRtugenAkñúgGatUm rbs;va cMENkÉNWtRtugmincUlrYmenAkñúgbMErbMrYlKImIenaHeTenAeRkamlkçxNÐFm μta. dUecñH

42

GIusUtUbénFatudUcKña manlkçN³KIimI rbs;vadUcKñakñúgkarbegáItRbePTénsmasFatudUcKña nigkñúg karbegáInskmμPaBdUcKña. ]TahrN_xageRkamenHbgðajBIkarKNnacMnYnRbUtug NWtRtug nigeGLicRtug eday eRbIelxlMdab; nigelxm:as. ]TahrN_ 1/1

KNnacMnYnRbUtug NWRtug nigeGLicRtugkñúgRbePTKImIxageRkamenH. k> O17

8 x Hg19980 K Hg200

80 cMelIy k> elxlMdab;vaman 8 dUecñHvaman 8 eGLicRtug. edaycMnYnm:asKW 17

dUecñHcMnYnNWRtugKW 17-8= 9 cMnYneGLicRtugKWdUcKñaeTAnwgcMnYnRbUtugEdrKW 8. x> elxlMdab;KW 80 dUecñHvamanRbUtugcMnYn 80. m:asrbs;vaKW 199 dUecñHcMnYnNWRtug rbs;vaKW ÷ 199-80 =119. cMnYneGLicRtugKW 80.

K> enHEncMnYnRbUtugdUcKñaeTAnwgcMnuc b EdrKW 80. cMnYnNWRtugKW 200-80=120. cMnYneGLicRtugKWdUc KñaeTA nwgcMnuc b EdrKW 80.dUecñHRbePTGIusUtUbenAkñúgcMnuc b nigcMnuc c KWmanGIusUtUbEdlman lkçN³KImIRsedogKña nig)artEdr. Gnuvtþn_ etImanRbUtug NWtRtug nigeGLicRtugb:unμanenAkñúgGIusUtUbrbs;Tg;Edg Cu63

29 . 4 taragxYb

FatuKImIEdleKsÁal;rhUtmkdl;sBVéf¶enH RbmaNCaCagBak;kNþalKWRtUv)aneKrk eXIjenAkñúgcenøaHqñaM 1800 nigqñaM 1900. kñugkMLúgeBlenaHGñkKImIviTU)ankt;sMKal;eXIjfa FatumYycMnYnmanlkçN³dUcKñaeRcIneTAnwg FatumYycMnYneTot. karyl;dwgBIlkçN³ERbRbYl CaxYbénlkçN³rUbniglkçN³KImI nigtMrUvkaredIm,IerobcMBt’man EdlGacmanCaeRcInGMBITMrg; niglkçN³énsarFatu naM[mankarbegáItCataragxYbenHeLIg ¬taragxYbKWCataragEdlFatuNa manlkçN³rUb niglkçN³KImIdUcKñaRtUv)aneKdak;enAkñúgRkumCamYyKña. rUb8 bgðajBItaragxYb d¾TMenIb EdlFatuTaMgGs;RtUv)aneKtMerobeTAtamelxlMdab; EdleKbgðajenAxagelInimitþ sBaØaénFatukñúgCYredk EdleKehAfaxYb nigkñúgCYrQrEdleKehAfaRkum b¤ Rslay GaRs½y eTA tamPaBdUcKñaenAkñúglkçN³KImIrbs;va. cUrcMNaMFatu 110, 111 nig 112 KWCaFatuEdleK eTIbEt sMeyaKenAeBlfμ I²enH ebIeTaHbICavaminTan;maneQ μaHk¾eday.

43

rUbTI8taragxYbTMenIb. FatuTaMgGs;RtUv)aneKerobcMGaRs½yeTAtamelxlMdab; EdlenAxagelInimitþsBaØarbs;

vaelIkElgEtGIuRdUEsnecjGelah³KWeKdak;enAxagsþaMbMputéntaragxYb. elah³TaMgBIrCYredk EdlenAxageRkamtaragFM KWRtUv)aneKbegáIteLIg[q¶ayBIeK edIm,IkMu[taragxYbenaHFMeBk. karBit Ce KYrEtdak;enA xageRkay La ehIy Th KUrEtdak;enA xagsaþMbnÞab;BI Ac kardak;RkumBIelx 1-18 RtUv)an[eyabl;eday IUPAC b:uEnþvaminTan; RtUv)aneKeRbICaTUeTAeT. kñúgbribTenHeyIgsBaØaNsþg;da U.S. sMrab;elxRkumBI 1A-8A ehIy BI 1B- 8B. cMeBaHeQ μaH sMrab;FatuBI 104-109 KWenACECkKñaenAeLIy. K μaneQ μaHNaRtUv)an eKkMNt; sMrab;FatuBI 110 eTA 112 enAeLIyeT.

FatuTaMgGs;RtUv)aneKEckecjCabIBYk KWBYkelah³ Gelah³ nigBBYkGMpUETr. elah³ KWCaFatuEdlcMlgkMedA nigcrnþGKÁisnI)anl¥ cMENkÉGelah³vij KWCaFatuEdlmin sUvcMlgkMedA nigcrnþGKÁisnI b¤k¾cMlgexSay. GMpUETr KWCaFatu EdlmanlkçN³Caelah³pg nigCaGelah³pg. rUb7 bgðajfaFatuPaKeRcIn EdlsÁal;KW Caelah³ manEt 17 Fatub:ueNÑaH EdlCaGelah³ ehIymanEt 8 FatuEtb:ueNÑaHEdlCaGMpUETr. tamxYblkçN³rUb nigKImIrbs;va ERbRbYlCabnþbnÞab;BIeqVgeTAsþaM BIelah³eTAGelah³. FatuTaMgGs;KWRtUv)aneKdak;eTAkñúgtaragxYbeTAtamelxRkumdUcCa ¬Rkum 1A, 2A.l. nig.l.¦. eTaHbICay:agNak¾edayedIm,I[manPaBCak;lak;EfmeTotenaHRkumxøHénFatu KW RtUv)aneK[eQ μaHBiess mYyepSgeTotdUcCaFatuRkum 1A man Li Na K Rb Cs nigFrCaedIm

44

FatuTaMgenHRtUv)aneK[eQμaHfaelah³ Gal;kaLaMg nigFatuenAkñúgRkum 2A dUcCa Be Mg Ca

Sr Ba nig Ra CaedIm KWRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfaelah³Gal;kalINUETrW b¤u cMENkÉFatuEdl enAkñúgRkum 7A dUcCa F Cl Br I nig At KWRtUv)aneKsÁal;faCaBBYkGaLÚEsn ehIyFatu enAkñúgRkum 8A dUcCa He Ne Ar Kr Xe nig Rn KWRtUv)aneK[eQ μaHfa]sμ ½nnicl b¤]s μ ½nkMr. taragxYb KWCa]bkrN_d¾manRbeyaCn_mYyEdleFVI[lkçN³énFatumanTMnak;TMngKñaCa lkçN³RbB½n§ nigCYyeyIg[eFVIkarTsSTayGMBIlkçN³KImI)an. eyIgnwgsikSa[)anlMGiteTA elIEpñk KImIviTüaenACMBUkTI 8. emIl 7/7 enATMB½rTI 35 BiBN’naBIbMENgEckénFatuenAelIEpndI nigenAkñúgxøÜnmnusS. 5 m:UelKul nigGIuy:ug cMeBaHRKb;FatuTaMgGs; man]sμ½nkMrEt 6b:ueNÑaHenAkñúgRkumTI 8A KWFatu He, Ne, Ar,

Kr, Xe nig Rn Edlman\T§iPaBCaGatUmenAkñúgFmμCati. cMeBaHehtu plenH eK ehA Fatu m:UNUGatUm mann½yfaGatUmEtmYy. rUbFatuPaKeRcInKWbgáeLIgedaym:UelKul b¤ GIuy:ug Edl begáIteday GatUm. 5>1 m:UelKul

m:UelKul KWCabNþúMmYyEdlmanGatUmy:agticcMnYnBIrehIymankarerobcMd¾kMNt;mYy edIm,IcgP¢ab;Kñaeday kMlaMgKImI ¬eK[eQ μaHfasMB½n§KImI¦. tamc,ab;smamaRtkMNt; m:UelKul mYyGacmanGatUménFatudUcKñaBIr b¤k¾GatUménFatuepSgKñaeRcIntP¢ab;KñakñúgpleFobkMNt;mYy dUecñHtamniymn½ym:UelKulmYy ¬EdlminEmnCa smasFatumYycaM)ac;¦ KWbegáIteLIgBIGatUm énFatucab;BI BIreLIgeTA ¬emIlEpñkTI 1>2¦. Ca]TahrN_]sμ ½n GIuRdUEsnKWCaFatusuT§mYy b:uEnþ vamanm:UelKulEdlbgáeLIgBIGatUmcMnYnBIr. mü:agvijeTot Twk KWCasmasFatum:UelKulmYy EdlmanGIuRdUEsn nigGuksIuEsnkñúgpleFobGIuRdUEsnBIr nig GuksIuEsnmYydUc GatUmEdr m:UelKulKWmanbnÞúkGKÁIsnINWt. m:UelKulGIuRdUEsn EdlsresrrUbmnþCa H2 RtUv)aneK[eQ μaHfam:UelKulDIGatUm BIeRBaHvamanEtGatUmBIr. Fatud¾éTeTotEdlCaFm μtamanGtßiPaBCam:UelKulDIGatUmenaHKW N2

nig O2 k¾dUcCaFatuenARkumTI 7 A dUcCa F2, Cl2, Br2 nig I2. CakarBitm:UelKulDIGatUm Gac

manGatUménFatuBIrxusKña]TahrN_dUcCa HCl nigCO.

45

m:UelKulPaKeRcInmanGatUmeRcInCagBIr.vaGacCaGatUménFatudUcKña dUcCaGUsUnCaedIm EdlbgáeLIgBIGatUmGuksIuEsncMnYnbI b¤GacCabnSMénFatuxusKñaBIrb¤eRcIn. m:UelKulEdlman GatUmeRcInCagBIrRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHm:UelKulb:UlIGatUm dUcCaGUsUn Twk nigGam:Uj:ak; KWCa m:UelKulb:UlIGatUm. 5>2m:UelKulKMrU

m:UelKulKWtUcNas;sMrab;eyIgsegátedaypÞal;. meFüa)aymYyd¾ man RbsiT§PaB edIm,I emIlvaedayEPñkTeTrenaH KWeRbIm:UelKulKMrU . RbePTsþg;da BIrénm:UelKulKMrUEdlkMBug Et eRbIR)as;sBVéf¶enH KWKMrURKab;)al; cgáwH nigKMrUbMeBjkEnøg ¬rUb8¦.

rUb8 KMrUGatUm)al; nigeQI nigKMrUGatUmbMeBjcenøaHénm:UelKulsamBaØxøH

enAkñúgKMrU)al; nigeQIGatUmKWRtUv)aneKeFVIBIeQI b¤RKab;)al;C½rEdlmanrn§enAkñúgenaH.

eQI b¤s½rRtUv)an eKeRbItMNag[sMB½n§. mMuEdleKbegáIteLIgrvagGatUm nigGatUm manmMusMB½n§ Rbhak;RbEhlKñakñúgm:UelKulBitEdr. RKab;)al;KWmanTMhMdUcKña ehIyRbePT énGatUmnImYy² KWtMNag[edayBN’BiessmYy.

enAkñúgGatUmKMrUbMeBjXøaKWeKtageday)al; EdltP¢ab;KñaedayRbdab;cgf<k; dUecñH sMB½n§KWminGacemIl eXIj)aneT. RKab;)al;KWmansmaRtTMhMrbs;vacMeBaHGatUm.

46

KMrU)al; nigeQIbgðajy:agc,as;BIkarerobcMGatUmTMrg;vimaRtbI ehIyvagayRsUlbegáIt Nas;. mü:agvijeTotRKab;)al; KWbgðajBIsmaRtcMeBaHTMhMénGatUm. dUecñHKMrUGatUmEdleFVI BIeQI KWbMepIøscenøaHrvagGatUm nigGatUmenAkñúgm:UelKuly:agFM. KMrUbMeBjcenøaHKWCak;lak; Cag BIeRBaHvabgðajBIbMErbMrYlrbs;TMhMGatUm. eRKOgbnøas;rbs;va KWfavasIueBlNas;kñúgkar dak;vaP¢ab;Kña ehIyvamin)anbgðajBITItaMgvimaDbIrbs;GatUm)anc,as;las;eT. kñúgbribTenH eyIgnwgeRbIPaKeRcInnUvKMrU)al; nigeQI.

5>3 GIuy:ug GIuy:ugKWCaRbePTmanbnÞúkmYyEdleKbegáItvaeLIgBIGatUm b¤m:UelKulNWtmYyenAeBl

EdleGLicRtug)ancMeNj b¤)at;bg;edaysarEtmanbMErbMrYlKImI. cMnYnRbUtugEdlmanbnÞúk viC¢manenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUmmYyenArkSatMéldEdlkñúgeBlEdlmanbMErbMrYlKImI ¬eK[eQ μaH faRbtikmμKImI¦ b:uEnþeGLicRtugEdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢manGac)at; b¤cMeNj.

kar)at;eGLicRtugmYy b¤eRcInBIGatUmNWt KWCalT§plén kacug mYy GIuy:ugmYyEdl manbnÞúkviC¢mandUcCa GatUm Na Gac)at;eGLicRtugmYyy:agrh½sedIm,IkøayeTACakacug Na

EdleKsresrtageday Na+. GatUm Na GIuy:ug Na+

11 RbUtug 11 RbUtug 11 eGLicRtug 10 eGLicRtug

mü:agvijeTotGaj:úg KWCaGIuy:ugmYyEdlbnÞúksrubrbs;va KWGviC¢manedaysarEtcMnYn eGLicRtugekIneLIgmYy. ]TahrN_GatUmkørcMeNjeGLicRtugmYyedIm,IkøayeTACaGIuy:ugkør.

GatUm Cl GIuy:ug Cl-

17 RbUtug 17 RbUtug 17 eGLicRtug 18 eGLicRtug

GMbilsMl (NaCl)KWRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHfa CasmasFatuGIuy:ugBIeRBaHvabegáIteLIgBI kacug nigGaj:úg.

47

GatUmmYyGac)an b¤cMeNjeGLicRtugmYy b¤eRcIn ]TahrN_GIuy:ugEdlbegáIteLIg edaykar)at; b¤cMeNjeGLicRtugenaHeRcInCagmYyenaHKW GIuy:ug Mg2+, Fe3+ ,S2- nig N-3. GIuy:ugTaMgenHk¾dUcCaGIuy:ug Na+ nigCl- EdrKWeK[eQ μaHfa GIuy:ugm:UNUGatUm BIeRBaHvamanEt GatUmmYy. rUb9 bgðajBIbnÞúkrbs;GIuy:ugm:UNUGatUmmYycMnYn edaymankrNI elIkElgBIr b¤bI elah³manTMenarbegáItCakacug cMENkÉGelah³manTMenarbegáItCaGaj:úg.

CagenHeTAeTotGatUmBI b¤eRcInGacpSMKñaedIm,IbegáItCaGIuy:ugmYy EdlmanbnÞúksrub viC¢man b¤GviC¢man. GIuy:ugb:UlIGatUmdUcCaGIuy:ug OH- , CN-,nigGIuy:ug NH +

4 KWCaGIuy:ug EdlmanGatUmeRcInCagmYy.

rUb9 GuIy:ugm:UNUGatUmsmBaØ²Edl)anerobcMGaRs½yeTAtamTItaMgrbs;vaenAkñúgtaragxYb. cUrkt;sMKal; fa GIuy:ug)artmanGatUm2 ¬ Hg +2

2 ¦.

6 rUbmnþKImI GñkKImIeRbIrUbmnþKImIedIm,IbBa¢ak;BIbnSMénsmasFatuGIuy:ug nigm:UelKulCanimitþsBaØaKImI tamkarbnSMenaH eyIgminEmncg;niyayEteTAelIEtFatu Edlmanvtþmanb:ueNÑaHeT b:uEnþeyIg cg;niyayBIGatUmTaMgLayEdlcUlpSMpgEdr. enATIenHeyIgkMBugEtmankarykcitþTukdak; eTAelIrUbmnþTaMgBIrRbePT KWrUbmnþm:UelKul nigrUbmnþlat. 6>1 rUbmnþm:UelKul rUbmnþm:UelKulmYy bgðajnUvcMnYnBitR)akdénGatUmrbs;FatunImYy² enAkñúgxñatd¾tUc bMputrbs;sarFatu. enAkñúgkarBiPaKSaBIm:UelKulTaMgGs;rbs;eyIg ]TahrN_nImYy²RtUv)an eK[mkCamYyKñanwgrUbmnþm:UelKul EdleKdak;enAkñúgvg;Rkck. dUecñH H2 KWCarUbmnþm:UelKul sMrab;FatuGIuRdUEsn O2 KWCarUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;GuksIuEsn O3 KWCarUbmnþ m:UelKulrbs;GUsUn ehIy H2O KWCarUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;Twk. snÞsSn_EdlsresrCaelx KWbBa¢ak;BIcMnYnGatUm

48

Edl taMgenAkñúgFatumYyenaH. cMeBaH O K μansnÞsSn_CaelxeTenAkñúgTwk BIeRBaHmanEtGatUm GuksIuEsnmYyKt;EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgm:UelKulTwk dUecñHelxmYyrbs;vaRtUv)aneKlubecal BIrUbmnþm:UelKul. cUrcaMfaGuksIuEsn O2 nigGUsUn O3 eRKagénFatuEdlmanTMrg;eRcInrbs; GuksIuEsn. KMeragFatuEdlmaneRcInTMrg; KWTMrg;Ebøk²Kña mYykñúgcMeNamTMrg;Ebøk²KñaCaeRcIn rbs;FatumYy. TMrg;eRKagénFatuBIrrbs;kabUnKWeBRC nigRkahVIt ehIymanPaBxusKñay:agxøaMg minRtwmEtlkçN³KImIrbs;vab:ueNÑaHeTEfmTaMgtMéleTotpg. 6>2 rUbmnþlat rUbmnþm:UelKulénGIuRdUEsnEBrGuksIut EdlCasarFatumYyeKeRbICaFatuRbqaMgCMgWkøay nigCaPñak;garbnSr sMrab;kartM)aj nigeFVIsk;enaHmanrUbmnþH2O2. rUbmnþenHbBa¢ak;fa m:UelKul GIuRdUEsnEBrGuksIutnImYy²manpÞúkGatUmGIuRdUEsnBIr nigGatUmGuksIuEsnBIr. pleFobén GatUmGIuRdUEsn nigGuksIuEsnenAkñúgm:UelKulenaHKW 2:2 b¤ 1:1. rUbmnþgayénGIuRdUEsn EBrGuksIutKW HO. dUecñHrUbmnþgayR)ab;eyIgfa etImanFatu NaxøH EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúg rUbmnþm:UelKulenaH b:uEnþvamincaM)ac;cMeBaHcMnYn BitR)akd énGatUm enA kñúgm:UelKulenaHeT.]TahN_mYy epSgeTotKWeyIgBicarNaeTAelIsmasFatuGIuRdasIun (N2H4)

EdlRtUv)aneKeRbI CasarFatueqH r:UEkt. rUbmnþgay énGIuRdasIunKW NH2 ebIeTaHbICa pl eFobénGasUt nig GIuRdUEsnKW 1:2 TaMgenAkñúgrUbmnþm:UelKul N2H4 TaMgenA kñúgrUbmnþgay

NH2 manEtrUbmnþ m:UelKuleTEdlR)ab;eyIgGMBIcMnYnBitR)akdénGatUm N EdlmanBIr nig GatUm H EdlmanbYn EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgm:UelKUlGIuRdasIun.

rUbmnþgay KWCarUbmnþKImIEdlsamBaØbMputeKEtgEtsresrvaedaybM)at;snÞsSn_enAkñúg rUbmnþm:UelKuleTACarUbmnþEdlmancMnYnsrubgaybMput. rUbmnþm:UelKUl KWCarUbmnþBitR)akd rbs;m:UelKul eyIgnwg)aneXIjenA CMBUkTIbIenAeBlEdlGñkKImI viPaKsmasFatu EdleKmin sÁal;mYy. Canic©CakalCMhandMbUg KWkarkMNt;rUbmnþgayrbs;smasFatuenaH. sMrab;m:UelKulCaeRcIn rUbmnþm:UelKul nigrUbmnþgayKWCarUbmnþEtmYy ehIydUcKña ]TahrN_ dUcCa H2O, NH3, CO2 nigCH4 CaedIm. ]TahrN_BIrxageRkamenHKWvaTak;TgeTAniwgkarsresrrUbmnþm:UelKulBIKMrUm:UelKul nig karsresrrUbmnþgay BIrUbmnþm:UelKul.

49

cMNaM BakürUbmnþgaymann½yfaCarUbmnþEdldkRsg;tamBiesaF. eyIgnwgwXIjvaenACMBYkTI3 rUbmnþgayKW kMNt;edaykarBiesaF.

emtaNul kør:Upm

rUb10 ]TahrN_ 1/2 cUrsresrrUbmnþm:UelKulénemtaNulEdlCaFaturMlaysrIragÁ nigCa

FatuRbqaMgnwgkMNkBIrUbmnþ eRKagdUckñúgrUb. cMelIy manGatUmkabUnmYy GatUmGIuRdUEsnbYn nigGatUmGuksIuEsnmYy. dUecñHrUbmnþ

m:UelKulrbs;vaKW CH4O. eTaHbICay:agNak¾edayviFIsþg;damYykñúgkarsresrrUbmnþm:UelKul sMrab;emtaNulKW CH3OH BIeRBaHvabgðajBIrebobénkarcgsMB½n§enAkñúgm:UelKul. Gnuvtþn_ sresrrUbmnþm:UelKulénkør:UpmEdlRtUv)aneKeRbICaGgÁFaturMlay nigPñak;garsMGat mYy . rUbmnþ eRKagrbs;kør:UpmKWdUcmanbgðajkñúgrUb.

]TahrN_ 1/3 sresrrUbmnþgaysMrab;m:UelKuldUcxageRkam k> C2H2 x> C6H12O6 K> N2O.

cMelIy k> enAkñúgGaesTIELnmanGatUmkabUnBIr nigGatUmGIuRdUEsnBIr. edayEck snÞsSn_ nigBIreyIg TTYl)an rUbmnþgayKW CH. x> enAkñúgkøúykUsmanGatUmkabUncMnYn6 GatUmGIuRdUEsncMnYn 12 nigGatUm GuksIuEsncMnYn6. edayEcksnÞsSn_ nwg 6 eyIgTTYl)an rUbmnþgayKW CH2O. cUrkt;sMKal; RbsinebIeyIgEck snÞsSn_nwg3 eyIgnwgTTYl)anrUbmnþgayKW C2H4O2 ebIeTaHbICapleFob énGatUmkabUn GIuRdUEsn nigGuksIuEsnenAkñúgm:UelKul C2H4O2 KWdUcKñaenAkñúgm:UelKul

C6H12O6 (1:2:1), C2H4O2 KWminEmnCarUbmnþgayCageKbg¥s;eTBIeRBaHsnÞsSn_rbs;va KWminEmnsßitenA kñúgpleFobcMnYnsrubtUcCageKbg¥s;eT.

kabUn

GIuRdUEsn

GuksIuEsn

kør

50

K> edaysarsnÞsSn_enAkñúgm:UelKul N2O KWmancMnYnpleFobsrubtUc bMputrYceTA ehIy dUecñHrUb mnþgay ebs; N2O KWdUcKñanwgrUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;va.

Gnuvtþn_³ cUrsesrrUbmnþgaycMeBaHkaehVGIun (C8H10N4O2)CafñaMmYyEdleK)anrk eXIjenAkñúgEt nigkaehV.

rUbmnþrbs;smasFatuGIuy:ug Canic©CakalKWdUcKñanwgrUbmnþgayrbs;vaEdr eRBaHsmas FatuGIuy:ugrbs;vaminmanpÞúknUvÉktam:UelKulNalak;)aMgenaHeT. ]TahrN_PaKsMNakmYy rbs;sUdüÚmkørYmanpÞúknUvcMnYnesμIKñaénGIuy:ug Na+ nigGIuy:ugkør Cl- ehIyRtUv)aneKtMerobCa sMNaj;vimaRtbI. enAkñúgsmasFatudUcenHKWmanpleFobkacugnigGaj:uúgKW 1:1 dUecñH smas FatuenaHKWmanbnÞúkGKÁisnINWt. dUcGñkGaceXIjvaenAkñúgrUb11 faKμanGIuy:ug Na+ enAkñúg

NaClNamYyRtUv)anpSMCamYyGIuy:ug Cl- EtmYyenaHeT. karBitGIuy:ug Na+ nImYy²KWcg;esμI²Kña eday GIuy:ugkør Cl- enACMuvij b¤Rcas;mkvij. dUecñH NaCl KWCarUbmnþgaysMrab;sUdüÚmkørY. enA kñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ugepSg² eTotTMrg;BitR)akdrbs;vaGacxusKña b:uEnþkartMerobkacug nigGaj:úg KWfasmasFatuTaMgenaHmanbnÞúkGKÁisnINWt. cUrcMNaMfabnÞúkenAelIkacug nigGaj:úgKWminRtUv )aneKbgðajenAkñúgrUbmnþsMrab;smasFatuGIuy:ugeT. edIm,I[smasFatuGIuy:ugmanbnÞúkGKÁIsnINWt luHRtaEtplbUkbnÞúkTaMgGs;enAkñúg kacug nigGaj:úgesμIsUnü ebIsinCabnÞúkenAelIkacug nigGaj:úgmanbnÞúkxusKña eyIgRtUveFVItam k,ÜndUcxageRkamedIm,IeFVI[bnÞúkrbs;vamanbnÞúkGKÁisnINWt. snÞsSn_rbs;kacugKWmancMnYn esμ IKñaeTAnwgbnÞúkenAelIGaj:úg ehIysnÞsSn_rbs;Gaj:úg KWmancMnYnesμIKñaeTAnwgbnÞúkenAelI kacug RbsinebIbnÞúkmancMnYnesμIKñadUecñHkarsresrsnÞsSn_mincaM)ac;eT. k,ÜnxageRkamenH KW eKGaceRbI)anebI kalNarUbmnþrbs;smasFatuGIuy:ugKWCarUbmnþgay dUecñHsnÞsSn_eKRtUvEt bnßyva[mkenAkñúgtMélEdlmanpleFobtUcbMput.cUreyIgBicarNaeTAelI]TahrN_mYy cMnYn dUcxageRkam ÷ - b:UtasüÚmRbUmY kacugb:UtasüÚm K+ nigGajú:gRbUmY Br- pSMKñaedIm,IbegáItCasmasFatu GIuy:ug KBr. plbUk bnÞúkKW +1+(-1) = 0 dUecñHkarsresrsnÞsSn_KWmincaM)ac;eT dUcenHrUbmnþ rbs;vaKW KBr .

- ZnI2 GIuy:ug Zn2+ nigGIuyu:ug I- pSMKñaedIm,IbegáIt ZnI2.plbUkbnÞúkénGIuy:ug Zn2+. nigGIuy:ug I-KW 2+(-1)=+1 edIm,I[bnÞúkesμ IsUnü eyIgRtUvEtKuNbnÞúk-1énGaj:úg

51

nwg2 ehIybEnßm snÞsSn_ 2 cMeBaHnimitþsBaØa sMrab;GuIy:Ut dUecñHrUbmnþsMrab; sgá½sIGIuy:UDY KW ZnI2. - GaluymIj:ÚmGuksIut kacugKW Al3+ ehIyGaj:úgGuksIuEsnKW O2- KMnYstagxageRkam enHGacCYy[ eyIg[kMNt;BIsnÞsSn_sMrab;smasFatuEdlbegáIteLIgedaykacug nigGaj:úg. plbUkénbnÞúkTaMgGs;KW 2(+3)+3(-2)=0 dUecñHrUbmnþGaluymIj:ÚmGuksIutKW Al2O3.

rUb11 k- TMrg;énGgÁFaturwg NaCl x- karBitkacugKWmanTMnak;TMngCamYyGaj:úg. TaMg k nig x KWCaEsVrtUcCagEdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgGIuy:ug Na+ nigCaEsVrFMCagEdlmanvtþmanGIuy:ug Cl-. 7 karehAeQμaHsmasFatu

enAeBlEdlKImIviTüa KWCaviTüasaRsþEdleTIbEtnwgekIteLIg ehIysmasFatuEdleK sÁal;RtUv)aneKsÁal;mancMnYnticenaH vamankargayRsYleTkñúgkarcgcaMva eQ μaHmYycMnYn KW RtUv)aneKdkRsg;ecjBIlkçN³rUbrbs;va ]TahrN_dUcCaf μkMe)ar nigesdalagrbYsCaedIm. sBVéf¶enHsmasFatuEdlRtUv)aneKsÁal;c,as;mancMnYnCag 13 lansmasFatu b:uEnþCa sMNagl¥Edr EdlvamincaM)ac;kñúgkarcaMeQμaHrbs;vaenaHeT. CaeRcInqñaMmkehIy EdlGñkKImI )anEckRbBn½§y:agc,as;mYyedIm,IehA eQ μaHsarFatuKImI ehIyc,ab;enaHRtUv)aneKTTYlsÁal;Ca TUeTA ehIyRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;edIm,IsMrYlkñúgkarTMnak;TMngKñakñúgcMeNamGñkKImITaMgGs; ehIyva )anpþl;nUvmeFüa)ayd¾mansar³RbeyaCn_mYyedIm,IbiTpøakeTAelIsarFatu .

52

Cakic©cab;epþImBiPakSaBIkarehAeQ μaHFatu nigsmasFatuKImI CadMbUgeyIgRtUvEjk[ dac;rvagsmasFatusrIragÁ nigGsrIragÁ. smasFatusrIragÁCaTUeTACasmasFatuEdlmanFatu kabUnpSMCamYyFatud¾éT²eTotdUc CaGuIiRdUEsn/GasUt/GuksIuEsn nigs<an;F½rCaedIm eRkABIenHeK ehAfasmasFatuGsrIragÁ. b:uEnþsmasFatuxøH EdlmanpÞúkCatikabUndUcCakabUnm:UNUGuksIut

(CO) kabUnDIGuksIut (CO2) kabUnDIs‘ulPIt (CS2) smasFatuEdlman bgÁúMsüaNU (CN-)/ bgÁúMkabUNat CO −2

3 nwgbgÁúMkabUNatgGasuIt (HCO −3 ) KWRtUv)aneKcat;TukfaCasmasFatu

GsrIragÁ. ebIeTaHbICakarehAeQμaHsmasFatusrIragÁ nigminRtUv)aneKBiPakSarhUtdl;CMBUkTI 24 k¾eday k¾eyIgnwgeRbIsmasFatusrIragÁxøHedIm,IbBa¢ak;BIeKalkarN_KImItamry³esovePA enHEdr. edIm,IerobcM nigeFVI[manPaBgayRsYlcMeBaHkarpSgeRBgrbs;eyIgkñúgkarehAeQ μaH smasFatuenaH eyIgGacEcksmasFatuGsrIragÁCabYnfñak;KW smasFatuGIuy:ug smasFatu m:UelKul smasFatuGasIut)as nig smasFatuGal;edGIut. 7>1 smasFatuGIuy:ug enAkñúgEpñkTI2>5 eyIg)aneronrYcmkehIyfa smasFatuGIuy:ugKWbegáIteLIgedaykacug ¬GIuy:ugviC¢man¦ nigGaj:úg ¬GIuy:ugGviC¢man¦. edaysarmankarelIkElgd¾sMxan;mYyénGIuy:ug Gam:Uj:Úm NH4

+ kacugTaMgGs; EdlcMNab;GarmμN_rbs;eyIg KWdkRsg;ecjBIGatUmelah³. kacugelah³ykeQ μaH rbs;vaecjBIFatu. ]TahrN_

Fatu eQμaHkacug Na sUdüÚm Na+ GIuy:ugsUdüÚm¬b¤kacugsUdüÚm¦ K b:UtasüÚm K+ GIuy:ugb:UtasüÚm¬b¤kacugb:UtasüÚm¦ Mg m:aej:süÚm Mg2+ GIuy:ugm:aej:süÚm¬b¤kacugm:aej:süÚm¦Al GaluymIj:Úm Al3+ GIuy:ugGaluymIj:Úm¬b¤kacugGaluymIj:Úm¦ smasFatuGIuy:ugmYycMnYn KWCasmasFatubnSM b¤CasmasFatuEdlbegáIteLIgBIFatu

53

EtBIrb:ueNÑaH.smasFatubnSM FatudMbUgKWRtUv)aneK[eQ μaHfaCakacugelah³pSMCamYyGaj:úg Gelah³. dUecñH NaCl KWCa sUdüÚmkørY. eKdak;eQ μaHkacugenaHedayykEpñkdMbUgéneQ μaH rbs;FatukørehIybEnßmedayGYr. KBr, ZnI2 nigAl2O3 k¾CasmasFatubnSMpgEdr. tarag2 bgðajBInamvløIGYrénGaj:úgm:UNUGatUmsamBaØ²mYycMnYnGaRs½y eTAelITItaMgrbs;vaenAkñúg taragxYb. karbBa©b;edaymCÇwmbTGYr k¾RtUv)aneKeRbIpgEdrsMrab;bgÁMúGaj:úgBitR)akdmYy Edl manFatuxusKñadUcCa bgÁúM (OH-) nigGIuy:ugsüaNU (CN-). dUecñHsmasFatu LiOH nig KCN

KWRtUv)aneK[eQ μaHfalIcUmGIuRduksIut nigb:UtasüÚmsüaNU. smasFatuTaMgenH nigsmasFatu GIuy:ugdéTxøHeTotEdlRtUveK[eQμaHfasmasFatuRtIFatu. tarag3manrayeQμaHeTA tamGkçr RkménsmasFatukacug nigGaj:úgmYycMnYn. elah³BitCaBiesselah³qøgGacbegáIteLIgBIRbePTkacugeRcInCagmYy. ]TahrN_ dUcCaEdk EdkGacbegáItkacug)anBIrKWkacug Fe2+ nigkacug Fe3+. eQμaHénsmasFatu Edl GIuy:ugEdkenHbegáItCamYyGIuy:ugkørGacCa FeCl2, FeCl3. xageRkamenH KWCaeQ μaHrbs;smasFatuKWsmasFatum:g;kaENs II GuksIut MnO m:g;kaENs III GuksIut nigm:g;kaENs IVetRtaGuksIut. edayeRbIRbB½n§ Stock eyIgkt; sMKal;eXIjfa GIuy:ug Fe2+ nigGIuy:ug Fe3+. dUecñHGIuy:ug Fe2+ kalNamanRbtikmμCamYyGIuy:ug

Cl- vakøayCaEdk II kørY ehIyGIuy:ug Fe3+ kalNamanRbtikmμ CamYyGIuy:ug Cl- vakøayCaEdk

III kørY. ]TahrN_xageRkamenHbgðajBIrebobehAeQ μaHénsmasFatuGIuy:ug nigsresrrUbmnþ m:UelKulénsmaFatuGuIy:ugedayEp¥keTAelIBt’man Edlpþl;[enAkñúgrUb 11 nigenAkñúgtarag 2 nig 3. tarag2 namvløIGYrénGaj:úgm:UNaGatUmsmBaØxøH edayEp¥keTAelITItaMgrbs;vaenAkñúgtaragxYb

Rkum 4A Rkum 5A Rkum 6A Rkum 7A

C kabYr (C4-)

Si sIulIsYr(Si4-)

N NIRtY (N3-)

P pUsVÜrY (P3-)

O GuksIut (O2-)

S s‘ulPIt (S2-)

Se eslINY (Se2-)

Te étlYrY (Te2-)

FPøúyGrY (F-)

Cl kørY (Cl-)

Br RbUmYr (Br -)

I GIuy:UDY (I-)

54

tarag3 eQμaH nigm:UelKulénkacug nigGaj:úgGsrIragÁénsmsFatusamBaØxøH kacug Gaj:úg GaluymIj:Úm (Al3+)

Gam:Uj:Úm (NH +4 )

)arüÚm (Ba2+)

kat;mJÚ:m (Cd2+)

kal;süÚm (Ca2+)

essüÚm (Cs+)

RkUm:at IIIb¤RkUmic (Cr3+)

kU)al;II (Co2+)

Tg;Edg I (Cu+)

Tg;Edg II (Cu2+)

GIuRdUEsn (H+)

Edk II (Fe2+)

Edk III (Fe3+)

sMNr II (Pb2+)

lIcUm (Li+)

m:aej:süÚm (Mg2+)

m:g;kaENs II(Mn2+)

)art I (Hg +22 )

)art II (Hg2+)

b:UtasüÚm (K+)

R)ak; (Ag+)

sUdüÚm (Na+)

Rság;cUm (Sr2+)

sMN):ahaMg (Sn2+)

sgá½sI (Zn2+)

RbUm:Y (Br-)

kabUNat(CO −23 )

kør:at (ClO −3 )

kørY (Cl-)

RkUm:at (CrO −24 )

süaNY (CN-)

DIRkUm:at (Cr2O −27 )

DIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat (H2PO −4 )

PøúyGrY (F-)

GIuRdY (H-)

GIuRdUEsnkabUNatb¤b‘ÍkabUNat (HCO −3 )

GIuRdUEsnpUsVat (HPO −24 )

GuIRdUEsns‘ulpatb¤b‘Ís‘ulpat (HSO −4 )

GIuRduksIut (OH-)

GIuy:UdY (I-)

nIRtat (NO −3 )

nIRtY (N3-)

nIRtIt (NO −2 )

GuksIut (O2-)

EBrm:g;kaNat (MnO −4 )

EBru:ksIut (O −22 )

pUsVat (PO −34 )

s‘ulpat (SO −24 )

s‘ulpY (S2-)

s‘ulPIt (SO −23 )

süÚsüaNat (SCN-)

55

]TahrN_ 1/4 cUr[eQ μaHsmasFatuGIuy:ugdUcxageRkam³ k> Cu(NO3)2 x> KH2PO4

nigK> NH4ClO3. cMelIy k> edaysarGIuy:ugnIRtat (NO −

3 ) manbnÞúkGviC¢manmYy ¬emIltaragTI 2>3¦ ehIyGIuy:ugTg;EdgRtUv EtmanbnÞúkviC¢manBIr dUecñHsmasFatuvaKWTg;Edg II nIRtat. x> kacugenaHKW K+ ehIyGaj:úgKW H2PO −

4 ¬DIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat¦ edaysarEt b:UtasüÚmbegáItEtGIuy:ugmYy RbePT (K+) dUecñHmincaM)c;eRbIeQ μaHb:UtasüÚm (I) eT. smasFatu enaHKWeK[eQ μaHfab:UtasüÚmDIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat. K> kacugenaHKW NH +

4 ¬GIuy:ugGam:Uj:Úm¦ nigGaj:úg ClO −3 dUecñHsmasFatu

enaHKWGam:Uj:Úmkør:at. Gnuvtþn_ cUr[eqμaHsmasFatuxageRkamenH³ k> PbO x> Li2SO3

]TahrN_ 1/5 sresrrUbmnþm:UelKulsMrab;smasFatudUcxageRkam³ k> )art I nIRtat x> essüÚms‘ulpY Cs2S K> kal;süÚm pUsVat. cMelIy k> GIuy:ug)art I KWGIuy:ugDIGatUm Hg +2

2 ¬cUremIltarag2>3¦ehIyGIuy:ugnIRtW KW NO −

2 dUecñHrUbmnþ rbs;vaKW Hg2(NO2)2. x> GIuy:ugs‘ulpYnImYy²manbnÞúkGviC¢manBIr ehIyGIuy:ugessüÚmnImYy² man bnÞúkviC¢manmYy¬es süÚmKWenAkñúgRkum 1A dUcsUdüÚmEdr¦. dUecñHrUbmnþrbs;vaKW Cs2S. K> GIuy:ugkal;süÚmnImYy²manbnÞúkviC¢manBIr ehIyGIuy:ugs‘ulpatnImYy² (PO −3

4 )man bnÞúkGviC¢mancMnYnbI.edIm,IeFVI[plbUkbnÞúksrubesμ IsUnüeyIgRtUvEttMrUvcMnYnkacug nigGaj:úg ÷

3(+2) + 2(-3) = 0

Gnuvtþn_ ³ cUrsresrrUbmnþm:UelKulsMrab;smasFatuGIuy:ug ÷ k> ruyb‘Íj:Úms‘ulpat x> )ar:üÚmGIuRdY

7>2 smasFatum:UelKul mindUcsmasFatuGIuy:ugeT smasFatum:UelKulmanxñatm:UelKuldac;²BIKña EdlCanic© kalRtUv)aneKpSMeLIgBIFatuGelah³ ¬emIlrUb 2>8¦ smasFatum:UelKulmYycMnYn KWCasmas FatueTVPaK. karehAeQ μaHsmasFatueTVPaK KWdUcKñaeTAnwgkarehAeQμaHsmasFatuGIuy:ug eTVPaKEdr. eyIgdak;eQμaHsmasFatudMbUgkñúgrUbmnþenAxagedIm ehIyFatuTIBIrRtUv)aneKdak; eQ μaHedaybEnßmGYreTAEpñkxagcugénFatuTIBIrenaH. ]TahrN_ HCl GIuRdUEsnkørY , HBr GIuRdUEsnRbUmY , SiC sIlIsüÚmkabY

56

tarag4 bc©wmbTrbs;RkicEdlRtUv)aneKeRbIkñúgkarehAeQ μaHsmasFatum:UelKul bc©wmbT karehAeQ μaH m:UNU 1

DI 2

RTI 3

etRta 4

b:g;ta 5

Guicsa 6

Guibta 7

Gukta 8

NUNa 9

edka 10

vaKWCakarsamBaØbMputsMrab;KUrénFatumYy kñúgkarbegáItsmasFatuxus²KñamYycMnYn.

kñúgkrNIenHkarP½nþRclMkñúgkarehAeQμaHsmasFatu KWRtUv)aneKeCosvagkareRbIR)as;bc©wmbT rbs;Rkic edIm,IsMKal;BIcMnYnGatUménFatunImYy² Edlmanvtþman ¬cUremIltarag2>4¦. nig BicarNaeTAelIrUbmnþdUcxageRkamenH³

CO kabUnm:UNUGuksIut CO2 kabUnDIGuksIut SO2 s<an;F½rDIGuksIut SO3 s<an;F½rRTIGuksIut NO2 GasUtDIGuksIut N2O4 DIGasUtetRtaGuksIut karENnaMxageRkamenH RtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,ICYykñugkarehAeQμaHsmasFatuCamYynwg

bc©wmbTrbs;va³ - bc©wmbT m:UNU GacRtUv)aneKlubecalcMeBaHFatudMbUg. ]TahrN_ PCl3 KWRtUv)an

eKehAeQ μaHfapUsVrRTWkørY minEmnehApUsVrm:UNURTIkørYeT. dUecñHkarK μanbc©wmbTsMrab;Fatu Edl

57

enAxagmuxenHCaTUeTA KWmann½yfa manEtGatUmmYyeTcMeBaHFatuxagmuxEdlmanenAkñúgm:Uel KulenaH.

- cMeBaHGuksIut karbBa©b;edaybc©wmbT Ga eBlxøHeKRtUvlubecal. ]TahrN_ N2O4

GacRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfa DIGasUtetRtuksIut CaCagkarehAeQ μaHfa DIGasUtetRtaGuksIut. karelIkElgcMeBaHkareRbIR)as;bc©wmbTRkic KWsmasFatum:UelKulEdlmanGIuRdUEsn.

BImun smasFatuTaMgenHmYycMnYn RtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHy:agsamBaØbMput KWminehAeQ μaHeTA tamk,Ünb¤k¾ehAeQ μaHeTAtamcMnYnGIuRdUEsnEdlmanvtþmaneT.

]TahrN_ B2H6 DIb‘r:an CH4 emtan SiH4 sIuLan NH3 Gam:Uj:ak; PH3 pUsVIn H2O Twk H2S GIuRdUEsns‘ulpYr cUrkt;sMKal;falMdab;énkarsresrFatuenAkñúgrUbmnþm:UelKulsMrab;smasFatuGIuRdUEsn

KWmineTotTat;eT. enAkñúgsUluysüúgGIuRdUEsns‘ulpY nimitþsBaØa H RtUv)aneKsresrmun cMENkÉ smas

FatudéT²eTotKWRtUv)aneKsresrenAxageRkay. karsresrrUbmnþcMeBaHsmasFatum:UelKulCanic©Cakal KWeKsresrRtg;eTAmux dUecñH enAkñúgsmasFatuGaesnicRTIPøúyGrY mann½yfa manGatUmGaesnikmYy (As) nigmanGatUm F

cMnYnbIenAkñúgm:UelKulrbs;vanImYy² ehIym:UelKulrbs;vanImYy²KW AsF3. cUrkt;sMKal;fa lMdab;énFatuenAkñúgrUbmnþm:UelKulenaHKWdUcKñaenAkñúg eQ μaHrbs;va. ]TahrN_ 1/6 cUrehAeQμaHsmasFatum:UelKuldUcxageRkam³ k> SiCl4 x> P4O10. cMelIy k> edaysarmanGatUmkørcMnYn 4dUecñHsmasFatuenaHKWsIlIkUnetRtakørY. x> manGatUmpUsVrcMnYn 4 ehIymanvtþmanGatUmGuksIuEsncMnYn10 dUecñHsmasFatu enaHKWetRtapUsVr edkuksIut. cUrcaMfaeKlub Ga ecjBIeQμaHedka. Gnuvtþn_ cUrehAeQ μaHsmasFatum:UelKuldUcxageRkam k> NF3 nigx> Cl2O7

58

]TahrN_ 1/7 cUrsresrrUbmnþm:UelKulcMeBaHsmasFatudUcxageRkam k> kabUnDIs‘ulPY x> DIsIulIkUnGiucsa RbUmY. cMelIy k> edaysarmanvtþmanGatUmkabUnmYy nigGatUms<an;F½rBIrdUecñHrUbmnþKW CS2. x> manGatUmsIulIkUnBIr nigGatUmRbUmYcMnYn6 dUecñHrUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;vaKW Si2Br6. Gnuvtþn_ sresrrUbmnþKImIcMeBaHsmasFatum:UelKuldUcxageRkam³ k> s<an;F½retRtaPøúyGrY x> DIGasUtb:g; tuksIut. 7>3 GasIut nig)as 7>3>1 karehAeQμaHGasIut GasIutRtUv)aneKcat;TukfaCasarFatumYy Edl[CaGIuy:ugGIuRdUEsn (H+) enAeBleK rMlayvaeTAkñúgTwk.

kñúgrUbmnþrbs;GasIutmanGatUmGIuRdUEsnmYyb¤eRcInEdledIrtYCaRkumGaj:úg . Gaj:úg EdlmaneQ μaHbBa©b;edayGYr ehIyGIuk begáItGasIutedayeRbIbc©wmbTGIuRdU dUcEdl)anbgðaj enAkñúgtarag5.kñúgkrNIxøHeKGacehAeQ μaHsmasFatumYy)anBIry:agdUckñúgkrNIxageRkam ÷

HCl GIuRdUEsnkørY HCl GIRdUkøricGasIut eQ μaHEdleKkMNt;cMeBaHsmasFatumYyKWGaRs½yeTAnwglkçN³rUbrbs;va.kñúgPaBCa]sμ ½n b¤GgáFaturav suT§ HCl KWCasmasFatum:UelKulmYyEdleK[eQ μaHfaGIuRdUEsnkørY. enA eBleKrMlayvaeTAkñúgTwk m:UelKul enaH)anbMEbkeTACaGIuy:ug H+ nigGIuy:ug Cl- enAkñúgPaBenH sarFatuenaHRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfaGIuRdUkøricGasIut. GuksUGasIut KWCaGasIutTaMgLayNaEdlmanGIuRdUEsn nigGuksIuEsn nigFatudéT² epSgeTot ¬FatukNþal¦. rUbmnþénGuksUGasIutCanic©CakalRtUv)aneKsresrCamYy H dMbUg ehIyenAxageRkayvamanelah³kNþal nigbnÞab;mkKWelah³ O EdlRtUv)anbBa¢ak;eday ]TahrN_xageRkam ÷

H2CO3 GasIutkabUnic HNO3 GasIutnIRTic H2SO4 GasIuts‘ulpUric HClO3 GasIutkøric

59

CaTUeTAkalNaGuksUGasIutmancMnYnBIr b¤eRcInEtgEtmanelah³kNþaldUcKña b:uEnþ cMnYnGatUmGuksIuEsnxusKña. edaycab;epþImBIGuksUGasIutEdleQ μaHvabBa©b;eday Giuc eyIg eRbIk,ÜnvadUcxageRkamedIm,IehAeQ μaHsmasFatuTaMgenH. tarag5 GasIutsmBaØmYycMnYn

Gaj:úg GasIutEdlRtUvnwgva F- PøúyGrY HF GasIutGIuRdUPøúyGric Cl- kørY HCl GasIutGIuRdUkøric Br- RbUmY HBr GasIutGIuRdURbUmic I- GIuy:UdY HI GasIutGIuRdUGIuy:UDic CN- süaNU HCN GasIutGIuRdUsüaNic S2- s‘ulpY H2S GasIutGIuRdUs‘ulpUric

- bEnßmGatUmGuksIuEsnmYyeTAelIGasIutEdlmanbc©wmbTGiuc GasIutenaHRtUv)aneK ehAeQ μaHfaGasIut Edlmanbc©wmbT EBr>>>> Giuc. dUecñHkarbEnßmGatUmGuksIuEsn mYyeTA[ GasIut HClO3 RtUvbþÚreQ μaHGasIutkøric eTACaGasIutEBrkøric HClO4. - kardkGatUmGuksIuEsnmYyecjBIGasIutGiuc GasIutenaHRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfaGasIut Edlmanbc©wmbT GW. dUecñHGasIutnIRTickøayeTACaGasIutnIRtW . - kardkGatUmGuksIuEsncMnYnBIrecjGasIut Edlmanbc©wmbTGiuc GasIutenaHRtUv)aneK ehAeQ μaHfaGa sIutGIub:U>>>>>>>>>>>>>GW. dUecñHenAeBlEdlGasIut HBrO3 RtUv)anbMElgeTACa GasIut HBrO ehIyGasIutenaHRtUv )aneK[eQμaHfaGasIutGIub:URbUmW. c,ab;kñúgkarehAeQ μaHGuksUGaj:úg Gaj:úgGuksUGasuItKWmandUcxageRkam ÷ - enAeBlEdlGIuy:ug H TaMgGs;RtUv)andkecjBIGasIutEdlmanbc©wmbTGiuc eBlenaH eQ μaHrbs;Gaj:úg enaHbBa©b;edayGat. ]TahrN_Gaj:úg CO −2

3 RtUv)aneKdkecjBIGasIut

H2CO3 KWRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfa GIuy:ugkabUNat. - enAeBlEdlGIuy:ug H+ TaMgGs;KWRtUv)aneKdkecjBIGasIutEdlmanbc©wmbTGWu eQμaH rbs;Gaj:úgenaH RtUvehAvaedaybBa©b;edayGIutenAxagcug. dUecñHGaj:úg ClO −

2 EdldkecjBI GasIut HClO2 enaHRtUv)aneK[ eQ μaHfaGIuy:ugkørIt.

60

- eQμaHénGaj:úgEdlmanGIuy:ugGIuRdUEsnmYyb¤eRcInb:uEnþminEmnTaMgGs; tUv)aneKdk ecjenaH eyIgRtUvEtbBa¢ak;BIcMnYnGatUmGIuRdUEsnEdlmanvtþman. ]TahrN_ cUrBicarNaeTA elIGaj:úgEdlRtUv)aneKdkecjBIGa sIutpUsVric. H3PO4 GasIutpUsVric

H2PO −4 DIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat

HPO −24 GIuRdUEsnpUsVat

PO −34 pUsVat

cUrkt;sMKal;fa Canic©CakaleyIglubecalbc©wmbTm:UNU enAeBlEdlmanEtGatUm H

mYyenAkñúgGaj:úg enaH. rUb 12 segçbBInamvløIsMrab;GuksUGasIut nigGuksUGaj:úg ehIytarag 2>6 KWCatarag Edl[eQ μaHBIGuksUGasIut nigGuksUGaj:úg EdlmanpÞúkFatukør. tarag6 eQ μaHénGuksUGasIut nigGuksUGaj:úgEdlmanpÞúkFatukør GasIut Gaj:úg HClO4 GasIutEBrkøric HClO3 GasIutkøric HClO2 GasIutkørW HClO GasIutGIub:UkørW

ClO −4 EBrkør:at

ClO −3 kør:at

ClO −2 kørIt

ClO- GIub:UkørIt ]TahrN_xageRkamenHvaTak;TgeTAnwgnamvløIcMeBaHGasIutGuksU nigGaj:úgGuksU.

]TahrN_ 1/8 cUrehAeQ μaHGasIutGuksU nigGaj:úgGuksU k> HBrO x> HSO −4

cMelIy k> eyIgcab;epþImCamYyGasIutedImrbs;eyIgKWGasIutpUsVric (H3PO4). edaysar H3PO3 man GatUmGuksIuEsnEtBIrbIb:ueNÑaH dUecñHeKehAeQ μaHGasIutenHfaCaGasIut pUsVrW.

x> GasIutparinKWmanrUbmnþ HIO4. edaysarGasIutenHmanGatUmGuksIuEsn ticCagGasIutedIm KWGasIut (HIO3) ticCagmYy dUecñHGasIutenHeK[eQ μaHfaEBrIy:UDic. dUecñH Gaj:úgEdldkecjBI HIO4 KWeK [eQμaHfaGIuy:ugEBrIy:Udat.

Gnuvtþn_³ cUrehAeQ μaHGasIutGuksU nigGaj:úgGuksUdUcxageRkamenH ÷

k> HBrO x> HSO −4

61

7>3>2 karehAeQ μaH)as eKGaccat;Tukfa)asKWCasarFatumYyEdl[GIuy:ug OH- enAeBlEdleKrMlayvaeTA kñúgTwk. xageRkam enHKWCa]TahrN¾mYycMnYnrbs;)as ÷

NaOH sUdüÚmGIuRduksIut KOH b:UtasüÚmGIuRduksIut Ba(OH)2 )ar:üÚmGIuRduksIut Gam:Uj:ak;EdlmanrUbmnþmU:elKul NH3 KWCasmasFatum:UelKulmYyEdlsßitenAkñúg PaBCa]sμ½n b¤PaBCa GgÁFaturavsuT§ ehIyk¾RtUv)aneKcat;TukfaCa)assmBaØmYy. ebIemIl mYyEPøteTAvahak;bIdUcCaK μanlkçN³sMKal;Ca)aseT b:uEnþebIemIlva[kan;EtyUreTA vaCa sarFatumYyEdlpþl;GIuy:ug OH- enAeBlEdlvarlayeTAkñúgTwk edaymincM)ac;manGIuy:ug GIuRduksIulenAkñúgTMrg;m:UelKulrbs;va edIm,IsMKal;Ca)aseLIy. b:uEnþCakarBitenAeBlEdl m:UelKulGam:Uj:ak;rlaycUleTAkñúgTwkEpñkxøHrbs; NH3 vamanRbtikmμCamYyTwkedIm,IbegáItCa GIuy:ug NH +

4 nigOH- ehtudUecñHehIy)anCaeKcat;TukvaCa)as. 7>4 GIuRdat

GIuRdatKWCasmasFatuTaMgLayNaEdlmancMnYnm:UelKulTwkCak;lak;mYyP¢ab;enAnwgva.Ca]TahrN_ enAPaBsþg;daxñatnImYy²énTg;EdgIIs‘ulpatmanm:UelKul TwkcMnYn R)aM m:UelKulenAP¢ab;nwgva.karehAeQ μaHtamRbB½n§GnþrCatiénsmasFatuTg;Edgs‘ulpatR)aMGIuRda etEdlrUbmnþrbs;vaRtUv)aneKsresrCa CuSO4.5H2O.eKGacdkm:UelKulTwkecj)an eday kardutkMedA. enAeBlEdleyIgdutkMedAeTAsmasFatuEdlenAsl;KW CuSO4 EdleBl xøHRtUv)aneKehAeQ μaHfa Tg;Edgs‘ulpatGanId Edlmann½yfaCasmasFatuEdlKμanTwkenA Cab;vateTAeTot. CuSO4.5H2O manBN’exov CuSO4 manBN’s. smasFatuGIuRdatxøH epSgeTotKW ÷

BaCl2.H2O )ar:üÚmkørYDIGIuRdat LiCl.H2O lIcUmkørYm:UNUGIuRdat MgSO4.7H2O m:aej:süÚms‘ulpatGiubtaGIuRdat Sr(NO3)2.4H2O Rság;cUmnIRtatetRtaGIuRdat

62

tarag7 xageRkamenHmaneQ μaHEdleKehAtamRbB½n§smBaØ énsmasFatuxøH rUbmnþ namFmμta namehAtamRbB½n§GnþrCati CaSO4.2H2O mñagsila kal;süÚms‘ulpatDIGIuRdat H2O Twk DIGIuRdUEsnGuksIut NH3 Gam:Uj:ak; RTIGIuRdUEsnnIRtY CO2 Twkkks¶Üt kabUnDIGuksIutrwg NaCl GMbilsMl sUdüÚmkørY N2O ]sμ ½nsMeNIc DIGasUtGuksIut ¬GuksIutnIRtW¦ CaCO3 fμkMe)ar dIs kal;süÚmkabUNat CaO kMe)ars kal;süÚmGuksIut Ca(OH)2 TwkkMe)ar kal;süÚmGIuRduksIut NaHCO3 emnM sUdüÚmGIuRdUEsnkabUNat Na2CO3.10H2O sUdasMrab;lag sUdüÚmkabUNatedkaGIuRdat MgSO4.7H2O GMbil Epsom m:g;kaENss‘ulpatGiubtaGIuRdat Mg(OH)2 TwkedaHeKam;aej:süÚm m:g;kaENsGIuRduksIut

7>5 smasFatuGsrIragÁEdlsamBaØ smasFatuxøH KWRtUv)aneKdwgy:agc,as;edayeQ μaHsmBaØrbs;va CaCagkarcaMeQ μaH rbs;vatamkarehAtamRbB½n§GnþrCati. ]TahrN_smBaØ²mYycMnYn KWRtUv)aneKdak;enAkñúg tarag 7. 7>6 karsegçbRBwtþikarN_ nigbBaØtiepSg² 1> KImITMenIbKWcab;epþImBIRTwsþIrbs;elak Dalton EdlbBa¢ak;faRKb;rUbFatuTaMgGs;KWpSM eLIgBIPaKl¥ittUcbMputEdleKminGacemIleXIj ehAfaGatUm ehIyGatUmTaMgGs;énFatuxøH KWdUcKñaebHbiT EdlsmasFatuTaMgenaHmanpÞúknUvGatUménFatuxus²Kña EdlpSMKñakñúgpleFob cMnYnsrubmYy ehIyGatUmTaMgGs;enaHeKminGacbegáIt b¤bMpøajvatamRbtikm μKImI)aneT ¬c,ab;rkSam:as¦.

63

2> GatUmTaMgGs;rbs;FatupSMEdlsßitenAkñúgsmasFatumYyCanic©CakalKWpSMeLIgkñúg pleFobCam:asdUcKña ¬c,ab;smaRtkMNt;¦ enAeBlEdlFatuBIrGacpSMKñaedIm,IbegáItCa smasFatumYy b¤eRcIn RbePTenaH m:asénFatumYyEdlpSMCamYym:askMNt;énFatudéTeTot enaHKWsßitenAkñúgpleFobcMnYnsrubtUcbMput ¬c,ab;BhusmamaRt¦. 3> GatUmmYymanpÞúknUvéNVyU:kNþalmYyEdlRkas;CaTIbMput ehIyéNVy:UkNþalenaH manpÞúknUvRbUtug nigNWRtug EdlmaneGLicRtugvilCMuvijéNVy:UkñúgcMgayy:agEvgBIva. 4> RbUtugmanbnÞúkGKÁisnIviC¢man NWtRtugKμanbnÞúkGKÁisnIeT cMENkÉeGLicRtugman bnÞúkGKÁisnIGviC¢man. RbUtug nigeGLicRtugmanm:asdUcKña Edlmanm:asF¶n;Cagm:asrbs; eGLicRtugRbEhlCa 1840dg. 5> elxlMdab;énFatumYy KWCacMnYnRbUtugenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUmmYyrbs;FatuenaH ehIy vaCaGñkkMNt;[lkçN³sMKal;énFatuenaHeTotpg. cMnYnm:as KWCaplbUksrubrvagm:as;RbUtug nigm:asrbs;NWRtugEdlsßitenAkñúgéNVy:U. 6> GIusUtUbKWCaGatUménFatudUcKñaEdlmancMnYnRbUtugdUcKñab:uEnþcMnYnNWRtugrbs;vaxusKña 7> rUbmnþm:UelKulKWpSMeLIgBInimitþsBaØaénFatubgáTaMgGs; rYmCamYynwg cMnYnsnÞsSn_ TaMgGs;rbs;FatuTaMgenaH edIm,IbgðajBIRbePT nigcMnYnGatUm EdlpSMkñúgxñatd¾tUcbMputén smasFatumYy. 8> rUbmnþm:UelKul )anbgðaj[eXIjBIcMnYnCak;lak; nigBIRbePTGatUmEdlpSMenAkñúg m:UelKulénsmaFatunImYy². rUbmnþgaybgðajnUvpleFobtUcbMputénGatUm EdlpSMenAkñúg m:UelKulmYy. 9> smasFatuKImIGacCasmasFatum:UelKul ¬EdlmanxñattUcbMput KWCam:UelKulmYy enAdac;BIKña¦ b¤CasmasFatuGIuy:ugFatuGIuy:ug ¬EdlGIuy:ugviC¢man nigGviC¢mantP¢ab;Kña eday TMnajeTAvijeTAmk¦. smasFatuGIuy:ugKWbgáeLIgBIkacug nigGaj:ugEdlekIteLIgenAeBl EdlGatUm)at;b¤cMeNjeGLicRtug. 10> eQμaHrbs;smasFatuGsrIragÁmYycMnYn eKGackat;bnßyBIc,ab;smBaØ²mYycMnYn )an. rUbmnþrbs;va eKGacsresrBIeQμaHrbs;smasFatuTaMgenaH)an.

64

7>7 bMENgEckFatuenAelIEpndI nigenAkñúgRbB½n§rs;enA GgÁFatuPaKeRcInKWekIteLIgBIFm μCati etIGgÁFatuTaMgenHEbgEcky:agdUcemþcenAelI EpndI ehIyGgÁFatumYyNa Edlmansar³sMxan;enAkñúgRbB½n§ rs;enA? sMbkEpndIKWmanRbEvg 40KILÚEm:RtBIépÞEpndI edaysar EtmankarlM)akxagbec©keTseFVI[GñkviTüasaRsþ minGacsikSa )anBIPaBpSMxagkñúgénEpndI)an RsYldUcsMbkEpndIeT. eTaHbICa y:agNak¾eday k¾eKeCOfavamansñÚlxagkñúgmYy rwgEdr EdlPaK eRcInpSMeLIgBIEdkenAcMBak;kNþalénépÞEpndIehIyenACMviujsñÚl enaHKW manRsTab;mYyEdleK[eQμaHfaRsTab;RKbdNþb; ¬Mantle¦ Edlman GgÁFatuekþA ehIyGgÁFaturavekþAenaH manpÞúkCatiEdk kabun sIulIkUn nigs<an;F½r. kñúgcMeNamFatuTaMg83EdleKrkeXIjenAkñúgFm μCati manFatucMnYn 12 EdlbgáeLIgBI sMbkEpndI EdlKitCam:as;mancMnYn99, 7PaKry. FatuTaMgGs;enaHman O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca,

Mg, Na, K, Ti, H, P nigMn CaedIm. enAkñúgkarBiPakSaKñaBIPaBelIslb;énGgÁFatu eyIg KYr caMfa ³

1> FatuTaMgGs;minEbgEcges μ I²KñaenAelIsMbkEpndIeT 2> FatuPaKeRcInKWekIteLIgkñúgTMrg;CasmasFatu. RBwtþikarN_TaMgenH )anpþl;[eyIgnUvlkçN³RKw³mYycMeBaHviFId¾smBaØbMputkñúgkaryk

FatusuT§ecjBIsmasFaturbs;va. GñknwgeXIjviFIenHenACMBUkeRkay.

rUb14 PaKryCam:as; énFatuCaEdlmanvtþmanenAkñúg 100RkaménPaKsMNak

65

¬a¦ PaKryCam:as;énGgÁFatuEdlmaneRcInelIslubenAkñúgFmμCati. ]TahrN_ PaK eRcInelIslubénGuksIuEsn KW 45,5 PaKry. enHmann½yfaenAkñúg 100 RkaménPaKsMNak rbs;sMbkEpndICamFümmanFatuGuksIuEsncMnYn 45,5Rkam.

¬b¦ FatuelIslubenAkñúgxøÜnmnusSKitPaKryCam:as;. taragP¢ab;enHKW)anraymkCamYynUvFatusMxan;²mYycMnYn EdlsßitenAkñúgxøÜnmnusSeyIg

FatuEdlsMxan; TaMgGs;enaHKWdUcCa Fe, Cu, Zn, I, Co CaedIm EdlpSMKñaeTAbegáIt)anCam:as; 1PaKrykñúgcMeNamm:asrbs;xøÜneyIgTaMgmUl. FatuTaMgenHmansarsMxan;Nas;sMrab;naTICIv³ dUcCakarlUtlas; kardwkCBa¢ÜnGukEsnsMrab;eFVIemtabUlIs nigsMrab;karBarCMgW. enAkñúgxøÜn mnusSeyIgbrimaNFatuTaMgGs;enHmanlMnwgminmaMmYneT kalNaFatuTaMgGs;enHmanticRCul b¤eRcInRCulyUr²eTAvanwgGacnaM[manCMgWF¶n;F¶r manCMgWviklcrik b¤GacbNþal[søab;eTot pg. tarag8 FatusMxan;²EdlmanenAkñúgxøÜnmnusS

Fatu PaKryCam:as; Fatu PaKryCam:as; GuksIuEsn kabUn GIuRdUEsn GasUt kal;süÚm pUsVr b:UtasüÚm s<an;F½r kør

65 18 10 3 1,5 1,2 0,2 0,2 0,2

sUdüÚm m:aej:süÚm Edk kU)al; Tg;Edg sgá½sI GIuy:Ut eselj:Úm PøúyGr

0,1 0,05 0,05

<0,05 <0,05 <0,05 <0,05 0,01 0,01

66

BaküKnøwH kacug TMB½r17 (Cation)

kaMrsμI α TMB½r6 (Alpha (α ) rays) kaMrsμIγ TMB½r6 (Gamma (γ ) rays) kaMrsμI β TMB½r6 ( Beta ( β ) rays) Rkum TMB½r13 (Groups) xYb TMB½r13 ( Period) KMeragFatuEdlmaneRcInTMrg; TMB½r18 ( Allotrope) c,ab;BhusmamaRt TMB½r2 (Law of multiple proportions) c,ab;smamaRtkMNt ;TMB½r2 ( Law of definite proportions) c,ab;rkSam:as; TMB½r3 ( Law of conservation of mass) cMnYnm:as; ATMB½r11 ( Mass number A ) taragxYb TMB½r13 ( Periodic table ) NWtRtug TMB½r10 ( Neutron) éNVy:UTMB½r ( Nucleus) RbUtug TMB½r9 ( Proton)

)as TMB½r32 ( Base)

PaKl¥itα TMB½r6 ( Alpha (α ) particles) PaKl¥it β TMB½r6 ( Beta ( β ) particles ) m:UelKul TMB½r15 ( Molecule) m:UelKulDIGatUmTMB½r16 ( Diatomic molecule ) rUbmnþgay TMB½r19 ( Empirical formula) rUbmnþm:UelKul TMB½r19(Molecular formula) rUbmnþKImITMB½r 18 ( Chemical formula) viTüúskm μ TMB½r6 ( Radiation )

elxGatUm TMB½r11 ( Atomic number (Z) ) elah³ TMB½r14 (Metal) elah³Gal;kaLaMg TMB½r15 ( Alkali metal) elah³Gal;kalINUETrWu TMB½r15 ( Alkali earth metal)

smasFatuRtIPaK TMB½r 24 (Ternary compound) skmμPaBviTüúskmμ TMB½r6 ( Radioactivity) smasFatuGIuy:ug TMB½r23(Ionic compound) smasFatueTVPaK TMB½r27 ( Binary compound) Rslay TMB½r13 ( Families) Gelah³TMB½r14 (Nonmetal) GatUmTMB½r 1 (Atom ) GasIut TMB½r 29 ( Acid )

Gaj:úg TMB½r 17 (Anion) GaLÚEsn TMB½r15 ( Halogen) GIuy:ugm:UNUGatUm TMB½r18(Monoatomic ion) GIuy:ugb:UlIGatUm TMB½r18 ( Polyatomic ion ) GIuRdat TMB½r33 ( Hydrate )

GIuy:ug TMB½r17 ( Ion) GIusUtUb TMB½r11 ( Isotope) GMpUrETr TMB½r14 ( Metalloid) eGLicRtugTMB½r5( Electron) GuksUGaj:úg TMB½r31 ( Oxoanion ) GuksUGasIutTMB½r30 ( Oxoacid) ]sμ ½nkMr:TMB½r 15 ( Noble gas)

67

sMNYr TMrg;énGatUm lMhat;rMlwk

1. cUr[niymn½yénBaküxageRkamenH³ k> PaKl¥itα x> PaKl¥it β K>kaMrsμ I γ X> kaMrsμ I X

2 > cUr[eQμaHRbePT viTüúskmμEdleKsÁal;faRtUv)anbnSayedayFatuviTüúskmμ. 3 >cUreRbobeFoblkçN³dUcteTAenH ³ PaKl¥itα , kaMrsμ IkatUt, RbUtug/NWtRtug/eGLicRtug. 4 >etIPaKl¥itRKw³(Fundamental particles)mann½yfay:agdUcemþc? 5 > cUrBiBN’naBITsSn³rbs;GñkviTüaxageRkamenHcMeBaHcMeNHdwgrbs;eyIgsþIGMBITMrg;GatUm³

elak J.J.Thomson, elak R.A.MilliKan elak Ernest Rutherford, elak James Chadwick

6 >cUrBiBN’naBImUldæanénBiesaFcMeBaHkareCOfaéNVy:UmanpÞúknUvRbPaKtUcbMputmYyénmaD nig GatUm. 7 > Ggát;p©iténGatUmeGlüÚmNWtmYyKWmanRbEhl 1x 102 pm. edaysn μt;faeyIgGac KUs bnÞat;GatUmeGlüÚm BIRCugmçageTARCugmçageTotedIm,ITak;TgeTAnwgGatUmmYyepSgeTot)an. cMnYnRbEhlfaetImanGatUmcMnYnb:un μan EdleKRtUvkaredIm,I[cMgayBIcugmçag eTAcugmçageTot manRbEvg 1 cm?

8 >niyay[BiteTAkaMrbs;rbs;GatUmmYyKWFMCagkaMrbs;éNVy:UcMnYn 10.000 dg. enAeBlEdl GatUmmYyRtUv)aneKBRgIk[FMenAeBlenaHkaMéNVyUrbs;vaKWmanRbEvg 2 cmKWes μ InwgTMhMrbs;fμ Marble.etIkaMGatUmenaH manRbEvges μ Ib:un μan miles?(1mi = 1609 m). elxlMdab; cMnYnm:as; nigGIusUtUb sMNYrrMlwk

9 > eRbIeGlüÚmEdlmanGIusUtUb4edIm,IkMNt;elxlMdab; nigcMnYnm:as;. ehtuGVI)anCakardwgelx lMdab;minGac R)ab;eyIgBIkarfycMnYneGLicRtugEdlman vtþmanenAkñúgGatUmmYyGBa©wg? 10>ehtuGVI)anCaGatUmTaMgGs;énFatumYymanelxlMdab;dUcKñaebIeTaHbIvamanm:asxusKñak¾ eday? 11 etIeyIgehAGatUménFatudUcKñaehIymanm:as;dUcKñay:agdUcemþc?

68

lMhat; 12. cUrBnül;BIGtßn½yénBakünImYy²enakñúgnimitþsBaØaénFatu A

Z X

13 > etIm:as;énGatUmEdkEdlmancMnYnNWRtug 28 mancMnYnb:un μan? 14 >KNnacMnYnNWRtugén Pu-238. 15 > cMeBaHRbePTKImInImYy²xageRkamenH cUrkMNt;cMnYnNWtRtugenAkñúgéNVy:Urbs;va³

32 He, 4

2 He, 2412 Mg , 25

12 Mg , 4822 Ti , 79

35 Br , 19578 Pt

16 > cUrbBa¢ak;BIcMnYnRbUtug/ NWtRtug/ nigeGLicRtugenAkñúgRbePTKImInImYy²xageRkamenH³ 15

7 N, 3316 S , 63

29 Cu, 8438 Sr , 130

56 Ba , 18674 W, 202

80 Hg

17 > sresrnimitþsBaØaEdlsmRsbcMeBaHGIusUtUbnImYy²dUcxageRkam³ k> Z=11 ,A=23 x> Z= 28, A= 59

18 > sresrnimitþsBaØaEdlsmRsbcMeBaHGIusUtUbnImYy²dUcxageRkam³ k> Z=74 ,A=186 x> Z= 80, A= 201

taragxYb sMNYrrMlwk

19 > etIGVICataragxYb? ehIyetIvamansar³RbeyaCn_GVIenAkñúgkarsikSaKImIviTüa? 20. cUrR)ab;BIlkçN³xusKñaBIry:agrvagelah³ nigGelah³? 21 > sresreQμaH nignimitþsBaØacMeBaHFatubYnenAkñúgcMENkfñak;nImYy²xageRkam³ k> Gelah³ x> elah³ K> GMpUETr 22 > cUr[niymn½yénBaküxageRkamedayP¢ab;mkCamYynUv]TahrN_BIr²pg³ k> elah³Gal;kaLaMg x> elah³Gal;kalINUETb¤u K> GaLÚEsn X> ]s μ ½nkMr: lMhat; 23>elah³EdlbBa©b;edayGUmCanic©CakalvaCaelah³dUcCasUdüÚmCaedIm. cUrrkBIGelah³ EdleQ μaH rbs;vabBa©b;edayGUmEdr? 24. cUrBIBN’naBIkarERbRbYllkçN³¬BIelah³eTAGelah³b¤BIGelah³eTAelah³vij¦enA eBlEdleyIgKitBIelImkeRkamtamRkum nigBIsþaMmkeqVgtamxYb. 25. BiPakSaBIesovePAsresrTinñn½yrUbnigKImI sYrRKUENnaMrbs;GñkemIlfa etIGñkGacsresr kñúgesovePA sresrenAkEnøgNaedIm,Irk[eXIjBI³ k> elah³BIrEdlmandg;sIuettUcCagTwk x> elah³BIrEdlmandg;sIuetFMCag)art K> Rkas;CageKbg¥s;EdleKsÁal;faFatuelah³rwg

69

X> dg;sIuetFMCageKbg¥s;EdleKehAfaFatu Gelah³rwg. m:UelKulnigGIuy:ug sMNYrrMlwk 27. etIGatUmnigm:UelKulmanlkçN³xusKñay:agdUcemþc? 28>dUcemþcEdlehAfaFatuEdlmanTMrg;vismrUb ¬allotrope¦? cUr[]TahrN_. etIFatuEdl manKMerag eRcInTMrg;xusKñaBIGIusUtUby:agdUcemþcEdr? 29. cUrBiBN’naBIkareRbIKMrUm:UelKulBIrEdlsamBaØ? 30 > cUr[]TahrN_cMeBaHBakünImYy²dUcxageRkamenH ÷

k> kacugm:UNUGatUm x> Gaj:úgm:UNUGatUm K> kacugb:UlIGatUm X> Gaj:úgb:UlIGatUm

lMhat; 31 > cUrbBa¢ak;nUvrUbmnþxageRkamenHfavaCaFatub¤CasmasFatu?

NH3, N2, S8, NO, CO, CO2, H2, SO2. 32 >cUr[]TahrN_BIrcMeBaHBakünImYy²xageRkamenH ÷

k> m:UelKulDIGatUmEdlmanGatUménFatudUcKña x> m:UelKulDIGatUmEdlmanGatUménFatxusKña K> m:UelKulb:UlIGatUmEdlmanGatUménFatudUcKña X> m:UelKulb:UlIGatUmEdlmanGatUménFatuxusKña

33. cUrR)ab;BIcMnYnRbUtug nigeGLicRtugenAkñúgGIuy:ugsmBaØnImYy²xageRkam ÷

Na+ Ca2+ Al3+ Fe2+ I- F- S2- O2- nig N3-. 34. cUrR)ab;BIcMnYnRbUtug nigeGLicRtugenAkñúgGIuy:ugsmBaØnImYy²xageRkam ÷

K+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Br- , Mn2+, C4-, Cu2+. rUbmnþm:UelKul lMhat;rMlwk

35. etIrUbmnþKImItMNag[GVI? etIpleFobénGatUmenAkñúgrUbmnþm:UelKulxageRkamenHdUcemþc? k> NO x> NCl3 K> N2O4 X> P4O6

36. cUr[niymn½yénrUbmnþm:UelKul nigrUbmnþgay. etImanGVIdUcKña nigxusKñarvag rUbmnþ

70

m:UelKul nigrUbmnþgayrbs;smasFatumYy. 37. cUr[]TahrN_mYykñúgkrNIénM;UelKulBIrEdlmanrUbmnþm:UelKulxusKñab:uEnþmanrUbmnþgay dUcKña. 38. etI P4 mann½yfay:agdUcemþc? etIvaxusKñanwg 4P y:agdUcemþc? 39. etIGVICasmasFatuGIuy:ug? etIPaBNWtGKÁisnIEdlrkSaenAkñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ugdUcemþceTA? 40. cUrBnül;ehtuGVI)anCarUbmnþKImIénsmasFatuGIuy:ugCanic©CakaldUcKñanwgrUbmnþgayrbs;va GBa©wg? lMhat; 41. etIrUbmnþgayénsmasFatuxageRkamenHy:agdUcemþc?

k> C2N2 x> C6H6 K> C9H20 X> P4O10 g> B2H6

42. etIrUbmnþgayénsmasFatuxageRkamenHy:agdUcemþc? k> Al2Br6 x> Na2S2O4 K> N2O5 X> K2Cr2O7

43. cUrsresrrUbmnþm:UelKulénKøIsIun/énGasIutGamINUEdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgRb:UetGIun. BN’ RbepHKW kabUn BN’exovKWGasUt BN’RkhmKWGuksIuEsn nigBN’elOgKWGIuRdUEsn. 44. sresrrUbmnþm:UelKuléneGtaNul. BN’RbepHKW kabUn BN’RkhmKWGuksIuEsn nigBN’ elOgKWGIuRdUEsn.

45. etIsmasFatuxageRkamenHsmasFatumYyNa EdlmanTMenareTArksmasFatuGIuy:ug? ehIy smasFatumYyNaEdlmanTMenareTArksmasFatum:UelKul? SiCl4 , LiF, BaCl2 , B2H6, KCl, C2H4

BN’elOg BN’Rkhm

BN’RbepH

BN’elOg BN’Rkhm

BN’RbepH BN’exov

71

46.etIsmasFatuxageRkamenHsmasFatumYyNaEdlmanTMenareTArksmasFatuGIuy:ug? ehIysmasFatu mYyNaEdlmanTMenareTArksmasFatum:UelKul? CH4, NaBr, BaF2, CCl4 , ICl, CsCl, NF3.

karehAeQμaHsmasFatuGsrIragÁ sMNYrrMlwk

47. etImanGVIxusKñarvagsmasFatusrIragÁ nigsmasFatuGsrIragÁ? 48. etIEpñksMxan;bYYnrbs;smasFatuGsrIragÁmanGVIxøH? 49. cUr[]TahrN_mYycMeBaHsmasFatueTVrFatu nigsmasFatuRtIFatu? 50. etIRbB½n§ Stock CaGVI?etIvamansarRbeyaCn_GVIeTAelIRbB½n§cas;kñúgkarehAeQ μaHkacug? 51. cUrBnül;faehtuGVI)anCarUbmnþ HCl GactagedayRbB½n§KImIBIrxusKñadUecñH? 52. cUr[niymn½yGasIut )as GuksUGasIut GuksUGaj:úg nigGIuRdat. lMhat; 53. cUrehAeQ μaHsmasFatuxageRkamenH ÷

k> KH2PO4 x> K2HPO4, K> HBr(g) X> HBr(Twk) g> Li2CO3

c> K2Cr2O7 q> NH4NO2 C> HIO3 Q> PF5 j> P4O6

d> CdI2 f> SrSO4 D> Al(OH)3

54 >cUrehAeQ μaHsmasFatudUcxageRkam ÷ k> KClO x> Ag2CO3 K> HNO2 X> KMnO4 g> CsClO3 c> KNH4SO4 q> FeO C> Fe2O3 Q> TiCl4 j> NaH

d> Li3N f> Na2O2

55 >sresrrUbmnþsMrab;smasFatudUcxageRkam ÷ k> ruybIj:ÚmnIRTIt x> b:UtasüÚms‘ulPIt K> sUdüÚmGIuRdUEsns‘ulPIt X> m:aej:süÚmpUsVat g> kal;süÚmGIuRdUEsns‘ulpat c> b:UtasüÚmDIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat q> GIuy:UDUGiubtaPøúyGrY C> Gam:Uj:Úms‘ulpat Q> R)ak;EBrkør:at j> brRTIkørY

56. sresrrUbmnþsMrab;smasFatudUcxageRkam ÷

k> Tg;Edg(I)süaNY x> Rság;cUmkørIt K> GasIutEBrRbUmic X> GasIutGIuy:UDIRDic g> DIsUdüÚmGam:Uj:ÚmpUsVat c> sMNrkabUNat q> sMNr)a:haMg(II)PøúyGrY C> etRtapUsVrYedkas‘ulPIt Q> )art (II)GuksIut

72

j> )art(I) GIuy:UDY d> eslüÚmGiucsaPøúyGrY. cMelIy ]TahrN_ Gnuvtþn_ 1.1 29 RbUtug 34 NWtRtug 29 eGLicRtug 1.2 CHCl3 1.3 C4H5N2O 1.4 k- sMN (II) GuksIt x- lIcUmsu‘lPIt 1.5 k- Rb2SO4 x- BaH2

1.6 k- GasUtRTIPøúyGrY x- DIkørYGiubtaGuksuIt 1.7 k- SF4 x- N2O5

1.8 k- GasuItGIub:URbUmU x- GuIy:ug GIuRdUEsns‘ulpat

75

CMBUkTI2 TMnak;TMngma:skñúgRbtikmμKImI

Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions

1 ma:sGatUm Atomic Mass

ma:srbs;GatUmmYy vaGaRs½yeTAelIcMnYneGLicRtug RbUtug nig NWRtugrbs;GatUm enaH. kardwgBIma:sGatUm vamansar³sMxan;Nas;enAkñúgkargarBiesaFn_ b:uEnþGatUm KWCa PaKl¥itd¾tUcbMputsUm,IEtFUlImYyRKab; EdlcUlEPñkrbs;ebIKitCaGatUm KWmanrhUtdl; 1016

GatUm . vaCakarBitNas;EdlfaeyIgminGacføwgGatUmEtmYy)aneT b:uEnþeyIgGackMNt;nUv ma:sGatUmmYy)an edayBwgEp¥keTAelIGatUmmYyeTotedaykarBiesaFn_ . C¿han dMbUgKWeyIg RtUvkMNt;tMélrbs;GatUménFatuEdlsÁal;mYy eFVIdUcenHKWeyIgGaceRbIvaCama:sGatUmsþg;da .

ebItamGnþrCati ma:sGatUm KWCama:srbs;GatUmkñúgmYyxñatGatUm. mYyxñatma:s GatUm ¬x/G¦ RtUv)aneKkMNt; es μ Inwg 1/12 énma:sGatUmkabUn12 mYy. kabUn12 KWCakabUn GIusUtUb Edlman 6RbUtug nig6NWRtug. karkMNt; ma:sGatUmkabUn12 esμ Inwg12 pþl;eGayeyIg nUvsþg;da edIm,IkMNt;ma:sGatUmrbs;FatudéT²eTot. ]TahrN_ karBiesaFn_)anbgðajfa CamFümGatUmGIuRdUEsnmYyKWmantMélRtwmEt 8,400 PaKry énGatUm kabUn12 dUecñH RbsinebIma:sGatUmkabuUn12 esμ Inwg12 x>G> ¬xñatm:asGatUm¦ naMeGayeyIg)anma:s GatUmrbs;GIuRdUEsnKW 0,084 x 12 x>G rW 1,008 x>G. karKNnaRsedogenHEdrbgðajfa eTaHbICaeyIgminsÁal; nUvma:sGatUmmFüm rbs;GatUmEdkmYyk¾eday k¾eyIgdwgfa vamantMélRbhak;RbEhlnwg 56dg énma:sGatUm GIuRdUEsnmYy . cMNaM mYyxñatma:sGatUm ¬x>G¦ GacehA)anmüa:geTotfa mYydal;tun (Dalton) .

1>1 ma:s;GatUmmFüm Average Atomic Mass

enAeBlEdleyIgemIlBIma:sGatUmkabUnkñúgtaragxYb eyIgnwgeXIjtMélrbs;vaKWmin Emn esμ Inwg12x>G Kt;eT KWvamantMél 12,01 x>G . mUlehtu EdlbNþaleGaymanPaBxus KñaenH KWedaysarEtFatuTaMgLayNa EdlekIteLIgeday FmμCatirYmTaMgkabUn KWman GIusUtUbeRcInCagmYy . enHmann½yfa enAeBlEdleyIgvas;ma:s GatUmmYy CaFm μta eyIgRtUv rkma:sGatUmmFümrbs;FatuTaMgLayNa EdlekIteLIg eday l,ayGIusUtUb . ]TahrN_ GIusUtUbFm μCatirbs;kabUn12 KWmanrhUtdl; 98,90° nigkabUn 13 manEt1,1°. ma:sGatUm

76

kabUn 13 KWmantMél 13,00335 x>G . dUcenH ma:sGatUmkabUn mFümGacKNna )andUc xageRkamenH ³ ma:sGatUmmFümrbs;kabUnFmμCati = (0,9890) (12,0000 x>G ) + (0,0110) (13,00335)

= 12,0 x>G karKNnaeGay)anRtwmRtUvKWpþl;nUvma:sGatUmkabUnesμ Inwg 12,01 x>G . cMNaMenAkñúg

karKNna EdlmanTak;TgeTAnwgPaKry eyIgRtUvbþÚrBIPaKryeTACaRbPaK . ]TahrN_ 98,90% bþÚrCa 98,90/100 b¤ 0,9890. eday sarEtmankabUn 12 enAkñúgFm μCatieRcInCag kabUn 13 dUcenHma:sGatUmmFümrbs;kabUnKWeyIgyktMéleTAtamkabUnEdlsMbUrCageK KW kabUn 12. eyIgKYrkt;sMKal;fa enAeBlEdleyIgniyayBIma:sGatUmkabUn Edlmanma:s 12,01x>G KWeyIgsMedAeTAelIma:sGatUmmFümrbs;va . RbsinebIGatUmkabUnTaMgLay Edl GacdwgBIma:sdac;²nImYy²rbs;va eyIgGaceXIjBIma:sGatUmTaMgBIrrbs;vaKW 12,0000 x>G rW 13,0035x>G . ]TahrN_xageRkambgðajBIviFIKNnama:sGatUmmFümrbs;FatuKImImYy² . ]TahrN_TI1 ³ Tg;Edg Caelah³EdleK)ansÁal;CaTUeTAtaMgBIedImmk RtUv)aneKykmkeRbI enAkñúgkareFVIExS kabGKÁIsnI kak; nig vtßúdéTeTotCaeRcIn . ma:sGatUménGIusUtUbTaMgBIrrbs;va

Cu6329 (69,09%) nig Cu65

29 (30,91) KW 62,93 nig 64,9278 tamerog . cUrKNnama:sGatUm mFümrbs; Cu ? cMelIy C¿handMbUgKWeyIgRtUvbþÚrBIPaKryeTACaRbPaK . dUcenH 69,09% eTACa 0,6909 ehIy 30,91 eTACa 0,3091 . bnÞab;mkeyIgKNnama:sGatUmmFümdUcteTA ³ ( 0,6909)(62,93 ) + (0,3091) (64,9278) = 63,55

cMNaM ma:sGatUmPaKeRcInRtUv)ankMNt;eGay)anRtwmRtUvedayykelxCak;lak;cMnYn5 b¤ 6 EteTaHbICaya:g NaCaFmμtaeyIgeRbIma:sGatUmrbs;FatuedayykEtbYnelxCak;lak; . lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾³ ma:sGatUmGIusUtUbesßrPaBrbs;b½½r %)78,19(10

5 B nig %)22,80(115 B KW

10,0129 x>G nig 11,0093 x>G tamerog . cUrKNnama:sGatUmmFümrbs;b½r ? 2>ma:sm:Ulrbs;FatunigcMnYnGav:UkaRdU Molar Mass of an Element and Avogadro’s Number

xñatma:sGatUmGacpþl;eGayeyIg nUvkMritmYysMrab;KNnama:sGatUmrbs;FatuTaMg Lay . b:uEnþedayGatUmTaMgLaymanma:stUceBk dUcenHK μan]bkrN_NamYy EdlRtUv)an begáIteLIgedImI,vas;ma:sGatUmeT. tamBiteyIg eyIgKNnama:srbs;GatUm edayeRbI PaKsMNakd¾FM EdlrYmmancMnYnGatUmd¾eRcIn ehtudUcenHehIy)anCacaM)ac;RtUvmanÉkta

77

d¾BiessmYysMrab;kMNt;cMnYnd¾eRcInénGatUm . KMniténkarbegáItÉktaedIm,Ivas;nUvcMnYnNamYy enaHvaBuMmanlkçN³fμ IenaHeT . ]TahrN_ ³ mYyKU ¬BIr¦ mYyLÚ ¬12¦ nig mYye®hÁas ¬144¦ TaMgGs;enH KWCaÉktaEdleyIgdwgRKb;Kña . KImIviTUvas;GatUm nig m:UelKulTaMgLayCam:Ul .

tamRbB½n§GnþrCati SI m:Ul (mol) KWCabrimaNénsarFatuEdlrYmman FatudMbUg ¬GatUm m:UelKul rWPaKl¥it ¦ dUcEdlmanenAkñúgGatUmkabUnGIusUtUb 12. cMnYnGatUmBitR)akd enAkñúg 12g énkabUn 12 RtUv)aneKkMNt;edaykareFVIBiesaFn_ . cMnYnm:Ul EdleKTTYlykfμ I² enHKW³

1mole = 6,022045 × 1023 PaKl¥it cMnYnenHeKehAfa cMnYnGav:Uka®dU edIm,ICa]TÞisdl;GñkviTüasa®sþGIutaluIeQμaH Amedeo

Avogadro1 . CaTU eTAeyIgkMNt;cMnYnGav:UkaRdUes μ Inwg 6,022 × 1023 . dUcenHcMnYnenH k¾dUcCa RkUcmYyLÚEdlesμ Inwg 12 EpøEdr ehIy mYym:UlénGatUmGIuRdUEsnrYmman 6,022 × 1023 GatUm GIuRdUEsn ¬rUbTI 2.1 bgðajBImYym:UlénFatumYycMnYn¦ rUbTI> 2/1³ mYym:Ul énFatu samBaØnImYy² ³ Tg;Edg Edk kabUn s<an;F½r nig )art

eyIgdwgfa mYym:UlénkabUn 12 manma:sesμ Iwnwg 12g ehIyrYmman 6,022 × 1023

GatUm. ma:sGatUmkabUn 12 enH KWCa ma:sm:Ul rbs;va EdleyIgkMNt;ma:s (CaRkam b¤ KILÚRkam) énxñatmYym:Ulrbs;sarFatu . cUrcaMfa ma:sm:Ulrbs;kabUn 12 ¬CaRkam¦ KWwesμ IeTAnwg ma:sGatUmrbs;vakñúgmYyxñatma:sGatUm . dUcKñaenHEdrma:sGatUm Na KW 22,99

x>G ehIyma:sm:Ulrbs;vaKW 22,99g ma:sGatUmrbs;pUsVrKW 30,97 x>G ehIyma:sm:Ulrbs;vaKW

78

30,97g nigdUcCaFatudéT²eTot . RbsinebIeyIgsÁal;ma:sGatUmrbs;FatumYy eyIgk¾Gac sÁal;ma:sm:Ulrbs;vaEdr .

cMNaM enAkñúgkarKNnaÉktarbs;ma:sm:UlKW g/mol rW Kg/mol Etk¾eyIgGacniyay )anpgEdrfa ma:sGatUm rbs;sUdüÚmKW 22,99 g KWmincaM)ac;ehA 22,99 g/mol eT .

kareRbIma:sGatUm nigma:sm:Ul eyIgGacKNnama:sCaRkamrbs;GatUmkabUn12mYy . tamry³karBiPakSarbs;eyIg)aneGaydwgfamYym:UlénGatUmkabUn12 KWmanTMgn;esμ Inwg 12g.

12,00 g kabUn -12 = 1 mol GatUmkabUn 12 dUecñHeyIgGacsresrCaÉktadUcteTA eyIgeRbIÉktam:Ul (mol) edIm,ItMNageGay (mole) enAkñúgkarKNna . CamYyKñaenH

Edr edaysar kñúgmYymUlman 6,022 × 1023 GatUmkabUn -12 eyIg)an 1 mol kabUn -12 GatUm = 6,022 × 1023 GatUmkabUn -12 12,00 g kabUn -12 = 6,022 × 1023 GatUmkabUn -12

\LÚvenHeyIgGacKNnama:sCaRkamrbs;mYyGatUmkabUn12dUceTA ma:smYyGatUmkabUn 12 = 12,00 g ÷ 6,022 x 1023

= 1,993 × 10-23g

eyIgGaceRbIlT§plenHedImI,kMNt;TMnak;TMngrvagxñatma:sGatUmnigRkam. edayma:s rbs;GatUmkabUn 12 KWes μInwg 12x>G dUecñHcMnYnRkamEdlesμ IeTAnwg 1x>G KW

1x>G = 1,993 × 10-23 g ÷ 12 x>G = 1,661 × 10-24 g nig 1g = 6,022 × 1023 x>G

]TahrN_enHbgðajfabþÚrcMnYnGav:UkaRdUGaceRbIedIm,IbþÚrBIxñatma:sGatUmeTAma:sCaRkam nigpÞúymkvij.

sBaØaNsþIBIcMnYnGav:UkaRdU nig ma:sm:UlGaceGayeyIgGnuvtþn¾nUvTMnak;TMngrvagma:s nigcMnYnm:Ulrbs;GatUmmYy ehIynigrvagcMnYnGatUm nig ma:s nig edIm,IKNnama:srbs;GatUm mYy . eyIgnwgeRbIÉktadUceTAenHenA kñúgkarKNna .

110022.6

111

23 ==Xatomsx

molXXofmassmolar

Xmol ¬X tageGayFatuKImImYy¦

79

segçbBITMnak;TMngrvagma:s nig cMnYnm:Ulrbs;FatumYy ehIynig rvagcMnYnm:Ul nig cMnYnGatUm rbs;FatumYy .

cMnYnm:Ulrbs;Fatu n = ma:s(g) rbs;Fatu m ÷ ma:sGatUm M

= cMnYnGatUmrbs;Fatu N ÷ cMnYnGav:UkaRdU NA rw n = m/M = N/NA

]TahrN_TI2 eGlüÚm He Ca]sμ½nd¾mantMél EdleKeRbIenAkñúg]sSahkmμkarRsavRCavEdl mansItuNðPaBTab navamuCTwkeRCA²nigkñμ úgeb:ge)a:g.cUrKNnacMnYnm:UlEdlmanenAkñúg 6,46 g

He . cMelIy ma:sm:Ulrbs; He KW 4,003 g . edIm,IbþÚrbrimaN He BIRkameTACam:UleyIg)an

n = m/M = 6,46g ÷ 4,003g = 1,16 mol He

Bnül; ³ eday 6,46g FMCagma:sm:Ulrbs; He dUecñHcMelIyBitCaRtwmRtUv. lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾ ³ etIma:ej:süÚmb:unμanm:UlmanenAkñúg Mg 87,3g . ]TahrN_TI3 ³cUrKNnama:sCaRkamrbs;sgásI EdlmanenAkñúg 0,356 mol rbs;sgásI ? cMelIy³ edayma:sm:Ulrbs;s½gásIesμ Inwg 65,39 g dUcenHma:sCaRkamrbs;sgásIKW³

m = n × M = 0,356 × 65,39

= 23,3g Zn

Bnül; ³ ma:skñúg 0,356mol rbs; Zn tUcCagm:asm:Ulrbs; Zn . lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾ ³ cUrKNnama:sCaRkamrbs;sMNkñúg 12,4 mol . ]TahrN_TI4 ³s<an;FrCaGelah³EdlmanenAkñúgFüÚgf μ ehIyva)anpþl;kMeNInénGasIutePøóg. etImans<an;F½r b:un μanGatUm EdlmanenAkñúg 16,3 g éns<an;F½r ? cMelIy edIm,IedaHRsaylMhat;enH eKRtUvedIrBIrdMNak;kar. dMbUgeyIgRtUvrkcMnYnm:Ulrbs; s<an;F½r EdlmanenAkñúg 16,3g S dUc]TahrN_TI 1 bnÞab;mkeyIgRtUvKNnacMnYnGatUm S

BIcMnYnm:Ul EdleyIgsÁaal; . dMNak;karTI 1: n = m/M

= 16,3/32,07 = 0,508 mol

dMNak;karTI 2: N = n × NA = 0,508 × 6,022 × 1023 = 3,06 × 1023

80

lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾ ³ cUrKNnacMnYnGatUm Edlmankñúg 0,551g b:UtasüÚm . 3>ma:s;m:UelKul Molecular Mass

RbsinebIeyIgsÁal;ma:sGatUmrbs;Fatubgá eyIgGacKNnama:sm:UelKulrbs;va)an . m:asm:UelKul KWCaplbUkrbs;ma:sGatUmTaMgLayenAkñúgm:UelKul. ]TahrN_ ma:sm:UelKul rbs; H2O KW

2 ¬ma:sGatUmrbs; H ¦ + ma:sGatUmGuksIuEsn 2(1,008)x>G + 16,00x>G =18,02 x>G CaTUeTAeyIgcaM)ac;RtUvKuNma:sGatUmrbs;FatunImYy² CamYynwgcMnYnGatUménFatuenaH

Edlmanvtþman enAkñúgm:UelKul rYccaMeFVIplbUkRKb;FatuTaMgGs; . ]TahrN_TI5 ³ cUrKNnama:sm:UelKulrbs;sarFatudUcteTAenH ³ SO2 EdlCaFatubgásMxan; rbs;ePøógGasIut GasIutGasÁb‘íc b¤ vItamIn C (C6H8O6) . cMelIy k- tamry³ma:sGatUmrbs;s<an;F½r nig GuksIuEsn eyIg)an ma:sm:UelKulrbs; SO2 = 32,07+2(16,00) = 64,07

x-BIma:sGatUmrbs; kabUn GuIRdUEsn nig GuksIuEsneyIg)an ma:sm:UelKulrbs; C6H8O6= 6(12,01)x>G + 8 (1,001)x>G +6 (16,00)x>G = 176,12x>G lMhat;Gnuvtþ ³ cUrKNnama:sm:UelKulrbs;emtaNul CH4O ?

tamry³ma:sm:UelKul eyIgGackMNt;ma:sm:Ulrbs;m:UelKul b¤ sarFatu . ma:sm:Ul rbs;sarFatuCa Rkam KWes μ IeTAnwgma:sm:UelKulCaxñatma:s ¬x>G¦ . ]TahrN_ ma:sm:UelKul rbs;TwkKW 18,02g dUcenHma:s m:Ulrbs;vaKWesμInwg 18,02g Edr . cUrcMNaMfamYym:Ulrbs; TwkTMgn; 18,02g ehIyrYmman 6,022 x 1023 m:UelKulTwkenHk¾dUcCamYym:UlénFatukabUnrYm man 6,022 x 1023 GatUmkabUn .

]TahrN_ BIrxageRkambgðajfa cMeNHdwgBIma:sm:Ul GaceGayeyIgKNnacMnYnm:Ul nig GatUmnImYy² kñúgbrimaNpþl;eGayNamYyrbs;sarFatu . ]TahrN_TI6 ³ emtan CH4 CasarFatubgád¾sMxan;rbs;]sμ½nFm μCati . etImanemtanb:un μan m:Ul EdlmanenAkñúg CH4 6,07 g ?

cMelIy ³ KNnama:sm:Ulrbs;emtan ma:sm:Ulrbs;emtanKW CH4 = 12,01 g + 4(1,008g) = 16,04g

81

dUcenHcMnYnm:Ulrbs;emtanKW = m/M = 6,07g ÷ 16,04 = 0,378 mol CH4

lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾¾ ³ cUrKNnacMnYnm:Ulrbs;kør:Upm(Chloroform) EdlmanenAkñúg 198 g CHCl3 ? ]TahrN_TI7 ³ KNnacMnYnGatUmGIuRdUEsn EdlmanenAkñúg 25,6g G‘uyer (Urea) [(NH2)2CO]

ma:sm:Ulrbs;G‘uyeres μ Inwg 60,06 g

cMelIy ³ dMbUgeyIgKNnacMnYnm:UlEdlmanenAkñúg 25,6g G‘uyer ³ n = m/M = 25,6 ÷ 60,06 = 0,426 mol

bnÞab;mkeyIgdwgehIyfa manGatUmGIuRdUEsncMnYn 4 enAkñúgmYym:UelKulG‘uyer . dUcenH cMnYnGatUmGIuRdUEsn EdlmanenAkñúg 25,6 g G‘uyerKW ³ = 0,426 × 6,022 × 1023 × 4

= 1,03 × 1023 GatUm H

eyIgGacKNnacMnYnGatUmGasUt kabUn nig GuksIuEsn edayeRbIviFIdUcKña Etvak¾man viFIkat;mYyeTotEdr. eyIgdwgehIyfacMnYnGatUmGasUtesμ Inwg 2/4 éncMnYnGatUmGIuRdUEsn ehIycMnYnGatUmkabUn nig GuksIuEsnesμ Inwg

41 éncMnYnGatUmGIuRdUEsn . dUecñHcMnYnGatUm

GasUt EdlmanenAkñúg 25,6g G‘uyerKW (1/2)(1,03 × 1024)=5,15 x 1023 GatUm . ehIycMnYn GatUmkabUn es μ InwgcMnYnGatUmGuksIuEsn esμ Inwg (1/4) (1,03 × 1024) = 2,58 x 1023GatUm . lMhat;Gnuvtþ cUrKNnacMnYnGatUmGIuRdUEsnEdlmanenAkñúg 72,5 g GIusURbU)a:Nul C3H8O ? 4>s,icRtUEm:tm:as The Mass Spectrometer

viFIEdlmanPaBCak;lak;bMputkñúgkarkMNt;m:asGatUm nigm:asm:UelKulKWviFI s,icRtU-Em:tm:as EdlnwgbgðajkñúgrUb 2.3 xageRkam. enAkñúgviFIs,icRtUEm:tm:as PaKsMNak ]s μ ½n RtUv)anraraMgeday)ac;eGLIcRtugbegáIt EdlmanfamBlx<s;. karb:HTgÁicrvageGLicRtug nigGatUmnigm:UelKul]sμ½nbegáIt)anCaGuIy:ugviC¢man KW edaykarpþac;eGLicRtugBIGatUm b¤ m:UelKul.GuIy:ugviC¢manTaMgenHRtUveFVIeGaymansnÞúHedaybnÞHEdlmanbnÞúk viC¢manBIr eBlqøg kat;bnÞHTaMgBIrenH.GuIy:ugEdlxÞatmkeRkATaMgenHRtUvCHRtLb;cUlKnøgedImvijedayemEdk. RbEvgkaMrbs;KnøgKWGaRs½yeTAnwgpleFobrbs;bnÞúk e/m . GuIy:ugEdlmanpleFob e/m tUc manKnøgExSekag FMCagGuIy:ugEdlmanpleFob e/m FM. dUcenHGuIy:ug EdlmanbnÞúk

82

esμ IKñaEtmanm:asxusKñak¾RtUvEjkdac;BIKñaEdr. m:asrbs;GuIy:ugnImYy² KWkMNt;edayTMhMén cMNaMgpøatmkvijrbs;va. brimaNéncrnþEdlbegáIteLIgKWsmamaRt eTAnwgcMnYnrbs;GuIy:ug dUcenHvaGaceGayeyIgkMNt;)anBIGuIsUtUbEdlGacman. rUbTI 2/3 ³ düaRkamEdlbgðjnUvRbePTmYyéns,icRtUEm:tm:as

s,icRtUEm:tm:asCadMbUgRtUv)anbegáIteLIgenATsvtS1920 edayrUbviTU Gg;eKøs F.W Aston

2

Edltam sþg;dabc©úb,nñ s,icRtUEm:tm:asenaHeKElgeRbIeTotehIy. EteTaHCay:agNak¾eday k¾va)anpþl;nUvPsþútagEdl minGacRbEkk)anénGuIsUtUb enGug-20 ¬m:asGatUm 19,9924 x>G nigmankMritPaKryx<s; 90,92PaKry¦ nig enGug-22 ¬m:asGatUm 21,9914 x>G nigmankMritPaKry 8,82 PaKry¦. 2 Francis William Aston(1877-1915) CaGñkR)aCKImI-rUbCnCatiGg;eKøs

ehIyKat;)anTTYlrgVan;NUEblEpñkKImIviTüa enAqñaM 1922 EdlrkeXIjs<icRtUEm:tma:s .

83

rUbTI4 s,icm:asénGuIsUtUbTaMgbIrbs; enGug

5>smasPaKCaPaKryrbs;smasFatu (Percent Composition of Compounds)

dUceyIg)andwgrYcmkehIyfa rUbmnþrbs;smaFatumYyR)ab;eyIgBI cMnYnGatUmrbs;Fatu nImYy² kñúgmYy xñatsarFatu . EteTaHbICay:agenHk¾eday enAkñúgkargarBiesaFn_eyIgcaM)ac; RtUvkarbBa¢ak;nUvFatusuT§rbs;sarFatumYy . tamry³rUbmnþm:UelKul eyIgGacKNnanUvPaKry rbs;FatunImYy² EdlcUlpSMenAkñúgm:UelKul . bnÞab;mkeFVIkareRbobeFoblT§plén smas-PaKPaKry EdlTTYl)antamry³karBiesaFn_PaKsMNakrbs;eyIg eyIgGackMNt;PaBsuT§ rbs;PaKsMNak . smasPaKPaKryCama:s KWCaPaKryCama:srbs;FatunImYy²EdlmanenAkñúg smas-FatumYy . eyIgGacKNnasmasPaKPaKryedayykma:srbs;FatunImYykñúgm:UelKul KuNnwg100 rYcEcknwgma:sm:UelKul rbs;smasFatu . tamKNitviTüaeyIg)anrUbmnþ ³ smasPaKCaPaKryrbs;FatumYy = %100x

compoundofmassmolarelementofmassmolarxn

n cMnYnm:Ulrbs;Fatu kñúgmYym:Ulrbs;sarFatu . ]TahrN_ kñúgmYym:UlGIuRdUEsEBGuksIut man 2m:UlGatUm GIuRdU Esn nig 2m:UlGatUmGuksIuEsn . m:asm:Ulrbs; H2O2 , H nig O KW 34,02 g

, 1,008g nig 16,00g tamerog .

dUcenHsmasPaKCaPaKryrbs;TwkGuksIuEsenKW ³%06,94%100

02,3400,162%

%926,5%10002,34008,12%

==

==

xggxO

xggxH

84

plbUkénPaKryKW 5,926% + 94,06%=99,99% . PaBlMeGogtictYcenH KWbNþalmkBIcMnYnxÞg;eRkay ek,osEdleyIgkMNt;yk . RbsinebIeRbIrUbmnþgay HO

kñúgkarKNna eyIg)an ³%06,94%100

02,3400,16%

%926,5%10002,34

008,1%

==

==

xggO

xggH

dUcenHrUbmnþgayk¾dUcCarUbmnþm:UelKulEdr KWva)anR)ab;eyIgBIsmasFatuénFatubgá . ]TahrN_TI8 ³ cUrKNnasmasPaK PaKryCamasrbs; H, P nig O EdlmanenAkñúgm:UelKul H3PO4 . cMelIy ³ma:sm:Ulrbs; H3PO4 KW 97,99g/mol . dUcenHPaKryCama:srbs;Fatu nImYy² kñúgm:UelKulKW ³

%31,65%10099,97

)00,16(4%

%61,31%10099,9797,30%

%086,3%10099,97

)008,1(3%

==

==

==

xggO

xggP

xggH

lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾³cUrKNnasmasPaKPaKryCama:srbs;FatunImYyenAkñúgGasIuts‘ulpYric H2SO4 ? viFIKNnaenAkñúg]TahrN_GacRtlb;bRBa¢asvij)anRbsinebImanPaBcaM)ac; . Rbsin-ebIPaKryCama:srbs;Fatu eyIgGacKNnarUbmnþgayrbs;sarFatu)an . edayeyIgkMBugEt edaHRsayCamYynwgPaKry ehIy plbUkénPaKryTaMgGs;KW100% dUcenHeyIgk¾Gac]bma edaycab;epþImBI 100g énsmasFatu . ]TahrN_ TI9 ³ GasuItGasÁb‘ícbgáeLIgedaykabUn 40,92% GIuRdUEsn 4,58% nigGuksIuEsn

54,50% Cama:s . cUr kMNt;rUbmnþgayrbs;va ? cMelIy eyIgcab;epþImKNnaeday]bmafaman 100g GasIuGasÁb‘íc dUecñHenAkñúgPaK sMNakenH eyIgman kabUn 40,92g GIuRdUEsn 4,58g nigGuksIuEsn 54,50g. bnÞab;mkeyIg caM)ac;RtUv KNnacMnYnm:Ulrbs;FatunImYy² enAkñúgsarFatu ehIy nC, nH nig nO CacMnYnm:Ulrbs;Fatu EdlmanenAkñúgsarFatu edayeRbIma:srbs;FatuTaMgenH eyIgGacsresr ³

85

molgO

Ogn

molgH

molHgHxn

molgC

molCgCxn

O

H

C

406,300,16

)00,16(4

54,4008,1

158,4

407,301,12

192,40

==

==

==

mkdl;RtwmenHeyIgTTYl)anrUbmnþgay C3,407H4,54O3,406 edaysarEtrUbmnþm:UelKul eKsresrCacMnYnKt; eyIgminsresrCaTsPaKEbbenH)aneT . eyIgGaceFVIsnÞsSn_xøHeGay eTACacMnYnKt;edayEcknwgsnÞsSn_Na EdlmantMéltUcbMput (3,406) .

1406,3406,3:33,1

406,354,4:1

406,3407,3: === OHC

dUcenHrUbmnþGasIutGasÁb‘íckøayeTACa CH1,33O bnÞab;mkeyIgRtUvbþÚrsnÞsSn_rbs; GIuRdUEsneGayeTACa cMnYnKt; edayviFIdUcxageRkam (trial-and-error procedure):

1,33 x 1 =1,33 1,33 x 2=2,66 1,33 x 3=3,99 4≈

eday 1,33 x 3=3,99 4≈ eyIgGacKuNsnÞsSn_RKb;FatuTaMgGs;nwg3 eyIgnwgTTYl)anrUbmnþ C3H4O3 CarUbmnþgayrbs;GasIutGasÁb‘íc . lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾³ cUrkMNt;rUbmnþgayrbs;smasFatumYy EdlmansmasPaKPaKryCama:s dUcteTA K = 24,75% , Mn = 34,77% , O = 40,51 ?

KImIviTUEtgEtcg;dwgBIma:sBitR)akdrbs;FatuNamYyenAkñúgma:srbs;smasFatumYy . edaysmasPaK PaKryCama:srbs;sarFatumYyeKGacKNna)an dUecñHbBaðaenHk¾eKGac edaHRsay)anEdr . ]TahrN_TI 10 ³ KNnama:sCaKILÚRkamrbs;Tg;Edg EdlmanenAkñúg 3,71 x 103 Kg CuFeS2 (Chalcopyrite)

cMelIy ma:sm:Ulrbs;Tg;Edg nig CuFeS2 KW 63,55 g nig 183,5 g erogKñadUcenH smasPaK PaKryCama:s rbs;Tg;EdgKW ³

%63,34%1005,183

55,63% == xggCu

edIm,IKNnama:srbs;Tg;Edg EdlmanenAkñúg 3,71 x 103 Kg én CuFeS2 eyIgRtUvbþÚr BIcMnYnPaKryeTACaRbPaK KWRtUvbþÚr 34,63% eTACa 34,63/100 rW 0,3463 eyIg)an ³ ma:srbs;Tg;Edg EdlmanenAkñúg CuFeS2 = 0,3463 x 3,71 x 103 Kg =1,28 x 103 Kg

86

karKNnaenHGaceFVIeGaymanlkçN³gayRsYl edaybBa©ÚlC¿hanTaMgBIrxagelIdUcxageRkam enH ³ ma:srbs;Tg;Edg EdlmanenAkñúg CuFeS2 = 3,71 x 103 Kg CUFeS2 x KgCux

gCuFeSgCu 3

2

1028,15,183

55,63=

lMhat;Gnuvtþ cUrKNnama:sCaRkamrbs;GaluymIj:ÚmEdlmanenAkñúgGaluymIn 371 g ? 6>karkMNt;rkrUbmnþgaytamBiesaFn_

RbsinebIeyIgsÁal;smasPaBPaKryCama:srbs;FatunImYy² eyIgGackMNt; rUbmnþ-gayrbs;sarFatumYy)antamry³karBiesaF. dMbUgkarviPaKKImI)anR)ab;eyIgBIma:s CaRkam rbs;FatunImYy²EdlmanenAkñúgbrimaNNamYyénsmasFatu. tamry³ma:sCaRkam rbs;Fatu nImYy² eyIgGacrkeXIjcMnYnm:Ulrbs;va Edlman enAkñúgsarFatu. ]TahrN_kñúgsmasFatueGtaNul. enAeBlEdleGtaNulRtUv)aneKdutkMedAdUc rUbTI1xageRkam eKnwgTTYl)ankabUnDIGuksIut nigTwk. edaysarEtkabUn nigGIuRdUEsn BuMmanvtþmanenAkñúgbMBg;]sμ ½nmuneBldMeNIrkar eyIgGacsnñidæan)anfa kabUn nigGIuRdUEsn manvtþmanenAkñúgeGtaNul ehIyGuksIuEsnk¾GacmanvtþmanenAkñúgeGtaNulEdr ¬m:UelKul GuksIuEsnRtUv)anbBa©ÚleTAkñúgdMeNIrkarRbtikmμ b:uEnþk¾GacmanGuksIuEsnxøH)anmkBIPaK sMNakeGtaNulEdr ¦. ma:s]s μ ½nkabUnic nigTwk EdlTTYl)anKWGackMNt;edaykarvas; ]bkrN_ RsUb]sμ½n kabUnic nigTwk. ]bmafaenAkñúgkarBiesaFmYyRbtikm μcMehHéneGtaNulcMnYn 11,5g eKTTYl )an]sμ ½nkabUnic 22,0 g nigTwk 13,5 g. eyIgGacKNnama:skabUn nigGIuRdUEsn Edlman enAkñúgPaKsMNakeGtaNuldUcteTA ÷

ma:skabUn = 22,0 g x ggg 00,6

01,4401,12

=

ma:sGIuRdUEsn = 13,5 g x ggg 51,1

02,18008,1

=

O2 sl;

dutkMedA

sMrUb H2O sMrUb CO2

87

rUb2/5 BiesaFedIm,IrkrUbmnþgayrbs;eGtaNul dUcenH 11,5 g eGtaNulrYmmankabUn 6,0g nigGIuRdUEsn 1,51g eyIg)anma:s

EdlenAsl;Cama:srbs; GuksIuEsn. m:asGuksIuEsn = m:asPaKsMNak - ¬ma:skabUn + ma:sGIuRdUEsn¦

= 11,5 g – (6, 00g – 1,51g) = 4g

cMnYnm:Ulrbs;FatunImYy²EdlmanenAkñúg 11,5g eGtaNulKW ÷ cMnYnm:UlkabUn = mol500,0

01,1200,6

= cMnYnm:UlGIuRdUEsn = mol50,1

008,151,1

= cMnYnm:UlGuksIuEsn = mol25,0

00,160,4

= dUecñHrUbmnþrbs;eGtaNulKW C0,50H1,5O0,25. edaysarEtcMnYnGatUmRtUvEtCaelxKt;

eyIgEcksnÞsSn_ TaMgGs;nwg 0,25 EdlCasnÞsSn_tUcCageK eyIgTTYl)anrUbmnþ C2H6O. \LÚvenHeyIgGacyl;nUvBaküfa {rUbmnþgay} EdlCarUbmnþBwgEp¥keTAelIkarsegát

nigkarvas;Evg. rUbmnþgayrbs;eGtaNulKWRtUv)ankMNt;tamry³karviPaKsmasFatukñúgFatu bgá KWmincaM)ac;dwgBIkarcgsm<½n§ rvagGatUmeT. 6>2 karkMNt;rUbmnþm:UelKul Determination of Molecular Formulas

rUbmnþEdl)anmkBIkarKNnaPaKryCama:sCanic©kalCarUbmnþgay BIeRBaHsnÞsSn_ enAkñúgrUbmnþRtUv)aneKkMnt;yktMéltUcbMput. edIm,IKNnarUbmnþBitR)akd eyIgRtUvEtsÁal; ma:sm:Ulrbs;smasFatueTAelIrUbmnþgay. eyIgGaceRbIma:sm:UelKuledIm,IkMNt;rUbmnþ m:UelKulrbs;va.

]TahrN_ PaKsMNakénsmasFatuGasUt nigGuksIuEsnmYyrYmmanGasUt 1,52g nigGuksIuEsn 3,47 g. ma:sm:UelKulrbs;smasFatuenHKWsßitenAcenøaHBI 90 g nig 95 g

. cUrkMNt;rUbmnþm:UelKul nigma:s m:Ulrbs;smasFatuenH. cMelIy dMbUgeyIgRtUvkMNt;rUbmnþgayénsmasFatuenHdUc]TahrN_xagelIsin. tag

nN nig nO CacMnYnm:Ulrbs;GasUt nigGuksIuEsn eyIg)an ÷

moln

moln

O

N

217,000,1647,3

108,001,14

52,1

==

==

88

dUcenHrUbmnþrbs;smasFatuKW N0,108O0,217. eyIgEcksnÞsSn_edaysnÞsSn_ EdltUc CageK 0,108 . bnÞab;BIsMrYlrYceyIgTTYl)anrUbmnþ NO2 CarUbmnþgay. rUbmnþm:UelKul Gac dUc nwgrUbmnþgay b¤ GacsnÞsSn_rbs;vaxusKñadUcCaGacKuNnwg BIr bI bYn b¤ k¾eRcInCag enHKuNnwgrUbmnþgay.

ma:sm:Ulrbs;rUbmnþgayKW NO2 = 14,01+2(16,00) = 46,02 g

bnÞab;mkeyIgkMNt;cMnYn (NO2) EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgrUbmnþm:UelKul. cMnYnenHeyIg GacrkeXIjeday eFVIsmamaRt.

21,202,42

95≈==

gg

massmolarempiricalmass molar

dUcenHma:sm:Ulrbs;rUbmnþm:UelKulKWmanBIrdgénrUbmnþgay eyIg)ankñúgm:UelKulmYy man NO2 cMnYnBIr ehIyrUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;vaKW (NO2)2 b¤ N2O4 . ma:sm:UelKulrbs; smasFatuKW 2(46,02) b¤ 92,04 g EdlCacMnYn mYysßitenAcenøaHBI 90 g nig 95 g. 7>RbtikmμKImInigsmIkarKIm I(Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations)

bnÞab;BI)ansikSaBIma:sGatUm nigm:asm:UelKulmk eyIgnwgBinitüfaetImanGVIekIteLIg eTAelIGatUm nigm:UelKulenAkñúg RbtikmμKImI ¬CadMeNIrkar EdlGgÁFatumYy b¤eRcInRtUv)an pøas;bþÚreTACasarFatufμ I mYy b¤eRcIn¦. edIm,IedaHRsaynUvbBaðaenH KImIviTU)anbegáItsmIkarKImI tag[Rbtikm μKImI. enAkñúgEpñkenHeyIgnwgeron sresr nigføwgsmIkarKImI. 7>1 karsresrsmIkarKImI (Writing Chemical Equations)

cUrKitfaetImanGVIekIteLIgenAeBlEdlmanGIuRdUEsneqHkñúgxül;EdlrYmman GuksIuEsn enAkñúgenaH¦ edIm,IbegáIt)anCaTwk. RbtikmμenHtagedaysmIkarKImIdUcxageRkam ÷

)1(222 OHOH →+ sBaØa {+} mann½yfa {manRbtikmμCamYy} ehIysBaØa{RBYj} mann½yfa {TTYl)an}

dUecñHsmIkarenH GacGanfa {m:UelKulGIuRdUEsn manRbtikm μCamYym:UelKulGuksIuEsn edIm,ITTYl)anTwk}. RbtikmμmandMeNIr kardUcTisedAsBaØaRBYj. Rbtikm μ ¬1¦ xagelIenH CaRbtikm μmineBjeljeT edaysarenAGgÁTImYymanGatUm GuksIuEsnBIr ehIyenAGgÁTIBIr manEtmYy. tamc,ab;rkSama:s GatUmTaMgLayEdlsßitenAsgxagsBaØaRBYj RtUvEtes μ IKña dUcenHeyIgRtUvføwgsmIkarxagelIenH edaydak;emKuN 2 enABIxagmuxm:UelKulGuIRdUEsn nigm::UelKulTwk.

89

GIuRdUEsnBIrmU:lelKul + GuksIEsnmYymU:lelKul → TikBIrmU:lelKul 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

rUb2 viFIbIya:gsMrab;tagRbtikmμcMehHGIuRdUEsn

smIkarlMnwgKImIenHbgðajfa {m:UelKulGIuRdUEsnBIr manRbtikmμCamYymYym:UelKul GuksIuEsnedIm,IbegáIt)anCaBIrm:UelKulTwk ¬rUbTI2.6¦}. edaysarsmamaRtm:UelKulesμ IeTAnwg smamaRtcMnYnm:UldUcenHsmIkarenHk¾GacGan)anfa{GIuRdUEsnBIrm:UlmanRbtikmμCamYy GuksIu EsnmYym:UlbegáIt)anCaBIrm:UlTwk . eyIgk¾dwgpgEdrnUma:skñúgmYym:UlénGgÁFatunImYy² .

dUcenHeyIgGacbkRsaynUvsmIkarenH)anfa {GIuRdUEsn cMnYn 4,04g manRbtikmμ CamYy 32,00g GuksIuEsnedIm,Ipþl;Ca 36,04g Twk}. viFIGansmIkarTaMgbIenH KWmansegçb enAkñúg tarag 2.1.

tarag 2.1 karbkRsaysmIkarKImI

2 H2 + O2 2 H2O

BIrm:UelKul + mYym:UelKul BIrm:UelKul BIrm:Ul + mYym:Ul BIrm:Ul 2(2,02 g) = 4,04 g + 32,00 g 2(18,02 g) = 36, 04 g

36,04 g GgÁFatuRbtikr 36,04 g plitpl

eyIgehAm:UelKulGIuRdUEsn nigm:UelKulGuksIuEsnenAkñúgsmIkar¬1¦fa GgÁFatuRbtikr

EdlCaGgÁFatucab;epþImenAkñúgsmIkarKImI ehIyTwkKWCa plitpl EdlCaGgÁFatu begáIteLIg edaylT§plénsmIkarKImI. smIkarKImIKWRKan;EtCaviFId¾xøIrbs;KImIviTUedIm,Ierobrab; BIRbtikmμ ehIyenAkñúgRbtikmμKImIGgÁFatuRbtikrKWRtUv)an sresrenAGgÁxageqVg ¬GgÁTImYy¦ ehIy plitplenAxagsþaMsBaØaRBYj ¬GgÁTIBIr¦.

GgÁFatuRbtikr → plitpl

90

edIm,IpþlnUvBt’manEfmeTotKImIviTUEtgEtbBa¢ak;BIPaBrUbrbs;GgÁFatuRbtikr nigplit-pledayGkSr (g), (l), nig (s) edIm,IkMNt;faCa ]sμ ½n GgÁFaturav nigGgÁFatubrWg tamerog.

]TahrN_

)()(2)(2

)(2)()(2

2

22

gOlHgsHgO

gCOgOgCO

+→

→+

edIm,ItagfaetImanGVIekIteLIgenAeBlEdleKrMlayGMbilsUdüÚmkørYeTAkñúgTwkeyIg sresr ÷

)()(2

aqNaClsNaClOH

(aq) bBa¢ak;faCamCÄdæanTwk. karsresrm:UelKulTwkenAelIsBaØaRBYj KWedIm,ItMNag[ dMeNIrkarlkçN³rUbénkarrMlaysmasFatueTAkñúgTwkeBlxøHRtUveKlubvaecaledIm,I[manPaB samBaØ.

kardwgBIPaBrUbrbs;GgÁFatuRbtikr nig plitplvamansar³sMxan;Nas;enAkñúg karBiesaF.

]TahrN_³ enAeBlEdlb:UtasüÚmRbUmY (KBr) nigR)ak;nIRtat (AgNO3) manRbtikmμ CamYyKñaenAkñúgmCÄdæanTwkenaH eKnwgsegáteXIjGgÁFaturwgR)ak;RbUmYekItmaneLIg.Rbtikmμ enHtagedaysmIkar ÷

)()()()( 33 sAgBraqKNOaqAgNOaqKBr +→+ RbsinebIPaBrUbrbs;GgÁFatuRbtikr nigplitplminRtUv)anpþl;[ enaHeyIgRbEhl

CaykGgÁFaturwg KBr [manRbtikmμCamYyGgÁFatub¤g AgNO3 GgÁFaturwgTaMgBIrenHGacman Rbtikmμya:gyWtCamYyKña b¤ k¾K μanRbtikmμ. tamry³mIRkUTsSn_ eyIgGacyl;)anfaedIm,I begáIt)anplitplR)ak;RbUmY GIuy:ug Ag+ nigGIuyu:g Br- Gacb:HKña EteTaHCay:agNaGIuy:ugTaMg BIrenHGacenACab;KaMg edaysarvasßitenAkñúgsmasPaBGgÁFaturwgehIymanPaBcl½ttictYc. 7>2 karføwgsmIkarKImI Balancing Chemical Equations

]bmafaeyIgcg;sresrsmIkarmYyedIm,Ierobrab;BIRbtikm μKImI EdleyIgeTIbEteFVI BiesaFn_ etIeyIgRtUveFVIya:gdUcemþc? edayeyIgsÁal;lkçN³sMKal;rbs;GgÁFatuRbtikreyIg GacsresrrUbmnþKImIrbs;va EtrUbmnþ rbs;plitplGacnwgmankarlM)akkñúgkarsresr. sMrab;RbtikmμKImIgay²eyIgGacTayTuknUvplitpl)an b:uEnþsMrab;Rbtikm μmanlkçN³saMjauM

91

EdlTak;TgeTAnwgplitplbI b¤ eRcIn KImIviTURtUveFVIEtsEfmeTotedIm,I [dwgBIsmasFatu Edlmanvtþman.

enAeBlEdleyIgsÁal;nUvGgÁFatuRbtikr plitplRBmTaMgsresrrUbmnþRtwmRtUvrYc ehIyeyIgRtUverob vaeTAtamlkçN³mYyKWRtUvdak;GgÁFatuRbtikrenAxageqVgsBaØaRBYj ehIy plitplenAxagsþaMsBaØaRBYj. smIkarEdlsresrenAcMnucenHGacBuMmanlMnwg edaysarEt cMnYnGatUmrbs;FatuTaMgLayenAGgÁTImYy BuMes μ IeTA nwgcMnYnGatUmEdlsßitenAGgÁTIBIr.CaTUeTA edImI,føwgsmIkarKImIeyIgRtUv ÷

-sÁal;BIGgÁFatuRbtikr nigplitpl edaysresrrUbmnþrbs;va[)anRtwmRtUvenAxag eqVgsBaØaRBYj nigxagsþaMsBaØaRBYj.

-cab;epþImføwgsmIkaredaydak;elxemKuNepSg²Kña edIm,IeFVI[cMnYnGatUmnImYy² es μ IKña enAkñúgsmIkareyIgGacbþÚrelxemKuNEteyIgminGacbþÚrsnÞsSn_rbs;va)aneT. dUrsnÞsSn_rbs; smasFatu KWGacdUrlkçN³ sMKal;rbs;smasFatu. ]TahrN_ 2NO2 man n½yfa {BIrm:UelKulGasUtDIGuksIut} b:uEnþRbsinebIeyIgeTVrnUv snÞsSn_rbs;va eyIgnwgTTYl)an N2O4

CarUbmnþrbs; DIGasUtetRtaGuksIut EdlxusKñaRsLHBIrUbmnþedIm. -dMbUgeyIgRtUvemIlFatuEdlmanEtmYykEnøgenAGgÁnImYy²énsmIkar nigmancMnYn

GatUmesμ IKñaenAGgÁ nImYy² ¬rUbmnþEdlrYmmanFatuTaMgenHRtUvEtmanelxemKuNdUcKña¦. dUc enHenARtg;cMnucenH eyIgmincaM)ac;tMrUv elxemKuNrbs;vaeT. bnÞab;mkeyIgemIlFatu Edl manEtmYYykEnøgenAGgÁTaMgBIr EtcMnYnGatUmrbs;vamines μ IKña rYcføwgFatuTaMgenH. TIbBa©b; eyIg RtUvføwgFatuTaMgLayNaEdlmanenAeRcInkEnøgénGgÁTaMgBIrrbs;smIkar.

-RtYtBinitünUvsmIkarlMnwg ehIyRtUv[c,as;fa cMnYnGatUmTaMgLayenAGgÁTaMgsg xagmancMnYnesμ I Kña.

]TahrN_ enAkñúgbnÞb;BiesaF brimaNtictYcén]s μ ½nGuksIuEsnTTYl)anmkBI kardutkMedAb:UtasüÚmkøra:t KClO3. plitplEdlTTYl)anKW ]sμ ½nGuksIuEsn nigb:UtasüÚmkørY KCl eyIg)ansmIkar ÷

23 OKClKClO +→ ¬edIm,I[manPaBgayRsYleyIglubPaBrUbrbs;GgÁFatuRbtikr nigplitpl¦. RKb;FatuTaMgGs; (K, Cl nigO) KWmanEtmYykEnøgenAkñúg GgÁTaMgBIr énsmIkar b:uEnþmanEtGatUm K nigCl eTEdlmancMnYnGatUmes μ IKñaenAGgÁTaMgBIr

92

dUcenH KClO3 nigKCl RtUvEtmanelxemKuNes μ IKña. bnÞab;mkeyIgRtUveFVI[cMnYnGatUm GuksIuEsnenAGgÁ TaMgsgxagesμIKña.edaysarenAGgÁTImYymanbIGatUmGuksIuEsn ehIyGgÁ TIBIrmanBIrGatUm GuksIuEsn eyIgGacføwgGatUmGuksIuEsnedaydak;emKuN 2 enABIxagmux KClO3 ehIy emKuN 3 enABIxagmux O2.

23 32 OKClKClO +→ cugbBa©b;eyIgføwgGatUm K nigCl edaydak;emKuN 2 enABIxagmux KCl

23 322 OKClKClO +→ enAeBlRtYtBinitücugeRkay eyIgGacKUstaragdUcxageRkam sMrab;GgÁFatuRbtikr

nigplitpl Edl cMnYnenAkñúgvg;RkckbBa¢ak;BIcMnYnGatUmrbs;FatunImYy. GgÁFatuRbtikr plitpl K (2) K (2) Cl (2) Cl (2) O (6) O (6)

cMNaM ÷ smIkarenHk¾Gacføwgedaydak;elxemKuN EdlKuNnwg 2 sMrab; KClO3 ehIyKuNnwg 2

sMrab; KCl nigKuNnwg 3 sMrab; O2 / dUcCa ÷ 23 644 OKClKClO +→

EteTaHbICadUcenHk¾eday vaCakarRbesIrEdleyIgdak;elxemKuNNaEdltUc ehIy gayCageK.

\LÚvenHcUrBinitüemIlsmIkartagRbtikm μcMehHrvageGtan nigGuksIuEsn Edlpþl;[Ca ]sμ ½nkabUnic nigTwk. smIkarEdlBuMTan;manlMnwgKW ÷

OHCOOHC 22262 +→+ eyIgeXIjehIyfa cMnYnGatUmTaMgGs; C , H nigO mines μ IKñaeT enAGgÁTaMgsgxagén

smIkar. CagenH eTAeTotGatUm C nigH manEtmYykEnøgenAGgÁTaMgsgxagénsmIkar. enA GgÁxagsþaMGatUmGuksIuEsn manBIrkEnøgKWenAkñúgsmasFatu CO2 nigH2O. edIm,IføwgGatUm kabUn eyIgdak;emKuN 2 enABIxagmux CO2 eyIg)an ÷

OHCOOHC 22262 2 +→+ edIm,IføwgGatUmGIuRdUEsn eyIgdak;emKuN 3 enABIxagmuxm:UelKul H2O

OHCOOHC 22262 32 +→+

93

enAkñúgdMNak;kalenH GatUmkabUn nigGIuRdUEsnesμ IKña EtGatUmGuksIuEsnminTan;esμ I BIeRBaHenAGgÁxag eqVgmanGatUmGuksIuEsnEt 2 ehIyenAGgÁxagsþaMmanGatUmGuksIuEsnrhUt dl;eTA 7. PaBminesμ IKñaénGatUm GuksIuEsnenHGaceFVI[es μIedaydak;elxemKuN

27 enABIxag

muxm:UelKulGuksIuEsnenAGgÁxageqVg eyIg)an OHCOOHC 22262 32

27

+→+ dUcenHsmIkarbs;eyIgmanlMnwg

GgÁFatuRbtikr plitpl C (2) C (2) H (6) H (6) O (7) O (7)

EteTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday CaFm μtaeyIgEtgEtsresrelxemKuNCaelxKt; dUcenH eyIgGacKuNGgÁTaMgBIrénsmIkarxagelInwg 2 edIm,IbþÚr

27 eTACa 7 eyIg)an ÷

OHCOOHC 22262 6472 +→+ eyIg)antaragcugeRkay

GgÁFatuRbtikr plitpl C (4) C (4) H (12) H (12) O (14) O (14)

elxemKuNEdleKeRbIkñúgkarføwgenHKWCaelxEdltUcbMput.

8>brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr nigplitpl Amounts of Reactants and Products sMnYrCamUldæanmYy Edl)anelIkeLIgenAkñúgkarBiesaFKImIenaHKW {etIplitplb:unμan EdlRtUvbegáItecjBIGgÁFatuRbtikr :? b¤kñúgkrNIxøHeyIgGacsYrpÞúymkvijfa {etIeyIgRtUveRbI GgÁFatuRbtikrb:un μanedIm,ITTYlplitplCak;lak;NamYy :? edIm,IbkRsaynUvRbtikmμmYYy KittambrimaN eyIgRtUveRbInUvcMeNHdwgrbs;eyIgsþIBI ma:sm:UelKul nigcMnYnm:Ul. sþWsüÚemRTI KWCakarsikSaBIbrimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr nigplitplenAkñúgsmIkarKImI. eTaHbICaÉktaEdl[eTAelIGgÁFatuRbtikr plitpl Cam:Ul Rkam lIt ¬sMrab;]sμ ½n¦ rIxñatdéT² eTotk¾eday k¾eyIgeRbIm:UledIm,IKNnabrimaNplitpl EdlkrekItenAkñúg Rbtikmμ. viFIenHeKehAfa viFIm:Ul Edlmann½yfa elxemKuNenAkñúgsmIkarKImIGacehA)anfa

94

CacMnYnm:Ulrbs;sarFatunImYy². ]TahrN_ enAkñúgRbtikmμcMehHrvagkabUnm:UNUGuksIut CamYyxül;edIm,IbegáIt)anCakabUnDIGuksIut. )(2)()(2 22 gCOgOgCO →+

sMrab;karKNnatamcMnYnm:UleyIgGacGansmIkarenHfa {]sμ½nkabUnm:UNUGuksIutcMnYn BIrm:UlmanRbtikmμ CamYy]sμ ½nGuksIuEsnmYym:Ul edIm,IbegáIt)anCa]sμ ½nkabUnDIGuksIut cMnYn BIrm:Ul }.

karKNnatamcMnYnm:UlrYmmanCMhandUcteTAenH ÷ 1-sresrrUbmnþ[)anRtwmRtUvsMrab;GgÁFatuRbtikrnigplitplTaMgGs;nigføwgsmIkar. 2-bþÚrbrimaNsmasFatuEdlsÁal; ¬CaFmμtaGgÁFatuRbtikr ¦ eTACacMnYnm:Ul. 3-eRbIelxemKuNenAkñúgsmIkarlMnwgedIm,IKNnacMnYnm:Ulrbs;sarFatuEdlrk b¤sarFatu EdlminsÁal; enAkñúglMhat; ¬CaFmμtaCaplitpl¦. 4-eRbIcMnYnm:UlEdlrkeXIj nigma:sm:Ul rYcbþÚrbrimaNEdlminsÁal;eTACaxñat EdleKsYrrk ¬CaTU eTACaRkam¦. 5-cUrRtYtBinitüfacMelIyrbs;Gñksmehtuplb¤eT. C¿hanTImYyEtgEtekIteLIg muneKenAkñúgkarKNnatamcMnYnm:Ul. eyIgRtUvEtsÁal;

lkçN³ sMKal;rbs; GgÁFatuRbtikr nigplitpl ehIyTMnak;TMngrbs;va KWeKarBeTAtam c,ab;rkSama:s ¬enHmann½yfa smIkarRtUvEtmanlMnwg¦. C¿hanTIBIrKWCaCMhan EdleyIgRtUv bþÚrm:asCaRkam b¤xñatepSgénsmasFatudéTeToteTACacMnYnm:Ul. karbþÚreTACacMnYnm:UlenH Gac[eyIgviPaKnUvRbtikm μBitR)akdkñúgcMnYnm:UlEtb:ueNÑaH.

edIm,IedaHRsaycMeBaHCMhanTI 3 eyIgRtUvkarsmIkarmanlMnwg. cMnucEdlsMxan;enAkñúg enH KWcMnYnemKuNenAkñúgsmIkarlMnwgR)ab;eyIgBIsmamaRt EdlcMnYnm:UlénsarFatumYy man RbtikmμCamYy b¤ begáItCacMnYnm:Ul rbs;smasFatuepSgeTot. C¿hanTI4KWmanlkçN³ Rbhak; RbEhlnwgC¿hanTI2 EtvaxusKñaEtRtg;C¿hanenH eyIgRtUvedaHRsayrknUvbrimaNrbs; smasFatuEdleKsYrrk. cMeBaHC¿hanTI5vij EtgEtRtUv)aneKminsUvKit KUr b:uEnþvamansar³ sMxan;Nas; eRBaHKImIviTüaKWCaviTüasa®sþBiesaFn¾ dUcenHcMelIyrbs;GñkRtUvEtmann½yeTA tam lkçN³EdlmanBit²enAelIsklelak.RbsinebIeyIgdak;lMhat;BuM)anRtwmRtUv b¤k¾man kMhuskMBüÚT½r eyIgnwgemIleXIjc,as;enAeBlcMelIyrbs;eyIgERbeTACamanbrimaN eRcIneBk

95

b¤ tUceBkeFobeTAnwgbrimaN EdleK[. enAkñúgkarKNnatamcMnYnm:UleyIgeRbInimitþsBaØa ↔ Edlmann½yfa {smmUlsÞW-

süÚemRTI b¤smmUleTAnwg}. enAkñúgsmIkarlMnwgénkarbegáItkabUnDIGuksIuteyIg eXIjfa kabUnm:UNUGuksIutcMnYnBIrm:UlmanRbtikmμCamYymYym:UlGuksIuEsn dUcenHeyIgGac niyay )an fa BIrm:UlkabUnm:UNUGuksIut smmUleTAnwgmYym:Ul GuksIuEsn.

2 mol CO ↔ 1mol O2

]TahrN_xageRkamenHbgðajBIkareRbIC¿hanTaMg5kñúgkaredaHRsaylMhat;edayeRbI cMnYnm:Ul ÷ ]TahrN_ 13³ elah³Gal;kaLaMg Li manRbtikmμCamYyTwk edIm,IbegáIt)anCa ]s μ ½nGIuRdUEsn nig)asGal;kalI. xageRkamenHCaRbtikm μrvaglIcUm nigTwk. )()(22)(2 22 gHaqLiOHOHsLi +→+

k-KNnacMnYnm:UlGIuRdUEsnEdlekItecjBIRbtikm μsBVrbs; Li 6,23 mol CamYyTwk? x-KNnama:sGIuRdUEsnEdlkrekItedayRbtikmμsBVrvag Li 80,57g CamYyTwk?

cMelIy ¬k¦ CMhanTI1 smIkarlMnwgRtUv)aneKpþl;[enAkñúglMhat; CMhanTI2 eyIgmincaM)ac;rkcMnYnm:UleT eRBaHbrimaNGgÁFatuRbtikrRtUv)anpþl;

[CacMnYnm:Ul CMhanTI3 edaylIcUm 2m:Ul begáIt)anCa 1m:UlGIuRdUEsn b¤

2 mol Li ↔ 1mol H2 dUcenH 6,23 mol ↔ x mol H2

eyIgGacKNnacMnYnm:UlGIuRdUEsndUcteTA ÷

cMnYnm:UlGIuRdUEsnEdlTTYl)an 22 12,3

2123,6 Hmol

LimolHmolxLimol ==

C¿hanTI4 CMhanenHeyIgmincaM)ac;eT. CMhanTI5 eyIgcab;epþImehAfa 6,23 mol Li begáIt)an 3,12 mol H2. eday

2m:Ulrbs;lIcUmbegáIt)an 1 m:UlGIuRdUEsn dUcenHcMnYnm:Ulrbs; GIuRdUEsn TTYl)ancMnYn 3,12 mol CacMelIy Edlsmehtupl.

cMelIy ¬x¦ CMhanTI1 smIkarKWdUcnwglMhat;cMnuc ¬k¦

96

CMhanTI2 cMnYnm:Ulrbs;lIcUmEdleK[KW ÷

cMnYnm:UllIcUm = molLig

LimolxLig 61,11941,6

157,80 =

CMhanTI3 2 m:UllIcUm eKTTYl)an 1 m:UlGIuRdUEsn eyIgGacKNnacMnYnm:Ul GIuRdUEsndUcteTA ÷ 2 mol Li ↔ 1 mol H2

dUcenH 11,6 mol Li ↔ x mol H2

cMnYnm:UlGIuRdUEsnEdlTTYl)an molLimol

HmolxLimol 805,52161,11 2 == H2

CMhanTI4 tamry³ma:sm:UlGIuRdUEsn (2,016g) eyIgGacKNnama:sGIuRdUEsn EdlTTYl)andUcteTA ÷ m = n × M

ma:sGIuRdUEsnEdlTTYl)an =5,805mol H2 x 2,016 g H2 = 11, 70 g H2

CMhanTI5 edayma:sm:Ulrbs;GIuRdUEsntUcCagma:sm:Ulrbs;lIcUm ehIyeyIg RtUvkarlIcUmBIrm:Ul edIm,IbegáIt)anCamYym:UlGIuRdUEsn eyIgsgÇwmfa ma:srbs;GIuRdUEsntUcCag 80,57 g.

bnÞab;BIeFVIkarGnuvtþedaHRsaylMhat;mk eyIgeXIjfa eyIgGacbBa©ÚlCMhanTI2 TI3 nigTI4eTACasmI- karEtmYy dUcEdl]TahrN_xageRkambgðaj. ]TahrN_ 14 mðÚbGaharEdleyIgbriePaK va)anbMEbkenAkñúgxøÜneyIg edIm,Ipþl;nUvfamBl sMrab;karlUtlas; énrUbragkay nigedImI,[mandMeNIrkarenAkñúgxøÜneyIg. smIkarTUeTAsMrab; dMeNIrkarenHmanPaBsauMjúaMNas; EdltMNagedaykarbMEbkKøúykUs edIm,ITTYl)an]sμ ½n kabUnic nigTwk.

OHCOOOHC 2226126 666 +→+ RbsinebImnusSmñak;briePaKKøúykUscMnYn 856 g kñúgry³eBlNamYyenaH etIKat;RtUv

plitnUv]sμ ½nkabUnic cMnYnb:unμanRkam? cMelIy

C¿hanTI1 smIkarlMnwgRtUv)aneKR)ab; C¿hanTI2 TI3 nigTI4 tamsmIkarlMnwgeyIgeXIjfa ebIeKeRbIKøúykUs 1 m:Ul

eKTTYl)an]s μ ½nkabUniccMnYn 6 m:Ul. ma:sm:Ulrbs;KøúykUs nig]s μ½n kabUnicKW 180,2 g nig 44,01 g tamerogKña. 180,2g C6H12O6 ↔ 44,01 x 6 g CO2 856g C6H12O6 ↔ x g CO2

97

ma:s]s μ ½nkabUnicEdlTTYl)anKw = 6126

26126

2,180601,44856

OHgCgCOxxOHgC

= 1,25 x 103 g CO2

C¿hanTI5 edaymYym:UlKøúykUs eKTTYl)an 6 m:Ul]sμ½nkabUnic ehIyma:sm:Ul rbs;KøúykUsFMCag ma:sm:Ulrbs;]sμ½nkabUnic 4dg dUcenHcMelIyenH KWsmehtupl.

9>karkMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr Limiting Reagents

enAeBlEdlKImIviTUGnuvtþn¾RbtikmμKImImYy CaFm μtaGgÁFatuRbtikrKIBuMmanvtþmantam brimaNsÞWsüÚemRTI BitR)akdenAkñúgsmamaRtEdl)anbBa¢ak;edaysmIkarlMnwg ehtudUcenH ehIy)anCaGgÁFatuRbtikrxøHRtUv)aneKeRbIGs; ehIybrimaNGgÁFatuRbtikrdéTeTotenAsl;. brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikrEdleRbIGs;munenAkññúgsmIkarmYyehAfaGgÁFatuRbtikrkMNt;. brimaN Gtibrmarbs;plitplEdlTTYl)anGaRs½yeTAelIvtþmanbrimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr enAeBlEdl GgÁFatuRbtikreRbIGs;KWKμanplitplNamYyeTotRtUv)anbegáIteLIgeT.brimaNGgÁFatu Rbti krelIsKWCabrimaNEdlmanvtþmaneRcInCagbrimaNEdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;Edlman Rbtikm μCamYy GgÁFatukMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr.

bribTénkarkMNt;GgÁFatuRbtikr KWvaminxusGVIBITMnak;TMngrvagburs nig®sþIenAkñúg køibRbkYtraMenaHeT. RbsinebImanburs14nak; ehIymanEt®sþI 9nak; dUcenHmanEt 9KUburs¼ ®sþIeT EdlGaceLIgRbkYt)an ehIyburs cMnYn5nak;eTotnwgsl;edayKμanKU. dUecñHcMnYn®sþICa GñkkMNt;cMnYnbursEdlRtUveLIgRbkYtraM ehIycMnYnbursRtUv enAsl;.

GicsaPøúyGrYs<an;F½rCasarFatuEdlK μanBN’Kμankøin ehIymanesßrPaBbMput. vaRtUv)an begáIteLIg edaykardutPøúyGrCamYys<an;F½renAkñúgbriyakas.

)g(SF)g(F)l(S 623 →+ smIkarenHR)ab;eyIg[dwgfa mYym:Uls<an;F½r manRbtikmμCamYy 3m:UlPøúyGr F2 edIm,I

begáIt)anCa s<an;F½r GicsaPúøyGrUs<an;F½rmYym:Ul. ]bmafaeK[s<an;F½r4m:UlmanRbtikm μ Ca mYy20m:Ul PøúyGr. eday 231 FmolSmol ↔ eyIg)ancMnYnm:UlPøúyGrRtUvkar caM)ac; edIm,ImanRbtikm μCamYys<an;F½r4m:UlKW ÷

22 12

13

4 FmolSmolFmol

xSmol =

b:uEnþcMnYnm:Ulrbs;PøúyGrmanrhUteTAdl;20m:UlKWelIsBItMrUvkarRbtikmμCamYys<an;F½r.

98

dUcenHs<an;F½rCasarFatuEdlkMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr ehIyPøúyGr CaPñak;garGgÁFatu RbtikrEdlelIsÉbrimaNs<an;F½rPøúyGrYEdlekIteLIgKWvaGaRs½yeTAelI vtþmanrbs;s<an;F½r. müa:geToteyIgGackMNt;brimaNGgÁFatukMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikredayKNnacMnYm:Ul s<an;F½rEdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;edIm,ImanRbtikmμCamYy20m:UlPøúyGr.eyIgGacsresr

SmolFmolSmol

xFmol 7,631

202

2 =

edaysarEts<an;FrmanvtþmanEt4m:UleyIgGacTajsnñidæandUcKñafa s<an;F½rCa GgÁFatu kMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr ehIyPøúyGrCaPñak;garGgÁFatuRbtikrEdlelIs. ]TahrN_³G‘uyerRtUv)aneKpliteLIgedayRbtikmμrvagGam:Ujak;nig]sμ ½nkabUnictamsmIkar ÷

)()()()()(2 22223 lOHaqCONHgCOgNH +→+ enAkñúgRbtikm μmYyeK[Gam:Ujak; 637,2g manRbtikmμCamYy]s μ ½nkabUnic 1142g . k-etIGgÁFatuNa CaGñkkMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr? x-KNnama:sG‘uyerEdlkrekIt K-KNnabrimaNGgÁFatuCaRkamEdlenAsl;eRkayRbtikmμ. cMelIy k-kñúgkrNIenHeyIgminGacdwgfaGgÁFatuNaCaGñkkMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr eday

karBinitüenaHeT eyIgRtUvEtKNnacMnYnm:Ulrbs;GgÁFatuRbtikrTaMgBIr. ma:sm:Ulrbs;Gam:Ujak; nig]sμ ½nkabUnicKW 17,03g nig44,01 g tamerog.

cMnYnm:UlGam:Ujak;= mol42,3703,17

2,637=

cMnYnm:Ul]sμ½nkabUnic= mol95,2501,44

1142=

smIkareyIgeXIjfa 2m:UlGam:Ujak;manRbtikmμCamYy 1m:Ul]sμ ½nkabUnic dUcenHcMnYn m:UlGam:Ujak;caM )ac;cUlrYmRbtikmμCamYy]sμ ½nkabUnic25,95mol KW 25,95 mol x 2 = 51,90 mol

edaymanEtGam:Ujak; 37,42mol manvtþmandUcenHvaminGaceFVIRbtikmμsBVCamYy ]sμ ½n kabUniceT. Gam:Ujak;KWCaGgÁFatuEdlkMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr ehIy]sμ ½nkabUnicCa Pñak;gar RbtikrEdlelIs.

x-brimaNG‘uyerEdlkrekItKWRtUvkMNt;eTAtamGgÁFatukMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr

99

ma:sG‘uyer= 37,42 x 60,06=1124 g

K-ma:s]sμ½nkabUnic EdlenAsl;eRkayRbtikm μ rkcMnYnm:Ul]sμ ½nkabUnicEdlenAsl; eRkayRbtikmμ 25,95 - mol,, 247

24237

=

dUcenHma:s]s μ ½n]sμ ½nkabUnicEdlenAsl;KW 7,24 x 44,01= 319 g

10>TinñplRbtikmμ Reaction Yield

brimaNénsarFatukMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikrenAcMnuccab;epþIménRbtikmμkMNt;TinñplCaRTwsþI rbs;RbtikmμenHKWCabrimaNplitpl EdlTTYl)anRbsinebIGgÁFatukMNt;brimaN GgÁFatuRbtikrTaMgGs;cUlrYmRbtikmμ. TinñpltamRTwsþIKWCaTinñplGtibrma EdleyIgsgÇwmfa TTYl)antamsmIkar b:uEnþenAkñúgkarGnuvtþTinñplBitR)akd KWEtgEtmanbrimaNticCagTinñpl EdleKTTYl)antamRTwsþI. manehtuplCaeRcInEdleFVI[Tinñpl tamRTwsþI nigTinñplBitR)akd manPaBepSgKña dUcCaRbtikmμCaeRcInCaRbtikmμbRBa©asdUcenHvaminplit)anTinñpl100°eT. eTaHbICaRbtikmμmYyRtUv)anbBa©b;100°k¾edayvak¾GacmanpllM)akEdredIm,ITTYl)an Tinñpl TaMgRsugBIGgÁFatuRbtikr.müa:gvijeTotRbtikmμCaeRcInmanPaBsaMjúaMenHmann½yfa GgÁFatu EdlkrekItGacmanRbtikm μCamYyKña b¤k¾GgÁFatuEdlekItmanRbtim μCamYyGgÁFatu Rbtikr edIm,IbegáIt)anCaplitplepSgeTot. RbtikmμenHGackat;bnßynUvTinñplrbs;Rbtikmμ dMbUg.

edIm,IkMNt;fabrimaNplitplEdlTTYl)anmanb:uNÑa KImIviTUEtgEtKNnaTinñpl CaPaKry Edlerobrab;BIsmamaRtrvagTinñplBitR)akd nigTinñplTTYl)aneRkayRbtikmμ ehIyKNnatamrUbmnþdUcxageRkam³

TinñplPaKry = TinñplBit / TinñplRTwsþI x 100 %

ktþaTaMgLayEdlGacCH\T§iBleTAelITinñplCaPaKryenHmansItuNðPaB nigsMBaF.

]TahrN_³TItanKWCaelah³EdlRsal nigmingayeLIgERcH eKeRbIvaenAkñúgr:ukEkt ynþehaH ma:sIunynþehaH nigtYkg;. eKTTYl)anvaedayRbtikm μenAsItuNðPaBx<s;rvagTItan (IV)kørY CamYyelah³ma:ejsüÚmenA sItuNðPaBBI 950 0C eTA 1150 0C .

)(2)()(2)( 24 lMgClsTilMggTiCl +→+

100

enAkñúg]sSahkmμmYyeK[ 3,54 x 107 g TItanetRtakørY manRbtikmμCamYy 1,13 x 107 g ma:ejsüÚm.

k-cUrKNnaTinñpltamRTwsþIrbs;TItanKitCaRkam x-cUrKNnaTinñplCaPaKry RbsinebIeKTTYl)anTItanBitR)akdcMnYn 7,91 x 106g.

cMelIy k- KNnama:sTItan EdlTTYl)an rkcMnYnm:UlTItan nigcMnYnma:ejsüÚmEdlmanvtþman -cMnYnm:Ul TiCl4 = molx,

,x, 5

7

10871718910543

=

-cMnYnm:Ul Mg = molx,,x, 5

7

10654312410131

= bnÞab;mkeyIgRtUvkMNt;fa sarFatumYyNaCaGñkkMNt;brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr. tam

smIkareyIgeXIjfa 1 m:UlTItan(IV)kørY manRbtikm μCamYyBIrm:Ulma:ejsüÚm. dUcenHcMnYnm:Ul ma:ejsüÚmRtUvkarcaM)ac;edIm,ImanRbtikm μCamYyTItan4kørYKW 1,87 x 105 x 2 = 3,74 x 105 mol. edaycMnYnm:Ulma:ejsüÚmmanrhUtdl; 4,65 x 105 mol cMnYnm:UlTItan (IV)kørY CaGñkkMNt; brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr.

tamsmIkarmYym:UlTItan 4kørYeKTTYl)an 1m:UlTItan ma:sTItanEdlTTYl)an = 1,87 x 105 x 47,88 = 8,93 x 106 g

KNnaTinñplCaPaKry= %,xx,x,

6881001093810917

6

6

=

lMhat;Gnuvtþn¾³kñúg]sSah_kmμva:NadüÚmeRbICasMela³RtUv)anTTYledayRbtikm μrvag va:NadüÚmGuksIut CamYykal;süÚmenAsItuNðPaBx<s; . 5Ca + V2O5 5CaO + 2V

V2O5 =1,54 × 103 eFIVRbtikmμCamYy Ca = 1,96 × 103g k- KNnaPaKrytamRTwsþIrbs; V

x- KNnaTinñplPaKry ebIsin V TTYl)an 803g

101

segçbsmIkarKnøwH

%100n

××

= smasFatulrbs;:asmU:mFatulrbs;:asmU:mFatuaturbs;PaKrysmasF

PaKryTinñpl = × 100%

segçbBIlkçN³Bit nigbBaØtþi 1- ma:sGatUmKWCargVas;ma:sGatUmkñúgmYyxñat ¬x .G¦ CamUldæanxñatEdlTak;TgtMél Bit R)akdeTAnwg 12 cMeBaHGIusUtUb C-12 . ma:sm:UelKul rbs;m:UelKulmYy KWCaplbUkrbs; ma:s; GatUménGatUmkñúgm:UelKulenaH . TaMgma:sGatUmnigma:sm:UelKul GacRtUvKNna)an RtwmRtUvtams,icRtUEm:tma:s .

2- mYym:UlGav:UkaRdU rbs;GatUm m:UelKul nigPaKl¥itdéTeTotesμ I 6, 022 1023 ma:sm:Ul ¬CaRkam¦ rbs;FatumYYy rWsmasFatumYy es μ Inwgma:sGatUm¬x>G¦rbs;va bUknigcMnYnGav:UkaRdU rbs;GatUm ¬kñúgkrNICaFatu¦ rbs;m:UelKul¬kñúgkrNICasmasFatuGIuy:ug¦. 3- PaKrybnSMma:s rbs;smasFatumYy KWCaPaKryCama:srbs;FatunImYy². ebIsineyIgdwg PaKrybnSMma:s rbs;smasFatu eyIgGacrk)anrUbmnþeRKag nigrUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;FatueTot ebIsinCaeyIgdwgtMélRbEhl ma:sm:Ul . 4- bMErbMrYlKImIGacRtUv)anehAfa bMErbMrYlRbtikmμKImI EdlRtUv)anerobrab;tamsmIkarKImI. sarFatuEdleFIV eGaymanbMErbMrYl eFIVeGaymanRbtikmμsresrenAxageqVg ehIysarFatuEdl kekIteLIg RtUvsresrenA xagsþaMsBaØaRBYj . tamc,ab;rkSama:ssmIkarKImIRtUvEtmanlMnwg. cMnYnGatUménRbePTFatukñúgGgÁFatuRbtikr RtUves μIeTAnwgcMnYnGatUmkñúgplitpl. 5- esÞIrsüÚemRTI KWCakarsikSaBIbrimaNplipl nigGgÁFatuRbtikrkñúgRbtikmμKImI. karKNna BIesÞIrsüÚemRT RtUv)anKNnaeday karbBaðajTaMgbrimaNEdlsÁal; nigminsÁal;kñúgRbePT Ca m:Ul ehIybþÚreTACaxñatepSgeTotebIsinCacaM)ac;.

TinñplBitTinñpltamRTwsþI

102

BaküKnøwH xñatma:sGatUm¬x-G¦TMBr½44 atomic mass unit

cMnYnGav:UkaRdU TMBr½46 Avogadro’s number

TinñplBitR)akd TMBr½68 actual yield TinñplRTwsþI TMBr½68 theoretical yield TinñplPaKry TMBr½69 percentage yield brimaNsÞWsüÚemRTI TMBr½66 stoichiometric amount RbtikmμKImI TMBr½57 chemical reaction RbtikrelIs TMBr½66 excess reagent

RbtikrkMNt; TMBr½66 limiting reagent plitpl TMBr½59 product

ma:sGatUm TMBr½44 atomic mass

ma:sm:Ul TMBr½47 molar mass ma:sm:UelKul TMBr½49 molecular mass m:Ul TMBr½46 mole viFIm:Ul TMBr½63 mole method

smasPaKPaKryCama:s TMBr½52 percentage composition by mass

smIkarKImI TMBr½57 chemical equation sÞWsüÚemRTI TMBr½63 stoichiometry GgÁFatuRbtikr TMBr½59 reactant

103

lMhat; ma:sGatUm sMnYrrlwk 1- etIGVIeTAEdlehAfaxñatm:asGatUm ? ehtuGVI)anCacaM)ac;begáItxñatrbs;va ? 2- etIm:asrbs;GatUmkabUnKWmanb:unμan ?ehtuGVI)anCam:asGatUmrbs;kabUnenAkñúgtarages μ Inwg

12,01 amu esÞIrRKb;esovePATaMgGs; . 3- cUrBnül;[)anek,aHk,ayehtuGVI)anCaeKniyayfa : ma:sGatUmrbs;masKW 197.0 x>G } lMhat; 4- etIB’tmanGVIEdlGñkRtUvkaredIm,IKNnam:asGatUmmFümrbs;FatumYy . lMhat; 5- ma:sGatUmén Cl35

17 ( 75,35% ) nig Cl3717 ( 24,47%) KW 34,968 amu nig 36,956 amu .

KNnam:asGatUmmFüménkør . PaKryenHTaMgenHRtYv)aneKkMnt;CaPaKrysMbUrCageK . 6- m:asGatUmén Li6

3 nig Li73 KW 6,0151 amu nig 7,0160 amu . KNnaPaBsMbUrrbs;

GuIsUtUbTaMgBIrenHenAkñúgFmμCati . m:asGatUmmFüménlIcUmKW 6,941 amu . 7- etIm:as 13,2 amu manb:un μanRkam ? 8- etIm:as 8,4 g manb:unμan amu ? ma:smUl nigcMnYnGav:UkaRdU sMnYrrlwk 9- cUreGayniymn½ym:Ul . etIxñatm:UlenAkñúgkarKNnaCaGVI ? 10- etIGVICama:sm:Ulrbs;GatUm ? etIxñatCaTUeTArbs;ma:sm:UlCaGIV ? lMhat; 11- RbCaCnEpndImanRbEhl6,0 Ban;lanGñk. edaydwgfa mnusSRKb;KñacUlrYmkñúglMnaMel,Ón

PaKl¥itBIrkñúgmYyvinaTI etImanb:un μanqñaMEdlGacTTYl)anPaKl¥it6,0×1023? edaysnμt fa man 365éf¶ kñúgmYy qñaM .

12- etImanb:un μanGatUmkñúg 5,10 mol rbs;s<an;F½r ?

104

13- etImanb:un μanm:UlGatUmkU)al;EdlmankñúgGatUmkU)al; 6,00×109? 14- etImanbu:n μanm:UlGatUmkal;süÚmkñúgkal;süÚm 77,4 g ? 15- etImanmasb:un μanRkamkñúgmas 15,3 mol ? 16- etImanma:sCaRkamb:un μankñúgGatUm Hg nig Ne ? 17- etImanma:sCaRkamb:un μankñúgGatUm As nig Ni ? 18- etImanma:sCaRkamb:un μankñúgGatUmsMN 1,00 × 1012? 19- etImanGatUmb:unμanPaKrykñúgTg;Edg 3,14g ? 20- etIGatUmNamYyEdlmanGatUmeRcInCageK ¬GatUmGIuRdUEsn 1,10g nigGatUmRkUm 14,7g)? 21- etIGatUménFatuNamYyEdlmanma:sFMCageKBIrGatUmsMN rW 5,1 ×10-23 mol eGlüÚm ? 22- kMras;RkdasmYYysnøwkman 0,0036 qñaMBnøW . edaysn μtfa esovePAmYyk,alcMnYnTMB½r

CacMnYnGav:UkaRdU cUrKNnakMras;esovePACaqñaMBnøW . ma:sm:UelKul

lMhat; 23- KNnama:sm:UelKulCaxñat ¬x/G¦ rbs;smasFatuxageRkam

(a)-CH4 (b)-NO2 (c)-SO3 (d)-C6H6 (e)-NaI (f)-K2SO4 (g)-Ca3(PO4)2

24- KNnama:sm:Ulrbs;smasFatuxageRkam (a)-Li2CO3 (b)-CS2 (c)-CHCl3 (d)-C6H8O6 (e)-KNO3 (f)-Mg3N2

25- KNnama:sm:Ulrbs;rbs;smasFatumYyebIsinvaman 0,372mol nig 152g . 26- etIeGtanmanb:unμanm:UelKulkñúg 0,334g ? 27- KNnacMnYnGatUmrbs; C , H , O kñúg 1,50g rbs;KøúykUs (C6H12O6) . 28- [(NH2)2CO] RtUv)aneRbICaCI nigsmasFatudéTeTot . cUrKNnacMnYnGatUmrbs; N, C, O kñúg

1,68 104 g . 29- PaBcMElkBiessénsmasFatumYyEdlmanenAkñúgstVl¥itjIsMrab;Tak;TajstVeQ μalma rUbmnþ C19H38O . CaTUeTAenAkñúgstVl¥itmYymansmasFatucMElkenHRbEhl 1,0 10-12g . etIvaman b:unμanm:UelKulkñúgbrimaNenH . 30- dg;sIuetrbs;Twkman 1,00g/mL enA 4oC etImanTwkb:unμanm:UelKulkñúg 2,56mL ?

105

ma:ss,icRtUEm:t sMnYrrlwk 31- cUrBiB’NnaGMBIbMerIbMras;s,icRtUEm:t 32- cUrBiBN’na faetIGñkGackMnt;GIusUtUbrbsFatumYyBIma:ss,icrbs;vatamEbbNa . lMhat; 33- kabUnmanGIusUtUbBIr CC 13

6126 , ehIyPøúyGrmanGIusUtUbEtmYy F19

9 . etIkMritx<s;bMput b:un μan EdlGñksegáteXIjkñúgma:ss,icrbs;GIuy:ugviC¢manCF +

4 ? sn μtfaK μankarpþac;CaFatu tUc²eT. 34- GIuRdUEsnmanGIusUtUbBIr HH 2

111 , ehIyPøúyGrmanGIusUtUbbYn SSSS 36

163416

3316

3216 ,,, .

etIkMritx<s; bMputb:unμan EdlGñksegáteXIj kñúgma:ss,icrbs;GIuy:ugviC¢man +SH 2 ? snμtfa K μankarpþac;CaFatu tUc²eT.

smasPaBPaKry nigrUbmnþKImI sMnYrrMlwk 35- cUreRbIGam:Ujak;edIm,IBnül;BIGtßn½ysmaPaBPaKryCama:srbs;smasFatumYy . 36- cUrBnül;faetIkarsÁal;smaPaBPaKryCama:srbs;smasFatuminsÁal;mYyGacCYyeGay

eyIgkMnt; )anBIsmasFatuEbbNa. 37- etIBakü ‘empirical’ kñúgrUbmnþEdldwgedayBiesaFn¾mann½yEbbNa ? 38- ebIsineyIgdwgrUbmnþEdldwgedayBiesaFn¾rbs;smasFatumYyetIBt’manGIVEdleyIgRtUvdwg

bEnßm edIm,IkMnt;rUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;va ? lMhat; 39- sMN)a:haMgEdlmanenAkñúgEpndICa SnO2 . cUrKNnaPaKryCama:srbs; Snnig Okñúg SnO2 . 40- CaeRcInqñaMmkehIy kør:Upm(CHCl3 ) RtUv)aneRbICafñaMsnøb; tamBitvaCasarFatuBul Edl

bNþaleGayb:HBal;dl;eføIm Rkelon nigebHdUg . cUrKNnaPaKryCama:srbs; smas FatuenH .

41- Gal;kulsIuNamicRtUv)aneRbICacMbg kñúgTwkGb; sab‘U nigeRKOgsMGag. rUbmnþrbs;vaKW C9H10O (a)- KNnaPaKryCama:srbs; C , H , O kñúgGal;kulsIuNamiuc .

106

(b)- etImanGal;kulsIuNamiucb:un μanm:UelKulkñúgPaKsMNakCama:s 0,49g ? 42- sarFatuTaMgGs;xageRkamenHCaCI.etIFatuNamYykñúgcMenamFatuTaMgenHmanGasUteRcInCag

eKtamParyCama:s. (a) G‘uyer (NH2)2CO (b) Gam:Uj:ÜnnIRtat NH4NO3

(c) Guanidine HNC (NH2)2 (d) Gam:Uj:ak; NH3

43- GalIsIn (Allicin) CasarFatuEdlmanxøinxÞwmsar. tamkarviPaKmYy)anpþl;smaPaB PaKryCam:asbnþbnÞab; enH C= 44,4% , H=6,21% , O = 9,86% , S = 39,5 % . cUrKNnarUbmnþtamBiesaFn¾rbs;va . etIvamanrUbmnþm:UelKuldUcemþc ? eKeGayma:sva RbEhl 162g .

44- EBr:UsIuya:sIulnIRtat (PAN) CasmasFatumYy énEpSgGBV½ vaman C , H , N nig O . cUrkMnt;PaKry rbs;GuksIuEsn nigrUbmnþgayrbs;va ebIeKeGay C= 19,8% , H=2,50% nig N=11,6% .

45- rUbmnþERcHEdkKW Fe2O3 . etIEdkb:un μanm:UlmanenAkñúg 24,6g énsmasFatu . 46- KNnama:sCaRkamrbs; I2 EdlnwgeFIVRbtikmμCamYyGaluymIj:Úm (Al) 20,4g edIm,IbegáIt

GaluymIj:ÚmGIuyU:dY (AlI3) . 47- etImans<anF½rb:unμanRkam EdlcaM)ac;edIm,IeFIVRbtikm μeGay)ansBVCamYy)art (Hg) 246g

begáItCa )artsu‘lpY (HgS). 48- SnF2 RtUv)andak;kñúgfñaMduseF μjedIm,IkarBarra:k;sIueF μj. etI F manb:un μanRkamkñúgsmaFatu

24,6g . 49- etIrUbmnþEdldwgtamBiesaFrbs;smaFatumYyya:gdUcemþc ? ebIeKeGayFatupSMrbs;vadUc

xageRkam ÷ (a) H = 2,1% , O = 65,3% , S = 32,6% (b) Al = 20,2 % , Cl = 79,8 %

50- etIrUbmnþEdldwgtamBiesaFrbs;smaFatumYyya:gdUcemþc? ebIeKeGayFatupSMrbs;vadUcxageRkam ÷

(a) C = 40,1 % , H = 6,6% , O = 53,3% (b) C = 18,4 % , N = 21,5 % , K = 60,1 %

51- ma:sm:Ulrbs;kaehVGIun 194,9g etIrUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;vaCa C4H5N2O rW C8H10N4O2 ?

107

52- m:UNUsUdüÚmKøúytama:t(MSG)CasarFatubEnßmelIrsCatiGaharRtUv)aneKhamXat;eday- sarmankarbgáCMgW QIk,al nigCMgWQIRTUg. MSGbgáeLIgeday %C=35,51 , %H = 4,77 %N = 8,29 , %O = 37,85 , %Na = 13,60. cUrkMnt;rUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;va ebIsineKeGay

ma:sm:Ul 169g .

Rbtikmμ nig smIkarKImI sMnYrrMlwk 53- cUreRbIkarbegáItBI GuksIuEsn nigGIuRdUEsn edIm,IBnül;RbtikmμKImIGgÁFatuRbtikrnig plitpl. 54- etIRbtikmμKImI nigsmIkarKImIxusKñaya:gdUcemþc ? 55- ehtuGIV)anCasmIkarKImIRtUvEtmanlMnwg ? etIc,ab;GIVEdlpþl;cMeBaHkarføwgsmIkarKImI ? 56- cUrsresrnimitsBaØaedIm,IbBa¢ak;BI PaB]s μ ½n rwg rav nigsUluysüúgTwk . lMhat; 57- cUrføwgsmIkarxageRkam

a) C + O2 → CO2 b) CO + O2 → CO2 c) H2 + Br2 → HBr d) K + H2O → KOH + H2 e) Mg + O2 → MgO f) O3 → O2 g) H2O2 → H2O + O2 h) N2 + H2 → NH3 i) Zn + AgCl → ZnCl2 + Ag j) S8 + O2 → SO2 k) NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O l) Cl2 + NaI → NaCl + I2 m) KOH + H3PO4 → K3PO4 + H2O n) CH4 + Br2 → CBr4 + HBr

58- cUrføwgsmIkarxageRkam a) KClO3 → KCl + O2 b) KNO3 → KNO2 + O2 c) NH4NO3 → N2O + H2O d) NH4NO2 → N2 + H2O e) NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 f) P4O10 + H2O → H3PO4 g) HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 h) Al + H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + H2

108

i) CO2 + KOH → K2CO3 + H2O j) CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O k) Be2C + H2O → Be(OH)2 + CH4 l) Cu + HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O m) S + HNO3 → H2SO4 + NO2 + H2O n) NH3 + CuO → Cu + N2 + H2O

brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr nigplitpl sMnYrrMlwk 59- etIc,ab;GIVEdleyaleTAelI emKuNEdlmankñúgsmIkar ? ehtuGIV)anCacaM)ac;RtUvføwgsmIkar

edIm,IedaH RsayBIemKuNEdlmankñúgsmIkar ? 60- cUrBiPakSaCadMNak;² EdlTak;TgeTAnwgRTwsþIm:Ul ? lMhat; 61- cUrBinitücMehHrbs;kabUnm:UNUGuksIutkñúgGuksIuEsn

2CO(g)+ O2(g) → 2CO2(g)

CO man 3,60molcUrKNnacMnYnm:Ulrbs; CO2ebIsinGuksIuEsneFIVRbtikmμGs;CamYy CO. 62- sIulIkUnetRtakørYGacRtUvTTYl)andUcsmIkarxageRkam

Si(s) + 2Cl2(g) → SiCl4(l)

sIulIkUnetRtakørYTTYl)an 0,507mol etIkøb:unμanm:UlEdlRtUveRbIenAkñúgRbitkmμenH . 63- enAeBleeKdutkMedAsUda ¬sUdüÚmb‘ÍkabUNat b¤ sUdüÚmGIuRdUEsnkabUNat NaHCO3¦ vabeBa©j

]sμ ½nkabUnic k- cUrsresrsmIkarlMnwgénRbtikmμenH.

x- cUrKNnam:asrbs; NaHCO3 EdlcaM)ac;edIm,ITTYlpl CO2 20,5g .

64- eBlEdlb:UtasüÜmsüanIt (KCN) eFIVRbtikmμCamYyGasIut enaH]s μ ½nBuldl; CIvitekIteLIg

(HCN) tamsmIkar KCN(ag) + KCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + HCN(g)

ebIsinPaKsMNak 0,140g rbs; KCN eFIVRbtikm μCamYyGasIutGs; cUrKNnabrimaN HCN

EdlTTYl )anCaRkam . 65- dMenIrkarbiTRsa CadMenIrkarsaMjaMmYyEdlplitBIKøúykUs eGayCaeGtaNul nig]sμ½n kabUnic

C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

KøúykUs500,4getIbrimaNGtibrimarbs;eGtaNulEdlTTYl)anb:unμanRkam nigb:unμanlIRt ?

dg;sIuetrbs;eGtaNulesIμ 0.789g .

109

66- Tg;Edgs‘ulpatb:g;taGIuRdatRtUv)andutkMedAenAkñúgxül 100oC enaH)at;Twk ehIyk¾)at; BN’exovrbs; vapgEdr . CuSO4 . 5H2O → CuSO4 + 2H2O

ebIsinenAsl; CuSO4 9,60g bnÞab;BIdutkMedAsmasFatuedIm 15,01g cUrKNnacMnYnm:Ul rbs;TwkEdl manenAkñúgsmasFatu .

67- karRsavRCavrkmasGs;ry³eBlCaeRcInqñaMmkehIy Edlfa TegVImasBIsarFatuEr:epSgeTot dUcCa KCN

4Au + 8KCN + O2 + 2H2O → 4KAu(CN)2 + 4KOH

etIbrimaNGb,rima KCN b:unμanm:UlEdlcaM)ac;RtUvbEnßmelImas 29,0g ?

68- CaCO3 RtUvbMEbkedaykMedAeGayCa CaO ehIynigkabUnDIGuksIut etIbrimaN CaO TTYl)an b:unμanRkamBI CaCO3 1g ?

69- N2O vaRtUv)anTegVIBIkarbMEbkGam:Uj:ÚmnIRtat (NH4NO3) . plitplepSgeFot KwTwk

k- cUrsresrsmIkarlMnwgcMeBaHRbtikmμenH .

x- etI N2O b:un μanRkamEdlTTYl)anBI NH4NO3 0,46 mol ?

70- CIGam:Uj¶Úms‘ulpat [(NH4)2SO4] RtUv)anTegIVBI NH3 nig H2SO4 .

2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)

etI NH3 b:un μanRkamEdlcaM)ac;edIm,ITegIV (NH4)2SO4 1,00 105 ?

RbtikmμkMnt; sMnYrrMlwy 71- cUreGayniymn½yBakü FatukMnt;Rbtikm μ nigRbtikm μelIs. etIGacbBa¢ak;EbbNacMeBaH

RbtikmμkMnt; kñúgkarBüakrN_BIbrimaNplitplTTYl)an ? etIvaGacCaRbtikmμkMnt;Edrb¤eT

ebIsinmanGgÁFatuRbtikrEtmYy ?

72- cUreGay]TahrN_EdlbBa¢ak;BIbBaØtiRbtikmμkMnt; . lMhat; 73- NO eFIVRbtikm μCamYy]sμn½GuksIuEsn edIm,IbegáItCa NO2 Ca]sμn½BN’etñat 2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

NO = 0,886 mol nig O2 = 0,503mol etImYyNaCaGgÁFatukMnt;?cUrKNnacMnYnm:Ul NO2

EdlTTYl)an.

110

74- kar)at;bg;brimaNGUsUn kñúgbriyakasCabBaðaRBYy)armÖcMbgrbsGñkviTüasaRsþ naeBl fμ I²enH EdleKeCOCak;fa vaeFIVRbtikm μCamYy NO EdlecjBIynþehaHRbtikmμ RbtikmμKW

O3 + NO O2 + NO2

ebIsin 0,740g rbs;GUsUn RbtikmμCamYy NO = 0,670g etI NO2 b:un μanRkam Edlnwg TTYl)an ? etIsmasFatuNamYyCaFatukMnt;Rbtikm μ ? KNnabrimanGgÁFatuRbtikr EdlenAsl;eRkay Rbtikmμ ?

75- RbU)a:n CasmasFatuén]sμ ½nFmμCati ehIyeRbIkñúgkarcMGin nigcMehH

k- cUrføwgsmIkar C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

x-cMehHemtan 3,65mol tICO2 b:un μanRkamEdlTTYl)an ? eKsnμtfaGuksIuEsn enAsl; kñúgRbtikmμenH

76- cUrBinitüRbtikm μ MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

ebIsin MnO2= 0,86mol nig HCl = 48,2mol RbtikmμKña etImYyNaEdlRtUveRbIdMbUgeK ? etI Cl2

b:unμanRkam EdlTTYl)aneRkayRbtikmμ ?

TinñplRbtikmμ sMnYrrMlwy 77- ehtuGVI )an CaTinñplénRbtikmμRtUv)ankMnt;edaycMnYnkMnt;énGgÁFatuRbtikr?

78- ehtuGVI)anCaTinñplBitR)akdénRbtikmμesÞIrEtTaMgGs; tUcCagTinñplénRbtikm μtamRTwsþI?

lMhat; 79- GuIRdUEsnPøúyGrY ( HF ) RtUv)aneRbIenAkñúgeragcRkplit Freons ¬EdlbMpøajRsTab; GUsUn¦ nig plitkmμbegáItelah³GaluymIjÚ:m. vaRtUv)anerobcMedaysmIkarxageRkam ³

CaF2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + 2HF

enAkñúgdMenIrkarmYy eKdak; CaF2 cMnYn 6,00Kg CamYyGasuIts‘ulpYricelIs ehIyeK TTYl)an HF cMnYn 2,86g . KNnaTinñplCa PaKryrbs; HF .

80- nIRtYKøIesrIn ( C3H5N3O9 ) KWCaFatupÞúHy:agxøaMg . vabMEbk edayGactagedaysmIkar ³ 4C3H5N3O9 6N2 + 12CO2 + 10H2O + O2

111

RbtikmμenHbeBa©jkMedAy:agxøaMg nigbegáItCa]sμ½nCaeRcIn . vabegáIt]s μ ½nTaMgenHy:agrh½s ehIy]sμ ’½nTaMgenHrIkmaDy:agrh½s EdleFVI[manbnÞúHekIteLIg .

k- etIbrimaNGuksuIEsnGtibrmarbs;GuksuIWEn ¬KitCaRkam ¦ b:unμanEdl)anmkBI nIRtUKøI esrIn 2 x 10-2 g ?

x- KNnaTinñplénRbtikm μenH ebIsinCabrimaNrbs;GuksuIEsnEdlTTYl)anKW6,55g 81- TItanIj:Úm (IV) GuksuIt ( TiO2) CasmasFatuBN’s EdlbegáItedayRbtikm μrbs;GasuIt

s‘ulpYric elIEr:GuilEmNac ilmenite ( FeTiO3) : FeTiO3 + H2SO4 TiO2 + FeSO4 + H2O

edaysarEtvalkçN³RsGab; nigminBul vaGacRtUv)aneKykeTAeFVICaCatiBN’enAkñúg)øasÞik nig fñaMlab . kññúgdMeNIrkarmYy eKeRbI FeTiO3 cMnYn 8,00 x 103 Kg eKTTYl)an TiO2 cMnYn 3,67 x

103 Kg . KNnaTinñplCaPaKryénRbtikm μenH . 82- eGTIELnCasmasFatuKImIsrIragÁEdlmansarsMxan;enAkñúg]sSahkm μ . eKGaceFVIvaeday

kardutkMedAGicsanenAsItuNðPaB 8000C :

C6H14 C2H4 + plitplepSgeTot ebIsinCaTinñplbegáIteGTIELnKW 42,5% . etIm:asGicsanEdlrgRbtikm μmanb:un μanedIm,I begáIteGTIELn 481g ?

112

CMBUkTI3 esckþIepþIm enAkñúgCMBUkenH eyIgnwgeRbIR)as;cMeNHdwgrbs;eyIgxagEpñkTMnak;TMngbrimaNkñúgRbtikm μ KImIeTAnwgkarsikSaGMBIRbtikmμKImIEdlekIteLIg enAeBlEdlGgÁFatuRbtikrRtUv)anrMlayenAkñúg Twk.

mnusSPaKeRcInKitfaTwkrk)anedayminGs;éføBIeRBaHvagayrk)ankñúgbrimaNEdlK μanEdn kMNt;elIkElgEtkñúgGakasFatus¶ÜtEhg nigkñúgry³eBlraMgePøógd¾yUr eBlkRmitelIkareRbI R)as; rbs;vaeFIVeGayeyIgyl;ya:gc,as;GMBIsar³sMxan;rbs;va BIeRBaHeyIgeRbIR)as;vasMrab;eKal bMNgFmμtaCaeRcIn. eyIgpwkva gUtva daMsøedayeRbIva. eyIgEhlkñúgva elg)a:taMg (Skate)

elIva CiHsÁIelIva ebIkTUkekþagqøgkat;va. eyIgGacTajykfamBlrbs;vamkeRbIR)as;. ebIKμanTwk eyIgminGacrs;)aneT ³ brimaNTwkmanRbEhl 60° énma:srbs;xøÜnmnusSeyIg. müa:geTotTwkKWCavtßúEdleRbI)anRKb;ya:gTaMgGs; ]TahrN_ karbegáItsUluysüúgTwk edaykarrMlayGgÁFaturwgepSg²KñaCaeRcIn nigGgÁFaturavdéTeTot. karBitenAsItuNðPaBFm μta vaKWCaGgÁFaturavEdlGaRs½yeTAnwglkçN³EtmYyKt;énm:UelKulrbs;va. ebIeTaHbICabrimaNTwk elIsBI 70°énépÞrbs;EpndIk¾eday vakMrrkeXIjTwksuT§enAkñúgFm μCatiNas;. RbPBTwkéRb nigTwksabmanpÞúknUvsarFatuxniCEdlrlay nigsarFatukxVk;EdlmanRbPBBI ]sSahkm μ nigCI. ]TahrN_ cMeBaHTwkEdl)anmkBITwkma:sIun CaTUeTAvamanpÞúknUvsarFatuPøúyGrY ¬EdlRtUv)aneK bEnßmedIm,Ikat;bnßykarBukpuyrbs;eFμj¦EdlbEnßmeTAelIsarFatuxniC ¬CasMxan; kørY s‘ulpat DIkabUNaténsUdüÚmb:UtasüÚmkal;süÚm nigma:ej:süÚm¦nigGacmanbEnßmkør ¬edIm,IsMlab;)ak;etrI¦ nigsMN ¬RbsinebIbMBg;TwksMrab;pÞúkvamanGayuelIsBI 80 qñaM¦. RbtikmμKImICaeRcIn nigesÞIrEtRKb;dMeNIrkarCIv³TaMgGs;RbRBwtþeTAenAkñúgTwk. kñúgCMBUkenH eyIgnwgBiPakSaGMBIRbePTRbtikmμsMxan;²cMnYnbIEdlekIteLIgenAsUluysüúgTwk ³ RbtikmμbegáIt kkr RbtikmμGasIut-)as nigRbtikmμGuksIudU-erdukmμ. kñúgCMBUkeRkay²eyIgnwgsikSaGMBIlkçN³

RbtikmμkñúgsUluysüúgTwkReaction in Aqueous Solutions

113

TMrg; niglkçN³rbs;TwkEdlRtUv)anehAfa :GgÁFaturMlayskl : nigsUluysüúgrbs;va. 3>1 lkçN³TUeTAénsUluysüúgTwk sUluysüúg KWCal,ayesIμsac;¬GUm:UEsn¦énsarFatuBIr rWeRcIn. GgÁFaturlayKWCasarFatu EdlmanvtþmankñúgbrimaNticCag nigGgÁFaturMlay KWCasarFatuEdlmanvtþmankñúgbrimaNeRcIn Cag. sUluysüúgGacCa ]sμ ½n¬dUcCaxül;¦ GgÁFaturwg¬dUcCa sMelah³¦ rWGgÁFaturav ¬]TahrN_ TwksmuRT¦. kñúgEpñkenHeyIgnwgBiPakSaEtGMBIsUluysüúgb:ueNÑaH EdlkñúgenaHGgÁFaturlayCa dMbUg KWCaGgÁFaturav rWCaGgÁFaturwg nigGgÁFaturMlay KWCaTwk. lkçN³eGLicRtUlIt

RKb;GgÁFaturlayTaMgGs;EdlrMlaykñúgTwkRtUveTAnwgRbePTmYyénRbePTTaMgBIr³ eGLicRtUlIt nigminEmneGLicRtUlIt. eGLicRtUlIt KWCasarFatuEdlenAeBleKrMlayvaenAkñúg TwklT§plEdlTTYl)anCasUluysüúgEdlGaccMlgcrnþGKÁIsnI. minEmneGLIcRtUlItCasarFatu EdlminGaccMlgcrnþGKIÁsnIenAEdleKrMlayvakñúgTwk. rUb 3>1 bgðajGMBIviFIsa®sþgayRsYl nig minsμ úKsμajénkardwgnUvlkçN³xusEbøkKñarvageGLicRtUlIt nigminEmneGLicRtUlIt. KUéneGLic RtUtnicl¬Tg;Edg rW)øaTIn¦RtUv)anRCmuCkñúgEkvebEs‘rEdlmanTwk. edIm,IbMPøWGMBUlcrnþGKÁIsnIRtUv rt;BIeGLicRtUtmYyeTAeGLicRtUtmYyeTot. TwksuT§cMlgcrnþGKÁIsnIexSayNas;. eTaHbICa ya:gNak¾eday RbsinebIeyIgbEnßmbrimaNsUdüÚmkørYbnþic ¬NaCl¦GMBUlePøWgnwgPøWsen§asen§APøam enAeBlEdlGMbilrlaykñúgTwk. sUdüÚmkørYrwg NaCl CasmasFatuGIuy:ugEdlGacbMEbkeTACa GIuy:ug Na+ nigCl- enAeBlEdlvarlaykñúgTwk. GIuy:ug Na+ RtUvRsUbeTAxageGLicRtUtGviC¢man nigGIuy:ug Cl- RtUvRsUbeTAxageGLicRtUtviC¢man. clnaenHbegáIt)anCacrnþGKÁIsnIEdlesμ IeTAnwg lMhUréneGLicRtugtamExSelah³. edaysUluysüúgsUdüÚmkørY ¬NaCl¦ cMlgcrnþGKÁIsnIeyIg Gacniyayfa sUdüÚmkørY¬NaCl¦KWCaeGLicRtUlIt. TwksuT§manpÞúknUvGIuy:ugtictYc dUecñHvaminGac cMlgcrnþGKÁIsnI)aneT. kareRbobeFobPaBPøWrbs;GMBUlePøWgcMeBaHbrimaNm:UElesI μKñaénsarFatuEdlrlayCYy eyIgeGaydwgGMBIlkçN³xusEbøkKñarvageGLicRtUlItxøaMg nigexSay. lkçN³éneGLicRtUlItxøaMg KWGgÁFaturlaysnμtfaman 100°EdlRtUv)anbMEbkeTACaGIuy:ugkñúgsUluysüúg. ¬tamry³

114

karbMEbkenH eyIgcg;niyayfa karbMEbkénsmasFatueTACa kacug nigGaj:úg¦dUecñHeyIgGactag sUdüÚmkørYEdlrlaykñúgTwkdUcxageRkam ³ NaCl (S) Na+

(aq) + Cl- (aq)

smIkarenHbBa¢ak;fa sUdüÚmkørYTaMgGs;Edldak;cUleTAkñúsUluysüúgbegáIt)anCa GIuy:ug Na+ nig Cl-. KμandMusUdüÚmkørYNaEdlminbMEbkkñúgsUluysüúgenaHeT.

rUb 3>1 karerobcMsMrab;kardwgnUvPaBxusKñarvageGLicRtUlIt nigmineGLicRtUlIt.

lT§PaBrbs;sUluysüúgedIm,IcMlgcrnþGKÁIsnIGaRs½ynwgcMnYnénGIuy:ugEdlvaman. (a) sUluysüúgminEmneGLicRtUlItminmanpÞúkGIuy:ugehIyGMBUlePøIgminPøWeT. (b) sUluysüúgeGLicRtUlItexSaymanpÞúkcMnYnGIuy:ugtictYcehIyGMBUlePøIgminsUvPøW. (c) sUluysüúgeGLicRtUlItxøaMgmanpÞúkcMnYnGIuy:ugeRcInehIyGMBUlePøIgPøWEcgcaMg. brimaNm:UElénGgÁFaturlayesμ IKñakñúgkrNITaMgbIenH tarag 3>1 cMNat;fñak;énGgÁFaturlaykñúgsUluysüúgTwk

eGLicRtUlItxøaMg eGLicRtUlItexSay minEmneGLicRtUlIt HCl CH3COOH (NH2)2CO ¬G‘uyer¦ HNO3 HF CH3OH ¬emtaNul¦ HClO4 HNO2 C2H5OH ¬eGtaNul¦ H2SO4

* NH3 C6H12O6 ¬KøúykUs¦ NaOH H2O+

C12H22O11 ¬sak;karUs¦

H2O

115

Ba(OH)2 smasFatuGIuy:ug

* H2SO4 manGIuy:ug H+ BIrEdlGacbMEbk)an. + TwksuT§ KWCaeGLicRtUlItexSaybMput. tarag 3>1 Catarag]TahrN_éneGLicRtUlItxøaMg eGLicRtUlItexSay nigminEmneGLic

RtUlIt. smasFatuGIuy:ugdUcCasUdüÚmkørY (NaCl) b:UtasüÚmGIuy:UDY (KI) nigkal;süÚmnIRtat [Ca(NO3)2] KWCaeGLicRtUlItxøaMg. vaKYreGaycab;Garm μN_edIm,Ikt;sMKal;fa vtßúravkñúgxøÜnmnusS eyIgmanpÞúkeGLicRtUlItxøaMg nigexSayCaeRcIn. TwkKWCaGgÁFaturMlayEdlmanRbsiTi§PaBNas;sMrab;smasFatuGIuy:ug. eTaHbITwkKWCa m:UelKulNWtEdlGaccMlgcrnþGKÁIsnI vamantMbn;viC¢man¬GatUm H¦ nigtMbn;GviC¢man¬GatUm O¦ rW {b:Ul} viC¢man nigGviC¢man. cMeBaHehtuplenHehIyEdlvaKWCaGgÁFaturMlayb:UEl. enAeBl EdlsmasFatuGIuy:ugdUcCasUdüÚmkørYrlaykñúgTwk bNþajvimaRtbIénGIuy:ugkñúgGgÁFaturwgRtUv)an bMpøaj. GIuy:ug Na+ nig Cl- RtUv)anEjkecjBIKña nigTTYlrgGIuRdatkmμ EdlCadMeNIrkarEdlkñúg enaHGIuy:ugmYyRtUv)anhu‘¿BT½§edaym:UelKulTwkEdl)anerobcMkñúglkçN³Biess.GIuy:ugNa+ nImYy² RtUv)anh‘u¿BT½§edaym:UelKulTwkCaeRcInEdltMrg;Tisb:UlGviC¢manrbs;vaeq<aHeTArkkacug. RsedogKñaenHEdr GIuy:ug Cl- nimYYy²RtUv)anh‘¿uBT½§edaym:UelKulTwkCaeRcInCamYynwgb:UlviC¢Manrbs; vatMrg;Tiseq<aHeTArkGaj:úg¬rUb 3>2¦. GIuRdatkmμCYyeFIVeGayGIuy:ugmansßirPaBkñúgsUluysüúg nigCYykarBarkacugBIkarcUlKñaCamYyGaj:úg. GasIut nig)as KWCaeGLicRtUlItpgEdr. GasIutxøH rab;bBa©ÚlTaMgGasIutkørIRTic(HCl) nigGasIutnIRTic(HNO3) KWCaeGLicRtUlItxøaMg. GasIutTaMgenHbMEbkCaGIuy:ugTaMgRsugkñúgTwk. ]TahrN_enAeBlEdl]sμ ½nGIuRdUEsnrlaykñúgTwk vabegáIt)anCaGIuy:ug H+ nig Cl- edayrg GIuRdatm μdUcxageRkam ³ HCl (g) H+

(aq) + Cl-(aq)

müa:geTot m:UelKul HCl EdlrlayTaMgGs;EjkeTACaGIuy:ug H+ nig Cl- edayrgGIuRdatkmμ. dUecñHeBlEdleyIgsresr HCl (aq) vaRtUv)aneKyl;fa vaKWCasUluysüúgénGIuy:ug H+

(aq) nig Cl-

(aq) b:ueNÑaH nigK μanvtþmanm:UelKul HCl Edl)anrgGIuRdatkmμeT. müa:geTot GasIutmYy

H2O

116

cMnYndUcCaGasIutGaesTic (CH3COOH) EdleFIVeGayTwkexμHmanrsCatiCUrminrgGIuy:ugkmμTaMg RsugeT nigCaeGLicRtUlItexSay. eyIgtaglMnaMGIuy:ugkmμ ¬bMEbkGIuy:ug¦énGasIutGaesTicdUc xageRkam ³ CH3COOH (aq) CH3COO-

(aq) + H+ (aq)

rUb 3>2 GIuRdatkm μénGIuy:ug Na+ nig Cl-

Edl CH3COO- RtUv)anehAfa GIuy:ugGaestat. eyIgeRbIBaküGIuy:ugkmμedIm,IBN’naGMBIkarbMEbk énGasIut nig)aseTACaGIuy:ug. edaykarsresrrUbmnþGasIutGaesTicCa CH3COOH eyIgGac bBa¢ak;fa RbUtugEdlGacbMEbkCaGIuy:ug)anKWenAkñúgRkum COOH. GIuy:ugkmμénGasIutGaesTicRtUv)ansresrCamYYyRBYjeTAmkedIm,Ibgðajfa vaKWCaRbtikmμ eTAmk. dUcenHRbtikmμGacRbRBwtþeTAkñúgTisedATaMgBIr. CadMbUgm:UelKulGasIutCaeRcInbMEbkeTA CaGIuy:ug CH3COO- nig H+. bnÞab;mk GIuy:ug CH3COO- nig H+xøH)ancUlpSMKñaeLIgvijeTACa m:UelKul CH3COOH. TIbMput PaBmYyekIteLIgEdlkñúgenaHm:UelKulGasIutbMEbkCaGIuy:ugya:g rh½sdUcGIuy:ugcUlpSMvijEdr. PaBKImIEbbenHRtUv)aneKehAfalMnwgKImI. dUecñHGasIutGaesTic KWCaeGLicRtUlItexSayBIeRBaHkarbMEbkGIuy:ugrbs;vakñúgTwkKWminsBV. pÞúyeTAvijsUluysüúg GasIutkørIRTic GIuy:ug H+ nig Cl- manminmanTMenaredIm,IcUlpSMKña nigbegáItCam:UelKul HCl vijeT. eyIgeRbIR)as;RBYjmYyedIm,ItageGaykarbMEbkGIuy:ugsBV. 3>2 Rbtikm μbegáItkkr RbePTRbtikmμTUeTAmYyEdlekIteLIgkñúgsUluysüúgTwk KWCaRbtikmμbegáItkkrEdl lT§plTTYl)anCakarbegáItplitplEdlminrlay rWkkr. kkr KWCaGgÁFaturwgEdlminrlay

117

bMEbkedayELkBIsUluysüúg. Rbtikm μbegáItkkrCaFmμtarYmbBa©ÚlTaMgsmasFatuGIuy:ug. ]TahrN_ enAeBlEdlsUluysüúgTwkénsMNnIRtat [Pb(NO3)2] RtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgsUluysüúg TwkénsUdüÚmGIuy:UDY (NaI) kkrBN’elOgénsMNGIy:UDY (PbI2) RtUv)anbegáIteLIgdUcxageRkam³ Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) PbI2 (S) + 2NaNO3(aq) sUdüÚmnIRtatmanenAkñúgsUluysüúg. rUb 3>3 bgðajBIdMeNIrkarénRbtikm μenH.

rUb 3>3 karbegáItkkr PbI2BN’elOgenAeBlEdlbEnßmsUluysüúg Pb(NO3)2eTA kñúgsUluysüúg NaI .

PaBrlay etIeyIgGacTsSn_TayfaetIkkrnwgbegáItya:gdUcemþcenAeBlEdlsmasFatumYyRtUv)an bEnßmeTAkñúgsUluysüúgmYy rWenAeBlEdlsUluysüúgBIrRtUv)anlaybBa©ÚlKña? vaGaRs½ynwg PaBrlay énGgÁFaturlayEdlkMNt;ya:gc,as;las;CabrimaNGtibrmaénGgÁFaturlayEdlnwg rlaykñúgbrimaNkMNt;énGgÁFaturMlayenAsItuNðPaBCak;lak;. KImIviTUsMedAeTAelIsarFatuEdl rlay rlaytictYc rWminrlaykñúgn½yCaKuNPaB. sarFatumYyEdlfaCasarFaturlayRbsinebI brimaNtictYcrbs;va GacemIleXIjrlayenAeBlEdlvaRtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgTwk. RbsinebImin dUecñHeT sarFatuenaHRtUv)anehAfaCasarFaturlaytic rWminrlay. smasFatuGIuy:ugTaMgGs;KW CaeGLicRtUlItxøaMg b:uEnþvaminrlayes μ IKñaeT. tarag 3>2 eFIVcMNat;fñak;smasFatuGIuy:ugmYycMnYnCasmasFatuEdlrlay nigmin rlay. cUrcgcaMfa eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday sUm,IEtsmaFatuEdlminrlayenaH k¾varlayeTAnwg

118

visalPaBCak;lak;mYyEdr. rUb 3>4 bgðajBIkkrmYycMnYn.]TahrN_xageRkamGnuvtþc,ab;PaB rlaykñúgtarag 3>2. ]TahrN_ 3>1 cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;smasFatuGIuy:ugxageRkamCasmasFaturlay rWminrlay³ (a) R)ak;s‘ulpat (Ag2SO4) (b) kal;süÚmkabUNat (CaCO3) (c) sUdüÚmpUsVat (Na3PO4). cMelIy (a)edayEpñkeTAelItarag 3>2 Ag2SO4 minrlay. (b) enHKWCakabUNat nig Ca KWCaelah³ Rkum 2A . dUecñH CaCO3minrlay. (c) sUdüÚm KWCaelah³Gal;kaLaMg¬Rkum 1A¦dUecñHNa3PO4

rlay. tarag 3>2 c,ab;PaBrlaysMrab;smasFatuGIuy:ugTUeTAkñúgTwkenA 250C

smasFatuEdlrlay karelIkElg smasFatuEdlpÞúkGIuy:ugelah³Gal;kaLaMg (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+) nigGIuy:ugGam:Uj:Úm (NH4

+)

smasFatuEdlmanpÞúkGIuy:ugnIRtat(NO3-)

b‘ÍkabUNat(HCO3-) køra:t(ClO3

-) EBrkør:at (ClO4

-) nigGaestat (C2H3O2-)

smasFatuEdlpÞúkGIuy:ugGaLÚEsnY(Cl-,Br-,I-) GaLÚEsnYén Ag+, Hg22+, nig Pb2+

smasFatuEdlpÞúkGIuy:ugs‘ulpat(SO42-) s‘ulpatén Sr2+, Ba2+, Hg2

2+, Hg2+ nig Pb2+. s‘ulpatén Ag+, Ca2+ rlaytic

smasFatuEdlminrlay karelIkElg smasFatuEdlpÞúkGIuy:ugkabUNat(CO3

2-)

s‘ulPIt (SO32-) pUsVat(PO4

2-) RkUma:t(CrO42-)

s‘ulPY(S2-)

-smasFatuEdlpÞúkGIuy:ugelah³Gal;kaLaMg nigGIuy:ugGam:Uj:Úm. -cMeBaH S2- CamYyGIuy:ugelah³Gal;kalINUETrWu k¾rlayEdr.

smasFatuEdlpÞúkGIuy:ugGIuRduksIut(OH-) smasFatuEdlpÞúkGIuy:ugelah³Gal;kaLaMg nigGIuy:ug Ca2+, Ba2+ , nig Sr2+

119

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;smasFatuGIuy:ugxageRkamCasmasFaturlay rWminrlay ³

(a) CuS (b) Ca(OH)2 (c) Zn(NO3)2. smIkarm:UelKul nigsmIkarGIuy:ug smIkarEdlBN’naGMBIkarbegáItkkrénsMNGIuy:UDYenATMB½r 2xagmuxRtUv)aneKehAfasmIkar m:UelKul BIeRBaHrUbmnþénsmasFatuRtUv)ansresrCaRbePTKImIEdlmanCam:UelKul rWbNþMúTaMgmUl TaMgGs;. smIkarm:UelKulmanRbeyaCn_eRBaHvasMKal;eGayer:Gak;TIb ¬krNIenH sMNnIRtat nig sUdüÚmGIuy:UDY¦. RbsinebIeyIgcg;eFIVeGayRbtikm μenHekIteLIgkñúgTIBiesaF smIkarm:UelKulnwgCa smIkarmYyEdlRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday smIkarm:UelKulmin)anBN’naya:g Cak;lak;GMBIGIVEdlCak;EsþgkMBugekItmanenAkMrittUcéRkElgenaHeT.

rUb 3>4 karelceLIgénkkrmYycMnYn. BIeqVgeTAsþaM³ CdS , PbS , Ni(OH)2 , Al(OH)3

dUc)anbgðajBImunenH enAeBlsmasFatuGIuy:ugrlaykñúgTwk vabMEbkTaMgRsugeTACa smasPaKkacug nigGaj:úgrbs;va. edIm,IeGaykan;EtR)akdsmIkarKYrEtbgðajGMBIkarbMEbkén smasFatuGIuy:ugEdlrlayeTACaGIuy:ug. dUecñHedaykarvileTARbtikmμrvagsUdüÚmGIuy:UDY nigsMN nIRtateyIgRtUvsresr³

elOgTMu exμA ébtg s

120

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3

-(aq) + 2Na+

(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(S) + 2Na+

(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

smIkarxagelIenHKWCa]TahrN_énsmIkarGIuy:ugEdlbgðajGMBiRbePTKImIEdlrlayCaGIuy:ugesrI. smIkarGIuy:ugmYyrYmbBa©ÚlTaMgGIuy:ugTsSnik rWGIuy:ugEdlmin)ancUlrYmkñúgRbtikmμTaMgmUlEdlkñúg krNIenHKWCaGIuy:ug Na+ nig NO3

-. GIuy:ugTsSnikelceLIgenAEpñkTaMgsgxagénsmIkarnigmin mankarpøas;bþÚrkñúgRbtikmμKImI dUecñHvaGacRtUveKlubecal)an.edIm,IepþateTAelIkarpøas;bþÚrEdl ekIteLIg eyIgsresrsmIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlEdlbgðajEtRbePTKImINaEdlBitCa)ancUlrYmkñúg Rbtikmμb:ueNÑaH ³ Pb2+

(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(S)

edaykaremIleTAelI]TahrN_mYyepSgeToteyIgeXIjfaenAeBlEdlsUluysüúgTwkén )arüÚmkørY (BaCl2)RtUv)aneKbEnßmeTAelIsUluysüúgTwkénsUdüÚms‘ulpat (Na2SO4)kkrBN’s én)arüÚms‘ulpat (BaSO4)RtUv)anbegáIteLIg ¬rUb 3>5¦. smIkarm:UelKulsMrab;Rbtikm μenHKW BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(S) + 2NaCl(aq)

smIkarGIuy:ugsMrab;RbtikmμenHKW Ba2+

(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + 2Na+

(aq) + SO42-

(aq) BaSO4(S) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-

(aq)

edaykarlubGIuy:ugTsSnikecal (Na+ nig Cl-)enAEpñkTaMgsgxagénsmIkar)anpþl;eGayeyIgnUv

smIkarsMrYldUcxageRkam ³ Ba2+

(aq) + SO42-

(aq) BaSO4(S)

rUb 3>5 karbegáItkkr CuSO4

dMNak;kalxageRkamsegçbGMBIdMeNIrkarsMrab;karsresrsmIkarGIuy:ugnigGIuy:ugsMrYl sresrsmIkarm:UelKullMnwgsMrab;Rbtikm μ.

121

sresrsmIkarenaHeLIgvijedIm,IbgðajGMBIGIuy:ugEdlbMEbk)anenAkñúgsUluysüúg. cUrcgcaMfaeGLicRtUlItxøaMgTaMgGs;eBlrlaykñúgsUluysüúgRtUv)anbMEbkTaMgRsug ¬sBV¦eTACakacug nigGaj:úg. dMeNIrkarenH)anpþl;eGayeyIgnUvsmIkarGIuy:ug. rkGtþsBaØaN niglubecalGIuy:ugTsSnikenAEpñkTaMgsgxagénsmIkaredIm,IQaneTA

dl;smIkarGIuy:ugsMrYl. dMNak;karTaMgenHRtUv)anGnuvtþkñúg]TahrN_ 3>2. ]TahrN_ 3>2 cUrTsSn_TayplitplénRbtikmμxageRkam nigsresrsmIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlsMrab;Rbtikm μ ³ K3PO4(aq) + Ca(NO3)2(aq) ?

cMelIy BIsmIkarminTan;manlMnwgeyIgeXIjfasUluysüúgénb:UtasüÚmpUsVatRtUv)anlay rWman GMeBICamYysUluysüúgkal;süÚmnIRtat. GaRs½yeTAnwgtarag 3>2 GIuy:ugkal;süÚm(Ca2+)

nigGIuy:ugpUsVat (PO43-)GabegáItCasmasFatuminrlay kal;süÚmpUsVat [Ca3(PO4)2]. dUecñH nH

KWCaRbtikmμbegáItkkr.plitplepSgeTot b:UtasüÚmnIRtat (KNO3)KWCasmasFaturlaynigman enAkñúgsUluysüúg. smIkarm:UelKulsresr ³ 2K3PO4(aq) + 3Ca(NO3)2 (aq) 6KNO3 (aq) + Ca3(PO4)2 (S)

nigsmIkarGIuy:ugKW 6K+

(aq) + 2PO43-

(aq) + 3Ca2+(aq) + 6NO3

-(aq) 6K+

(aq) + 6NO3-(aq) + Ca3(PO4)2 (S)

karlubGIuy:ugTsSnik (K+ nig NO3-) eyIgTTYl)ansmIkarGIuy:ugsMrYl

3Ca2+(aq) + 2PO4

3-(aq) Ca3(PO4)2 (S)

kt;sMKal;faBIeRBaHeyIg)anføwgsmIkarm:UelKulBIdMbUgehIy smIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlmanlMnwg cMeBaHcMnYnGatUmenAEpñkTaMgsgxag nigcMnYnbnÞúkviC¢man nigGviC¢manenAEpñkxageqVg-sþaM. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ cUrTsSn_TaykkrEdlRtUvbegáIteLIgedayRbtikmμxageRkam nigsresrsmIkarGIuy:ug sMrYlsMrab;RbtikmμxageRkam ³ Al(NO3)3(aq) + NaOH(aq) ?

kñúgGtßbT Chemistry in Action enATMB½rbnÞab;BiPakSaGMBIbBaðaGnuvtþn_mYycMnYnEdl

122

Tak;TgnwgRbtikmμbegáItkkr.

Chemistry in Action

RbtikmμbegáItkkrEdlmincg;)an³ fμkMe)ar (CaCO3)nigdULÚmIt(CaCO3 . MgCO3)EdlrayBaseBjelIépÞEpndICaerOy² cUleTAkñúgkarpÁt;pÁg;Twk. edayEp¥keTAelItarag 3>2 kal;süÚmkabUNatKWminrlaykñúgTwk. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday vtþmanénkabUnDIGuksIutrlay¬BIbriyakas¦ kal;süÚmkabUNatRtUv )anEpøgeTACakal;süÚmb‘ÍkabUNatEdlrlay [Ca(HCO3)2]³ Ca2+

(aq) + CO2 (aq) + H2O (l) Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3

-(aq)

Edl HCO3- KWCaGIuy:ugb‘ÍkabUNat.

TwkEdlmanpÞúkGIuy:ug Ca2+ nig¼rW Mg2+ RtUv)aneKehAfa Twkrwg nigTwkEdlKμanGIuy:ugTaMg enHRtUv)aneKehAfa TwkTn;. Twkrwg KWminl¥sMrab;kareRbIR)as;CamYy]bkrN_kñugpÞH nig ]sShkm μ xøH².

enAeBlTwkmanpÞúkGIuy:ug Ca2+nig HCO3- ehIyRtUv)aneKdutkMedA rWdaMeGayBuHsUluysüúg

RbtikmμRtLb;eTACabegáIt)ankkr CaCO3 ³ Ca2+

(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq) CaCO3 (S) + CO2(aq) + H2O (l)

ehIy]sμn½kabUnDIGuksIut)anPay ³ CO2 (aq) CO2 (g) kal;süÚmkabUNatrwgEdl)anbegáIteLIgkñúglMnaMenH KWCakMritsmasPaKcMbgEdlekIneLIgkñúg qñaMgdaMTwk eRKOgkMedATwk bMBg; nigkMesovTwk. kMritRsTab;Rkas;)anbnßykMedAEdl)anepÞr nigeFIVeGay]bkrN_eRbIR)as;TaMenaHqab;xUceTotpg. kñúgbMBg;TwkekþAEdleRbIR)as;kñúgpÞH vaGac eFIVeGaysÞHedaysarRsTab;enHpgEdr. viFIsa®sþsamBaØEdlRtUveRbIR)as;edayGñkCYsCus bMBg;Twk rW]sμn½edIm,Ipþac;ykRsTab;sMNak KWRtUvENnaMeGayeRbIbrimaNbnþicénGasIutkørIRTic edIm,IeGaymanRbtikmμCamYy CaCO3 ³

CaCO3 (S) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

kñúgviFIenH CaCO3 KWRtUv)anbMEbøgeTACa CaCl2 Edlrlay.

123

3>3 RbtikmμGasIut-)as GasIut-)as KWRsedogKñanwgGas<IrIn nigTwkedaHeKaénma:ej:süÚmGuksIutBN’seTaHbICa mnusSCaeRcInminsÁal;eQμaHKImIrbs;vaEdlmaneQμaHfaGasIutGaesTIlsalIsIulic¬Gas<IrIn¦ nig ma:ej:süÚmGIuRduksIut¬TwkedaHeKaénma:ej:süÚmGuksIutBN’s¦. bEnßmelIbBaðasMxan;énplitpl xag»sf nig]bkrN_eRbIR)as;kñúgpÞHCaeRcIn KImIGasIut-)asKWsMxan;kñúgdMeNIrkar]sSahkm μ nig caM)ac;kñúgkarRTRTg;RbB½n§CIv³viTüa. muneBleyIgGacBiPakSaGMBIRbtikmμGasIut-)as eyIgRtUvkar dwgeGay)aneRcInGMBIGasIut nig)asCamunsin. lkçN³TUeTAénGasIut-)as enAkñúgEpñk 2>7 eyIg)aneGayniymn½yGasIutCasarFatuEdlbMEbkCaGIuy:ugkñúgTwkedIm,I begáItCaGIuy:ug H+ nig)asCasarFatuEdlbMEbkCaGIuy:ugkñúgTwkedIm,IbegáItCaGIuy:ug OH-. niymn½yTaMgenHRtUv)anerobcMya:gCak;lak;kñúgcugstvtSTI19edayKImIviTU Svante Arrhenius1

edIm,IeFIVcMNat;fñak;sarFatuEdllkçN³rbs;vakñúgsUluysüúgTwkRtUv)aneKsÁal;ya:gc,as;. GasIut ® GasIutmanrsCatiCUr. ]TahrN_ Twkex μHmanPaBCUrrbs;vaedaysarGasIutGaesTic ehIyRkUcq μar nigEpøRkUcdéTeTotmanpÞúkGasIutsIuRTic. ® GasIutbNþaleGaymankarbþÚrBN’kñúglkçBN’rukçCati. ]TahrN_ vaGacbþÚrBN’ TYNWsulBIexoveTARkhm. ®GasIutmanRbtikmμCamYyelah³Cak;lak;mYycMnYndUcCa sgá½sI ma:ej:süÚm nigEdk edIm,IbegáItCa]sμn½GIuRdUEsn. ]TahrN_ RbtikmμrvagGasIutkørIRTic nigma:ej:süÚm ³ 2HCl (aq) + Mg (S) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

ν GasIutmanRbtikmμCamYykabUNat nigb‘ÍkabUNatdUcCa Na2CO3 CaCO3 nig NaHCO3

edIm,IbegáItCa]sμ ½nkabUnDIGuksIut¬rUb 3>6¦. ]TahrN_ 2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (S) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) 1 Svante August Arrhenius(1859-1927). KImIviTU Swedish. Arrhenius )aneFIVkarniBn§ya:gsMxan;kñúg karsikSasIuenTicKImI nigsUluysüúgeGLicRtUlIt. Kat;)aneFIVbrikb,pgEdrfaCIvitrs;enAEdl)anekItmanelIEpndIBI BiPBepSgeTotCaRTwsþImYyEdl\lUvenHRtUveKsÁal;ya:gc,as;Ca panspermia. Arrhenius )anTTYlBanrgVan;NUEbl KImkñúgqñaM 1903.

124

HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (S) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

ν sUluysüúgGasIutEdlbgáeLIgedayTwkcMlgcrnþGKÁIsnI. )as ν )asmanrsCatilVIg¬ct;¦. ν )asb:HeTArGil. ]TahrN_ sab‘UEdlman)as)anbgðajnUvlkçN³enH. ν )asbNþaleGaymankarbþÚrB’NkñúlkçB’NrukçCati. ]TahrN_ vaGacbþÚrB’NTYNWsulBI RkhmeTAexov. ν sUluysüúg)asEdlbegáIteLIgedayTwkcMlgcrnþGKÁIsnI.

rUb 3>6 dIssresrkþarexonmYydMuEdlPaKeRcIn KWCa CaCO3 manRbtikmμCamYyGasIutkørIRTic

GasIut nig)as Brønsted niymn½yGasIut-)asrbs; Arrhenius)ankMNt;favaGacGnuvtþ)anEtkñúgsUluysüúgTwk b:ueNÑaH. niymn½yTUlMTUlay)anesñIedayKImIviTUCnCati Danish eQ μaH Johannes Brønsted2

kñúgqñaM 1932. GasIut Brønsted KWCaGñkpþl;RbUtug nig)as Brønsted KWCaGñkTTYlykRbUtug. kt;sMKal;fa niymn½yrbs; BrønstedminRtUvkareGayGasIutnig)asfitenAkñúgsUluysüúgTwkeT. GasIutkørIRTicKWCaGasIut Brønsted edayehtufavapþl;RbUtugkúñgTwk ³ HCl (aq) H+

(aq) + Cl- (aq)

kt;sMKal;fa GIuy:ug H+ KWCaGatUmGIuRdUEsnEdl)an)at;bg;eGLicRtugrbs;va. enaHKWvaCa

2 Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted (1879-1947) CaKImIviTUCnCati Danish. bEnßmeTAelIRTwsþIGasIut-)as rbs;Kat; elak Brønsted )aneFIVkarelIEpñkETm:DINamic nigkarbMEbk)arteTACaGIusUtUbrbs;va.

125

RbUtugEdlmanftTMenr. TMhMénRbUtugKWRbEhl 10-15m eRbobeFobeTAnwgGgát;p©it 10-10m sMrab; GatUm rWGIuy:ugmFüm. CaPaKl¥itEdlmanbnÞúktUcéRkElgEdlminGacsßitenACaPaBesrIkúñg sUluysüúgTwkeTedaysarkarRsUbTajya:gxøaMgrbs;vaeTAb:UlGviC¢man ¬GatUmGuksIuEsn¦kñúg Twk. ehtudUecñHehIyRbUtugmankñúgTMrg;EdlrgGIuRdatkmμdUcbgðajkñúgrUb 3>7. dUecñH karbMEbkCa GIuy:ugénGasIutkørIRTicKYrEtRtUv)ansresrdUcxageRkam ³ HCl (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+

(aq) + Cl-

(aq)

RbUtugEdlrgGIuRdatkmμ H3O+ RtUv)aneKehAfa GIuy:ugGIuRdUj:Úm. smIkarenHbgðajGMBIRbtikm μEdl kñúgenaHGasIut Brønsted (HCl) )anpþl;RbUtugeTAeGay)as Brønsted (H2O). karBiesaFn_bgðajfa GIuy:ugGIuRdUj:ÚmRtUvrgGIuRdatkm μbnþ dUecñHRbUtugGacmanm:UelKulTwk mYycMnYn)ancUlrYmCamYyva. edaysarlkçN³GasIuténRbUtugminman\T§iBledaykMritGIuRdatkmμ enAkñúgGtßbTenH eyIgeRbIR)as;CaTUeTA H+

(aq) edIm,ItageGayRbUtugEdlrgGIuRdatkmμ. karkMNt; enHKWsMrab;kargayRsYl b:uEnþ H3O+ KWBitR)akdCag. cUrcgcaMfa karkMNt;TaMgBIrtageGay RbePTKImIdEdlkñúgsUluysüúgTwk. CaTUeTAGasIutRtUv)aneKeRbIkñúgTIBiesaF rYmman GasIutkørIRTic(HCl) GasIutnIRTic(HNO3)

GasIutGaesTic (CH3COOH) GasIuts‘ulpYric (H2SO4) nigGasIutpUsVric (H3PO4). GasIutbIdMbUg KWCam:UNURbUTicGasIut. mann½yfaÉktanimYy²énGasIutenHpþl;GIuy:ugGIuRdUEsnmYyenAeBlrg GIuy:ugkmμ ³

rUb 3>7 karbMEbkGIuy:ugén HCl kñúgTwkedIm,IbegáItCaGIuy:ugGIuRdUj:Úm nigGIuy:ugkørY HCl (aq) H+

(aq) + Cl-

(aq) HNO3 (aq) H+

(aq) + NO3-(aq)

CH3COOH (aq) CH3COO-(aq)

+ H+(aq)

dUc)anbBa¢ak;BImunrYcehIy BIeRBaHkarbMEbkGIuy:ugénGasIutGaesTicKWminsBV¬sMKal;eday

126

sBaØaRBYjeTAmk¦ vaKWCaeGLicRtUlItexSay. cMeBaHehtuplenHvaRtUv)aneKehAfa GasIutexSay ¬emIltarag 3>1¦. müa:geTotGasIut HCl nig HNO3KWCaGasIutxøaMgBIeRBaHBYkvaKWCaeGLic RtUlItxøaMg dUecñHBYkvabMEbkCaGIuy:ugsBVkñúgsUluysüúg ¬sMKal;edaykareRbIsBaØaRBYjmYy¦. GasIuts‘ulpYric (H2SO4) KWCaDIRbUTicGasIutBIeRBaHÉktanImYy²énGasIutenH)anpþl;GIuy:ug H+ BIrkñúgdMNak;karBIrepSgKña ³ H2SO4 (aq) H+

(aq) + HSO4-(aq)

HSO4-(aq) H+

(aq) + SO42-

(aq)

GasIut H2SO4KWCaeGLicRtUlItxøaMg rWGasIutxøaMg¬dMNak;karTI1énkarbMEbkGIuy:ugKWsBV¦ b:uEnþ HSO4

- KWCaGasIutexSay rWeGLicRtUlItexSay ehIyeyIgRtUkareRbIsBaØaRBYjeTAmkedIm,I tageGaykarbMEbkGIuy:ugminsBV. RTIRbUTicGasIutEdlpþl;GIuy:ug H+ bIKWmancMnYntictYcEdlTak;Tg. RTIRbUTicGasIutEdleK sÁal;c,as;CageKbMputKWGasIutpUsVricEdlkarbMEbkGIuy:ugrbs;vaRbRBwtþeTAdUcxageRkam³ H3PO4 (aq) H+

(aq) + H2PO4

-(aq) H2PO4

-(aq) H+

(aq) + HPO42-

(aq) HPO4

2-(aq) H+

(aq) + PO43-

(aq)

RbePTKImITaMgbIenH (H3PO4 H2PO4- nig HPO4

2-)kñúgkrNIenHKWCaGasIut ehIyeyIgeRbI sBaØaRBYjeTAmkedIm,ItageGaydMNak;kalbMEbkGIuy:ugnimYy².Gaj:úgdUcCa H2PO4

- nig HPO4

2-

RtUv)anrkeXIjkñúgsUluysüúgTwkénpUsVatdUcCa NaH2PO4 nig Na2HPO4. tarag 3>1 bgðajfasUdüÚmGIuRduksIut (NaOH) nig)arüÚmGIuRduksIut [Ba(OH)2]KWCa eGLicRtUlItxøaMg. enHmann½yfaBYkvaGacbMEbCaGIuy:ugsBVkñúgsUluysüúg³

NaOH (S) Na+(aq)

+ OH-(aq)

Ba(OH)2 (aq) Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-

(aq)

GIuy:ug OH- GaTTYlRbUtugdUcxageRkam³ H+

(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O (l)

dUecñH OH- KWCa)as Brønsted. Gam:Uj:ak;RtUv)ancat;fñak;Ca)as BrønstedBIeRBaHvaGaTTYlykGIuy:ug H+ ¬rUb 3>8 ¦³ NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4

+(aq) + OH-

(aq)

H2O H2O

127

rUb 3>8 karbMEbkGIuy:ugénGam:Uja:k;kñúgTwkedIm,IbegáItCaGIuy:ugGam:Uj:Úm nigGIuRduksIut

Gam:Uj:ak;KWCaeGLicRtUlItexSay¬nigdUecñHCa)asexSay¦BIeRBaHmanEtmYyEpñktUcénm:UelKul NH3EdlrlaymanRbtikm μCamYyTwkedIm,IbegáItCaGIuy:ug NH4

+ nig OH- . )asxøaMgEdlRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;TUeTACageKbMputkñúgTIBiesaF KWsUdüÚmGIuRduksIut. vaman tMélefaknigrlay¬edayBiteTAGIuRduksIutelah³Gal;kaLaMgTaMgGs;suT§Etrlay¦. )asexSay EdlRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;TUeTACageKbMputKWsUluysüúgTwkGam:Uj:ak;EdleBlxøHRtUv)aneKPan;RcLM ehAfa Gam:j:ÚmGIuRduksIut. K μanPsþútagGIVEdlbgðajfa manRbePTKImI NH4OH. FatuRkum 2A

TaMgGs;begáItGIuRduksIutEbb M(OH)2 Edl MCasBaØasMKal;eGayelah³Gal;kalINUETrW. kñúg cMeNamGIuRduksIutTaMgGs;enHmanEt Ba(OH)2 b:ueNÑaHEdlrlay. ma:ej:süÚm nigkal;süÚm GIuRduksIutRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;kñúgEpñk»sf nig]sSahkmμ. GIuRduksIuténelah³déTeTotdUcCa ³ Al(OH)3 nig Zn(OH)2 KWminrlay nigminsUvRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;. ]TahrN_xageRkameFIVcMNat;fñak;sarFatuCaGasIut Brønsted rW)as Brønsted. ]TahrN_ 3>3 cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;RbePTKImInimYy²xageRkamCaGasIut rW)as Brønsted³ (a) HBr ,

(b) NO2- , (c) HCO3

-. cMelIy

(a) HBr rlaykñúgTwkeGayplCaGIuy:ug H+ nig Br-³ HBr (aq) H+

(aq) + Br-

(aq)

dUecñH HBr KWCaGasIut Brønsted. (b)kñúgsUluysüúgGIuy:ugnIRtWGacTTYlRbUtugmYyedIm,IbegáItCaGasIutnIRtW ³ NO2

-(aq) + H+

(aq) HNO2(aq)

lkçN³enHeFIVeGay NO2- Ca)as Brønsted.

128

(c) GIuy:ugb‘ÍkabUNatKWCaGasIutBrønstedBIeRBaHvabMEbkCaGIuy:ugkñúgsUluysüúgdUcxag eRkam ³ HCO3

-(aq) H+

(aq) + CO3

2-(aq)

vaKWCa)as BrønstedpgEdrBIeRBaHvaGacTTYlykRbUtugmYYyedIm,IbegáItCaGasIutkabUnic³ HCO3

-(aq) + H+

(aq) H2CO3(aq)

karBnül; RbePTKImI HCO3- GacniyayfamanlkçN³GMpUETBIeRBaHvamanlkçN³GasIutpg

nig)aspg. sBaØaRBYjeTAmkbgðajfa Rbtikm μTaMgBIrGacRtLb;)an. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;RbePTKImIxageRkamCaGasIut rW)as Brønsted ³ (a)SO4

2- , (b)HI. RbtikmμbnSabGasIut-)as RbtikmbnSabKWCaRbtikmμrvagGasIut nig)as. CaTUeTARbtikmμsUluysüúgGasIut-)as begáIt)anCaTwk nigGMbilEdlCasmasFatuGIuy:ugEdlGacbegáItCakacugeRkABI H+ nigGaj:úgeRkA BI OH- rW O2- ³ GasIut + )as GMbil + Twk (acid) (base) ( salt) (water)

GMbilPaKeRcIn KWCaeGLicRtUlItxøaMg. sarFatuEdleyIgsÁal;CaGMbilsMl NaCl

KWCa]TahrN_EdleyIgFøab;dwgrYcmkehIy. vaKWCaplitplénRbtikm μGasIut-)as ³ HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday edaysarTaMgGasIut nig)asKWCaeGLicRtUlItxøaMg BYkvaGac bMEbkCaGIuy:ug)ansBVkñúgsUluysüúg. smIkarGIuy:ugKW ³ H+

(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+

(aq) + OH-(aq) Na+

(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O (l)

dUecñHsmIkarenHGactagedaysmIkarGIuy:ugsMrYl ³ H+

(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O (l)

TaMg Na+ nig Cl- KWCaGIuy:ugEdlmincUlrYmRbtikmμ. RbsinebIeyIg)ancab;epþImRbtikmμxagelICamYybrimaNm:UElesμIKñaénGasIut nig)as enA cMnucbBa©b;énRbtikmμ eyIgRtUvEtTTYl)anEtGMbilb:ueNÑaH nigKμansl;GasIut nig)aseT. enHKWCa lkçN³énRbtikmμbnSabGasIut-)as. xageRkamenHKWCa]TahrN_énRbtikmμbnSabGasIut-)aspgEdrEdltagedaysmIkar m:UelKul ³

129

HF (aq) + KOH (aq) KF(aq) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) HNO3 (aq) + NH3 (aq) NH4NO3 (aq)

smIkarcugeRkayemIleTAxusEbøkBIeKBIeRBaHvaminbgðajeGayeXIjTwkCaplitpl. eTaH bICaya:gNak¾edayRbsinebIeyIgbBa¢ak; NH3(aq) Ca NH4

+(aq)

nig OH-(aq) dUcEdl)anBiPakSaBImun

bnÞab;mksmIkarenHnwgkøayCa HNO3 (aq) + NH4

+(aq) + OH-

(aq) NH4NO3 (aq) + H2O (l) 3>4 RbtikmμGuksIudU-erdukmμ edayehtufa RbtikmμGasIut-)asGacbBa¢ak;lkçN³CadMeNIrkarbenÞrRbUtug fñak;énRbti- kmμEdlRtUv)anehAfaRbtikmμGuksIudU-erdukm μ rW erduk CaRbtikm μEdlRtUv)ancat;TukfaCaRbtikm μ benÞreGLicRtug.RbtikmμGuksIudU-erdukm μ KWRbtikm μEdlekItmanenARKb;TIkEnøgenACMuvijxøÜneyIg. RbtikmμTaMgenaHmantaMgBIkardut\n§n³P½NÐrhUtdl;GMeBIénfñaMeFIVeGay]bkrN_pÞH)ayss¥at. elIsBIenHeTAeTot Fatuelah³ nigGelah³PaKeRcInRtUvTTYl)anBIEr:rbs;BYkvaedaydMeNIrkar énGuksIutkm μ rWerdukm μ. RbtikmμerduksMxan;²CaeRcInekIteLIgkñúgTwk b:uEnþminEmnRbtikmμerdukTaMgGs;ekIteLIgkñúg sUluysüúgTwkeT. cUrBicarNaGMBIkarbegáItkal;süÚmGuksIut (CaO) BIkal;süÚm nigGuksIuEsn³ 2Ca (S) + O2 (g) 2CaO (S)

kal;süÚmGuksIut (CaO) KWCasmasFatuGIuy:ugEdlRtUvbegáIteLIgedayGIuy:ug Ca2+ nig O2-. kñúgRbtikmμenHGatUm Ca BIr)aneGay rWepÞreGLicRtugbYneTAeGayGatUmGuksIuEsnBIr¬kñúg O2¦. sMrab;CakargayRsYl eyIgGacKitGMBIdMeNIrkarenHCadMNak;kalxusKñaBIr mYyCadMNak;kar)at; bg;bYneGLicRtugedayGatUm CaBIr nigmYyeTotCadMNak;karcMeNjeGLicRtugedaym:uelKulO2³ 2Ca 2Ca2+ + 4e- O2 + 4e- 2O2-

dMNak;karnimYy²TaMgenHRtUv)anehAfa Bak;kNþalRbtikm μ Edlbgðajya:gCak;lak;GMBIeGLic RtugEdl)ancUlrYmkñúgRbtikmμerduk. karbUkBak;kNþalRbtikm μTaMgBIr)anpþl;nUvRbtikm μTaMgmUl ³ 2Ca + O2 + 4e- 2Ca2+ + 2O2- + 4e-

rWeyIgGaclubecaleGLicRtugEdlelceLIgenAEpñkTaMgsgxagénsmIkar ³ 2Ca + O2

2Ca2+ + 2O2-

cugbBa©b; GIuy:ug Ca2+ nig O2- cUlpSMKñaedIm,IbegáItCa CaO ³ 2Ca2+ + 2O2- 2CaO

130

edaykarsn μt eyIgmin)anbgðajGMBIbnÞúkkñúgrUbmnþénsmasFatuGIuy:ug dUecñHkal;süÚmGuksIut CaFmμtaRtUv)antageday CaO l¥Cag Ca2+O2-. BaküfaRbtikmμGuksIutkmμsMedAelIBak;kNþalRbtikm μEdlrYmTaMgkar)at;bg;eGLicRtug. BIedImeLIy KImIviTUeRbIBakü { GuksIutkmμ } edIm,ICasBaØasMKal;BIbnSMénFatuCamYyGuksIuEsn. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday \lUvenHvamann½yTUlayCagEdlrab;bBa©ÚlTaMgRbtikm μEdlminTak;Tg nwgGuksIuEsn. Rbtikmμerdukm μKWCaBak;kNþalRbtikmμEdlTak;TgnwgkarcMeNjeGLicRtug. kñúg karbegáItkal;süÚmGuksIut kal;süÚm)anrgGuksIutkm μ. eKGacniyayfavaCaPñak;garerdukm μ BI eRBaHvapþl;eGLicRtugeTAeGayGuksIuEsn nigbNþaleGayGuksIuEsnRtUvrgerdukm μ. GuksIuEsn )anrgerdukmμ nigedIrtYCaPñak;garGuksIukm μBIeRBaHvaTTYlykeGLicRtugBIkal;süÚmEdleFIVeGay kal;süÚmRtUvrgGuksIutkmμ. cUrkt;cMNaMfaTMhMénGuksIutkmμkñúgRbtikmμerdukRtUvEtesμ IeTAnwgTMhM énerdukmμ. mann½yfacMnYneGLicRtugEdl)at;bg;edayPñak;garerdukmμRtUvEtesμ InwgcMnYneGLicRtug EdlcMeNjedayPñak;garGuksIutkmμ. karekIteLIgnUvbenÞreGLicRtugKweRcInEtbgðajeGayeXIjkñúgRbtikmμerdukxøH²CagRbti- kmμdéT. enAeBlelah³sgá½sIRtUv)anbEnßmeTAelIsUluysüúgmYyEdlmanpÞúkTg;Edg(II)

s‘ulpat (CuSO4) eBlenaHsgá½sIeFIVerdukm μ Cu2+ edaykarpþl;eGLicRtugBIreTAeGayva ³ Zn (S) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (S)

kúñgeBldMeNIrkar sUluysüúg)at;bg;B’NexovEdlbBa¢ak;BIGvtþmanénGIuy:ug Cu2+ ¬rUb 4>9¦ ³ Zn (S) + Cu2+

(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu (S)

Bak;kNþalsmIkarGuksIutkm μ nigerdukm μKW Zn Zn2+ + 2e-

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu

RsedogKñaenHEdrelah³Tg;EdgeFIVerdukm μGIuy:ugR)ak;kñúgsUluysüúgR)ak;nIRtat (AgNO3) ³ Cu (S) + 2AgNO3 (aq) Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2Ag (S)

rW Cu (S) + 2Ag+ (aq) Cu2+

(aq) + 2Ag (S)

cMnYnGuksIutkmμ (n.o)

niymn½yénGuksIutkmμ nigerdukmμkñúgn½y)at;bg; nigcMeNjeGLicRtugGnuvtþ)ancMeBaHkar begáItsmasFatuGIuy:ugdUcCa CaO nigerdukmμénGIuy:ug Cu2+ eday Zn. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday niymn½yTaMgenHmin)anbBa¢ak;lkçN³eGay)anc,as;las;GMBIkarbegáItGIuRdUEsnkørY (HCl) nig

131

s<an;F½rDIGuksIut (SO2)eT ³ H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)

S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

rUb 3>9 BIeqVgeTAsþaM ³ enAeBlEdldMuelah³ Zn RtUv)andak;eTAkñúgsUluysüúg CuSO4 GatUm Zn cUleTAkñúgsUluysüúgCaGuIy:ug Zn2+ehIyGIuy:ugCu2+RtUvpøas;eTA Ca Cu rwg¬EkvTImYy¦. kúñgeBlenaHBN’exovénsUluysüúg CuSO4 )anrlub)at; ¬EkvTIBIr¦. enAeBlEdlduMénExS Cu RtUv)andak;eTAkñúgsUluysüúg AgNO3 GatUm Cu cUleTAkñúgsUluysüúgkøayCaGIuy:ug Cu2+ ehIyGIuy:ug Ag+ )anpøas;eTACa Ag rwg ¬EkvTIbI¦. sUluysüúg)ankøayeTACamanlkçN³B’NexovénGIuy:ug Cu2+EdlmanTwk ¬EkvTIbYn¦.

BIeRBaH HCl nig SO2 minEmnCasmasFatuGIuy:ug b:uEnþCasmasFatum:UelKultamBiteTAKμaneGLic RtugRtUv)anepÞrkñúgkarbegáItsmasFatuTaMgenHdUcCakñúgkrNIén CaO. ya:gNak¾edayKImIviTUrrk eXIjfavagaycat;TukRbtikmμTaMgenaHCaRbtikmμGuksIudU-erdukmμBIeRBaHrgVas;BiesaFn_bgðajfaman karepÞreGLicRtugedayEpñk ¬BI H eTA Cl kñúg HCl nigBI S eTA O kñúg SO2¦.

edIm,IcaMeGLicRtug)ankñúgRbtikmμGuksIudU-erdukmμ vamanRbeyaCn_RtUvkMNt;cMnYnGuksIutkmμ cMeBaHGgÁFatuRbtikr nigplitpl. cMnYnGuksIutkm μrbs;GatUmRtUv)aneKehApgEdrCaPaBGuksIut kmμ)anR)ab;eGaydwgGMBIcMnYnbnÞúkEdlGatUmenaHRtUvmankñúgm:UelKul¬rWsmasFatuGIuy:ug¦ Rbsin ebIeGLicRtugRtUv)anepÞrTaMgRsug. ]TahrN_ eyIgGacsresreLIgvijGMBIsmIkarxagelIsMrab;kar begáIt HCl nig SO2 dUcxageRkam ³

132

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g) S (S) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

elxEdlenAxagelInimitþsBaØarbs;FatuKWCa cMnYnGuksIutkm μ. kñúgsmIkarTaMgBIrbgðaj faKμanbnÞúkenAelIGatUmkñúgm:UelKulRbtikreT. dUecñHcMnYnGuksIutkm μrbs;vaKWsUnü. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday cMeBaHm:UelKulplitplvij vaRtUv)ansn μtfakarepÞreGLicRtugTaMgRsug )anekIteLIg ehIyfaGatUm)ancMeNj rW)at;bg;eGLicRtug. cMnYnGuksIutkm μqøúHbBa©aMgGMBIcMnYn eGLicRtug { Edl)anepÞr } . cMnYnGuksIutkmμGaceGayeyIgkMNt;GtþsBaØaNFatuEdl)anrgGuksIutkmμ nigerdukmμenA eBleyIgemIl. FatuEdlbgðajkarekIneLIgcMnYnGuksIutkmμ CaGIuRdUEsn nigs<an;F½rkñúg]TahrN_ xagelImann½yfavargGuksIutkmμ. kør nigGuksIuEsnrgerdukm μ dUecñHcMnYnGuksIutkmμrbs;BYkva bgðajkarfycuHBItMéledIm. cUrkt;cMNaMfa cMnYnGuksIutkmμsrubén Hnig Cl kñúg HCl (+1 nig –1)

KWsUnü. dUcKñaEdrRbsinebIeyIgbUkbnÞúkelI S (+4) nigGatUmGuksIuEsnBIr [2x(-2)] cMnYnsrubKW sUnü. ehtuplKWfam:UelKul HCl nig SO2 KWCam:UelKulNWt dUecñHbnÞúkRtUvEtlubecal. eyIgeRbIrUbmnþxageRkamedIm,IkMNt;cMnYnGuksIutkm μ ³ 1.kñúgFatuesrI¬mann½yfa PaBminpSMKña¦GatUmnimYy²mancMnYnGuksIutkmμesμ IsUnü. dUecñH GatUmnimYy²kñúg H2 Br2 Na Be K O2 nig P4 mancMnYnGuksIutkmμdUcKña³ sUnü. 2.cMeBaHGIuy:ugEdlpSMeLIgBIGatUmEtmYy¬mann½yfa GIuy:ugm:UNUGatUm¦ cMnYnGuksIutkmμ KWes μ InwgbnÞúkEdlenAelIGIuy:ugenaH. dUecñH Li+ mancMnYnGuksIutkmμ +1 GIuy:ug Ba2+ man +2 GIuy:ug Fe3+ man +3 GIuy:ug I- man –1 GIuy:ug O2- man –2.l. elah³Gal;kaLaMgTaMgGs;mancMnYn GuksIutkmμ +1 nigelah³Gal;kalINUETrWuTaMgGs;mancMnYnGuksIutkm μ +2 kñúgsmasFaturbs; BYkva. GaluymIjÚ:mmancMnYnGuksIutkmμ +3 kñúgsmasFatuTaMgGs;rbs;va. 3.cMnYnGuksIutkmμrbs;GuksIuEsnkñúgesÞIrEtRKb;smasFatu¬]TahrN_ MgO nig H2O¦KW -2 b:uEnþkñúgGIuRdUEsnEBGuksIut (H2O2) nigGIuy:ugEBGuksIut (O2

-2) vamancMnYnGuksIutkm μ -1. 4.cMnYnGuksIutkmμénGIuRdUEsnKW +1 elIkElgEtenAeBlEdlvaRtUvcgsm<½n§CamYyelah³ kñúgsmasFatueTVFatu. kñúgkrNITaMgenH¬]TahrN_ LiH NaH CaH2¦cMnYnGuksIutkm μrbs;va

0 0 +1-1

0 0 +4-2

133

KW–1. 5.PøúyGrmancMnYnGuksIutkm μ -1kñúgsmasFaturbs;vaTaMgGs;. GaLÚEsnepSgeTot (Cl

Br nig I )mancMnYnGuksIutkm μGviC¢manenAeBlEdlBYkvaekIteLIgCaGIuy:ugGaLÚEsnYkñúgsmasFatu rbs;BYkva. enAeBlpSMCamYyGuksIuEsn ]TahrN_ kñúgGuksUGasIut nigGuksUGaj:úg ¬emIlEpñk 2>7¦mann½yfaBYkvamancMnYnGuksIutkmμviC¢man. 6.kñúgm:UelKulNWtcMnYnGuksIutkm μsrubénGatUmTaMgGs;RtUvEtesμ IsUnü. kñúgGIuy:ub:UlIGatUm cMnYnGuksIutkmμsrubénFatuTaMgGs;kñúgGIuy:ugenaHRtUvEtes μ InwgbnÞúksMrYlénGIuy:ugenaH. ]TahrN_ kñúgGIuy:ugGam:Uj:Úm NH4

+ cMnYnGuksIutkmμén N KW –3 nigcMnYGuksIutkmμén H KW +1. dUecñHcMnYn GuksIutkmμsrubKW –3 + 4(+1) = +1Edlesμ IeTAnwgbnÞúksMrYlénGIuy:ug. 7.cMnYnGuksIutkmμmincaM)ac;RtUvEtCaelxKt;eT. ]TahrN_cMnYnGuksIutkmμén OkñúgGIuy:ug s‘ubEBGuksIut O2

- KW –1/2. ]TahrN_ 3>4 cUrkMNt;cMnYnGuksIutkmμcMeBaHFatuTaMgGs;kñúgsmasFatu nigGIuy:ugxageRkam ³ (a) Li2O (b) HNO3 (c) Cr2O7

2-

cMelIy (a) tamrUbmnþ 2 eyIgeXIjfa lIcUmmancMnYnGuksIutkm μ +1(Li+) nigcMnYnGuksIutkmμ rbs;GuksIuEsnKW –2 (O2-). (b) enHKWCarUbmnþsMrab;GasIutnIRTicEdlpþl;CaGIuy:ug H+ nigGIuy:ug NO3

-kñúgsUluysüúg. BIrUbmnþ 4 eyIgeXIjfa HmancMnYnGuksIutkmμ +1. dUecñHRkummYyeTot¬GIuy:ugnIRtat¦RtUv EtmancMnYnGuksIutkm μsMrYl –1. edayehtufaGuksIuEsnmancMnYnGuksIutkmμ -2 cMnYnGuk- sIutkmμénGasUt ¬Edltageday x¦EdlRtUvpþl;eday ³ -1 = x + 3(-2) rW x = +5

(c) BIrUbmnþ 6 eyIgeXIjfacMnYnGuksIutkm μsrubkñúg Cr2O72- RtUvEtesμ I –2. eyIgdwgfacMnYn

GuksIutkmμén O KW –2 dUecñHenAsl;cMnYnGuksIutkmμ Cr EdlRtUvkMNt;EdleyIgehA y. cMnYnGuksIutkmμsrubsMrab;GIuy:ugenaHKW -2 = 2(y) + 7(-2) rW y = +6

134

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ cUrkMNt;cMnYnGuksIutkmμcMeBaHFatuTaMgGs;kñúgsmasFatu nigGIuy:ugxageRkam ³ (a) PF3 (b) MnO4

- . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 H +1 -1

2 He

3 Li +1

4 Be +2

5 B +3

6 C +4 +2 -4

7 N +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 -3

8 O +2 -1 -2

9 F -1

10 Ne

11 Na +1

12 Mg +2

13 Al +3

14 Si +4

15 P +5 +3 -3

16 S +6 +4 +2 -2

17 Cl +7 +6 +5 +4 +3 +1 -1

18 Ar

19 K +1

20 Ca +2

21 Sc +3

22 Ti +4 +3 +2

23 V +5 +4 +3 +2

24 Cr +6 +5 +4 +3 +2

25 Mn +7 +6 +4 +2 +2

26 Fe +3 +2

27 Co +3 +2

28 Ni +2

29 Cu +2 +1

30 Zn +2

31 Ga +3

32 Ge +4 -4

33 As +5 +3 -3

34 Se +6 +4 -2

35 Br +5 +3 +1 -1

36 Kr +4 +2

37 Rb +1

38 Sr +2

39 Y +3

40 Zr +4

41 Nb +5 +4

42 Mo +6 +4 +3

43 Tc +7 +6 +4

44 Ru +8 +6 +4 +3

45 Rh +4 +3 +2

46 Pd +4 +2

47 Ag +1

48 Cd +2

49 In +3

50 Sn +4 +2

51 Sb +5 +3 -3

52 Te +6 +4 +2

53 I +7 +5 +1 -1

54 Xe +6 +4 +2

55 Cs +1

56 Ba +2

57 La +3

72 Hf +4

73 Ta +5

74 W +6 +4

75 Re +7 +6 +4

76 Os +8 +4

77 Ir +4 +3

78 Pt +4 +2

79 Au +3 +1

80 Hg +2 +1

81 Tl +3 +1

82 Pb +4 +2

83 Bi +5 +3

84 Po +2

85 At -1

86 Rn

rUb 3>10 cMnYnGuksIutkm μénFatukñúgsmasFaturbs;BYkva. cMnYnGuksIutkm μEdleRbI jwkjab;KWmanB’N.

rUb 3>10 bgðajcMnYnGuksIutkmμénFatuEdleyIgFøab;sÁal;RtUv)antMerobGaRs½yeTAnwg

135

TItaMgrbs;vakñúgtaragxYb. eyIgGacsegçbmatikarCataragdUcxageRkam ³ • FatuEdlCaelah³manEtcMnYnGuksIutkm μviC¢manEtb:ueNÑaH cMENkÉFatuGelah³Gacman cMnYnGuksIutkmμviC¢man rWGviC¢man. • cMnYnGuksIutkmμEdlx<s;CageKbMputénFatuEdlCatMNagGacmanKWelxRkumrbs;vakñúg taragxYb. ]TahrN_ BYkGaLÚEsnKWenAkñúgRkum 7A dUecñHcMnYnGuksIutkmμx<s;bMputEdlGac maKW +7. • elah³qøg ¬Rkum 1B 3B – 8B¦CaFm μtamancMnYnGuksIutkm μEdlGacmanmYycMnYn.

RbePTénRbtikmμerduk manRbePTTUeTAénRbtikm μerdukcMnYnbYn³ Rbtikm μbnSM RbtikmμbMEbk RbtikmμCMnYs Rbtikmμ DIsμ Útkm μ. RbtikmμCMnYsmankarGnuvtþn_ya:gTUlMTUlaykñúg]sSahkmμ dUecñHeyIgnwgsikSaGMBI RbtikmμTaMgenHya:glMGit.

RbtikmμbnSM

RbtikmμbnSMGactageday A + B C RbsinebI A rW B KWCaFatumYy dUecñHRbtikm μenHKWCaRbePTRbtikmμerduk. Rbtikm μbnSMKWCaRbtikmμ

136

EdlkñúgenaHsarFatuBIr rWeRcInpSMKñaedIm,IbegáItCaplitplmYy. rUb 3>11 bgðajBIRbtikmμbnSM samBaØ²mYycMnYn. ]TahrN_

S (S) + O2 (g) SO2 (g) 3Mg (g) + N2 (g) Mg3N2 (S)

RbtikmμbMEbk RbtikmμbMEbkKWCakarpÞúyKñaénRbtikmμbnSM. CaBiessRbtikmμbMEbkKwCakarbMEbkén smasFatumYyeTAsmasPaKBIr rWeRcIn.

rUb 3>12 (a) kardutkMedA)art (II)GuksIut (HgO)bMEbkedIm,IbegáItCa)art nigGuksIuEsn. (b) kardutkMedAb:UtasüÚmkøra:t (KClO3)begáItCaGuksIuEsnEdl CMnYydl;cMehHénbnÞHGus. C A + B

RbsinebI A rW B KWCaFatumYy dUecñHRbtikm μenHKWCaRbePTRbtikmμerduk¬rUb 4>12¦. ]TahrN_³ 2HgO (S) 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)

2KClO3 (S) 2KCl (S) + 3O2 (g)

2NaH (S) 2Na (S) + H2 (g)

kt;cMNaMfaeyIgbgðajcMnYnGuksIutkm μcMeBaHEtFatuEdlrgGuksIutkm μ rWerdukmμEtb:ueNÑaH. dUecñHb:UtasüÚmmin)anpþl;cMnYnGuksIutkmμeTkñúgRbtikm μbMEbkén KClO3.

0

0 +4-2 0

0 +2 -3

0 0

00

-1

+1-1

+2-2

0+5-2

137

RbtikmμCMnYs kñúgRbtikmμCMnYs GIuy:ugmYy¬rWGatUm¦kñúgsmasFatumYyRtUv)anCMnYsedayGIuy:ug¬rWGatUm¦ énFatumYyeTot³ A + BC AC + B

RbtikmμCMnYsPaKeRcInRtUveTAnwgRbePTmYyénRbePTtUc²bI³ karCMnYsGIuRdUEsn karCMnYs elah³rWkarCMnYsGaLÚEsn.

1. karCMnYsGIuRdUEsn elah³Gal;kaLaMgTaMgGs; nigelah³Gal;kalINUETrWumYycMnYn (Ca Sr nig Ba)Edl

CaFatuelah³EdlmanRbtikmμxøaMgkøabMputnwgCMnYsGIuRdUEsnBITwkRtCak;¬rUb 3>13¦³

2Na (S) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Ca (S) + 2H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (S) + H2 (g)

rUb 3>13 Rbtikmμ (a)sUdüÚm (Na) nig (b) kal;süÚm (Ca) CamYyTwkRtCak;. kt;cMNaMfaRbtikmμekItmanya:gxøaMgCamYy Na CagCamYy Ca.

elah³EdlmanRbtikm μKImIexSayCagdUcCa GaluymIj:Úm nigEdkmanGMeBICamYycMhay TwkedIm,Ipþl;]sμ ½nGIuRdUEsn.

2Al (S) + 3H2O (g) Al2O3 (S) + 3H2 (g)

0

0

+1 +1 +1 0

0+1 +2 +1

0 +1 +3 0

138

2Fe(S) + 3H2O (g) Fe2O3 (S) + 3H2 (g)

elah³CaeRcInrab;bBa©ÚlTaMgelah³EdlminmanGMeBICamYyTwkGacCMnYsGIuRdUEsn)anBI GasIut. ]TahrN_ sgá½sI (Zn) nigma:ej:süÚm (Mg) minmanGMeBICamYyTwkeT b:uEnþBitCamanGMeBI CamYyGasIutkørIRTicdUcxageRkam ³ Zn (S) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Mg (S) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

rUb 3>14 BIeqVgeTAsþaM³ RbtikmμénEdk (Fe) sgá½sI (Zn) nigma:ej:süÚm (Mg)CamYy GasIutkørIRTicedIm,IbegáItCa]sμ ½nGIuRdUEsn nigelah³kørY (FeCl2 ZnCl2 MgCl2).

RbtikmμPaBénelah³TaMgenHRtUvqøúHbBa©aMgedayel,ÓnénkarErbRbYlCalMdab;én]sμ ½n GIuRdUEsnEdlyWtCageKbMputcMeBaHelah³EdlmanRbtikmμKImIexSayCageKbMput Fe

nigelOnCageKbMputcMeBaHelah³EdlmanRbtikmμKImIxøaMgbMput Mg. smIkarGIuy:ugKW Zn (S) + 2H+ (aq) Zn2+

(aq) + H2 (g)

0 +1 +3 0

0 +1 +2 0

0 +1 +2 0

0 +1 +2 0

BBuH]sμ ½n H2 tic BBuH]sμ ½n H2 eRcIn BBuH]sμ ½n H2 eRcInbMput

139

Mg (S) + 2H+ (aq) Mg2+

(aq) + H2 (g)

rUb 3>14 bgðajBIRbtikmμrvagGasIutkørIRTic (HCl) nigEdk (Fe) sgá½sI (Zn) ma:ej:süÚm (Mg). RbtikmμTaMgenHRtUUv)aneRbIR)as;edIm,ITegVI]sμ ½nGIuRdUEsnkñúgTIBiesaF. elah³xøHdUcCa Tg;Edg (Cu) R)ak; (Ag) nigmas (Au) minGacCMnYsGIuRdUEsn)aneTenAeBldak;eGaymanGMeBICa mYyGasIutkørIRTic. 2. karCMnYselah³ elah³kñúgsmasFatumYyGacRtUvCMnYsedayelah³mYyepSgeTotkñúgPaBCaelah³. eyIg)aneXIj]TahrN_rYcmkehIyGMBIsgá½sICMnYsGIuy:ugTg;Edg nigTg;EdgCMnYsGIuy:ugR)ak;¬emIl rUb 3>9¦. karb®Ba©astYnaTIénelah³TaMgenHnwgKμanRbtikmμekIteLIgeT. dUecñHelah³Tg;Edg nwgminGacCMnYsGIuy:ugsgá½sIBIsgá½sIs‘ulpat nigelah³R)ak;minGacCMnYsGIuy:ugTg;EdgBITg;Edg nIRtat)aneT. viFIEdlgayedIm,ITsSn_TayfaetIRbtikmμCMnYselah³ rWGIuRdUEsnBitCaekItmanKW RtUvEp¥keTAelIes‘rIskmμPaB¬eBlxøHRtUv)aneKehAfaes‘rIeGLicRtUKImI¦EdlmanbgðajkñúgrUb 3>15. CasMxan;es‘rIskmμPaBKWCakarsegçbya:ggayRsYlénlT§plRbtikm μCMnYsEdlGacekIt manCa eRcInRsedogKñaeTAnwgRbtikmμCMnYsEdl)anBiPakSarYcehIy.

rUb 3>15 es‘rIskmμPaBsMrab;elah³.elah³RtUv)anerob tamlMdab;GaRs½yeTAnwglT§PaBrbs;BYkvaedIm,ICMnYs GIuRdUEsnBIGasIut rWTwk. Li ¬lIcUm¦Caelah³Edlman RbtikmμKImIxøaMgbMput nig Au ¬mas¦Caelah³Edlman RbtikmμKImIexSaybMput. GaRs½yeTAnwges‘rIenHelah³NaEdlenAxagelIGIuRdUEsnnwgGacCMnYsvaBITwk rWBIGasIut)an b:uEnþ

elah³NaEdlenAxageRkamGIuRdUEsnnwgminGacmanRbtikmμCaTwk rWGasIuteT. tamBiteTARbePT

0 +1 +2 0

140

KImINaEdl)ancuHkúñges‘rIenHnwgGacmanRbtikmμCamYyRbePTKImI¬kñúgsmasFatumYy¦enAxag eRkamva. ]TahrN_ Zn enAxagelI Cu dUecñHelah³sgá½sIGacCMnYsGIuy:ugTg;EdgBITg;Edgs‘ul pat)an. RbtikmμCMnYselah³eXIjmankarGnuvtþn_CaeRcInkñúgdMeNIrkarelahsSahkmμkñúgeKal bMNgedIm,IEjkykelah³suT§BIEr:rbs;BYkva. ]TahrN_va:NadüÚmRtUvTTYl)anedaykardak; eGayva:NadüÚm (V)GuksIutmanGMeBICamYyelah³kal;süÚm³ V2O5 (S) + 5Ca (l) 2V(l) + 5CaO (S)

rUb 3>16 (a) sUluysüúgTwk KBr. (b) bnÞab;BI]s μ ½nkørRtUv)anbegáItCaBBuHkñúg sUluysüúgGIuy:ugRbUmPaKeRcInRtUvpøas;eTACa¬rgGuksIutkmμ¦TwkRbUmEdlrlaytic tYckñúgTwk. RsedogKñaenHEdr TItanRtUvTTYl)anBITItan (IV)kørYtamsmIkardUcxageRkam ³

TiCl4 (g) + 2Mg (l) Ti (S) + 2MgCl2 (l)

kñúgkrNInimYy²elah³EdledIrtYCaPñak;garerdukm μenAxagelIelah³Edlrgerdukm μ(man n½yfa Ca enAxagelI V nig Mg enAxagelI Ti¦kñúges‘rIskmμPaB. eyIgnwg)aneXIj]TahrN_ bEnßmeTotGMBIRbePTRbtikmμenH.

K μanB’N B’NelOg

141

3. karCMnYsGaLÚEsn es‘rIskmμPaBmYyeTotsgçbGMBIlkçN³rbs;GaLÚEsnkñúgRbtikmμCMnYsGaLÚEsn³ F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

GMNacénFatuTaMgenHCaPñak;garGuksIutkmμfycuHenAeBlEdleyIgrMkilcuHeRkamRkum 7A

BIkøreTAGIuy:Ut dUecñHm:UelKulPøúyGrGacCMnYsGIuy:ugkør RbUm nigGIuy:UtkñúgsUluysüúg. tamBit m:UelKulPøúyGrKWmanRbtikm μKImIxøaMgEdlvaGacRbtikmμeTAelITwkpgEdr. dUecñHRbtikm μTaMgenH minGacGnuvtþ)aneTkñúgsUluysüúgTwk. müa:geTot m:UelKulkørGacCMnYsGIuy:ugRbUm nigGIuy:Utkñúg sUluysüúgTwkdUcbgðajkñúgrUb 3>16.

smIkarCMnYsKW ³ Cl2 (g) + 2KBr (aq) 2KCl (aq) + Br2 (l)

Cl2 (g) + 2NaI (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + I2 (S)

smIkarGIuy:ugKW ³ Cl2 (g) + 2Br- (aq) 2Cl- (aq) + Br2 (l)

Cl2 (g) + 2I- (aq) 2Cl- (aq) + I2 (S

RtLb;mkvijm:UelKulRbUmGacCMnYsGIuy:ugGIuy:UtkñúgsUluysüúg ³

Br2 (l) + 2I- (aq) 2Br- (aq) + I2 (S)

karb®Ba©astYnaTIénGaLÚEsnK μanRbtikm μekIteLIgeT. dUecñHRbUmminGacCMnYsGIuy:ugkør nig GIuy:UtminGacCMnYsGIuy:ugRbUm nigkør)aneT. RbtikmμCMnYsGaLÚEsnmankarGnuvtþn_kñúgEpñk]sSahkmμedaypÞal;. GaLÚEsnCaRkum Gelah³EdlmanRbtikmμKImIxøaMgbMput. vaKWCaPñak;garGuksIutkmμxøaMgTaMgGs;. dUecñHBYkvaRtUv)an eKeXIjkñúgPaBCabnSMkñúgFm μCati ¬CamYyelah³¦CaGaLÚEsnY nigminEdlenACaFatuesrIeT. kñúgcMeNamFatuTaMgbYnenHkørKWCaFatuKImIEdleRbIR)as;kñúg]sSahkmμEdlcM)ac;bMput. kñúgqñaM 1995

brimaNkørRtUv)aneKpliteLIgman 5 ryekadiEdleFIVeGaykørKWCaFatuKImI]sSahkmμfitkñúg cMNat;fñak;TI10. plitplRbUmRbcaMqñaMKWmanEtmYyPaKry (1%)eFobeTAnwgplitplrbs;kør enAxN³eBlenaHEdrbrimaNPøúyGr nigGIuy:UtRtUv)aneKplitkan;EtticCageTAeTot. karb®Ba©asGaLÚEsnBIGaLÚEsnYrbs;BYkvaRtUvkardMeNIrkarGuksIutkmμEdltageday 2X- X2 + 2e-

0 -1 -1 0

0 -1 -1 0

0 -1 0 -1

0 -1 -1 0

00 -1 -1

142

Edl X tageGayFatuGaLÚEsn. TwksmuRT nigTwkGMbilFm μCati¬]TahrN_ TwkeRkamdI b:HCamYyRsTab;Er:GMbil¦KWCaRbPBEdlsMbUrGIuy:ug Cl- Br- nig I-. sarFatuxniCdUcCaPøúyGrY (CaF2) nigRKIy:UlIt (Na3AlF6) RtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,ITegVIPøúyGr. edaysarEtPøúyGrKWCaPñak;gar GuksIutkmμxøaMgbMputEdlRtUv)aneKsÁal; KμanviFINanwgGacpøas;bþÚrGIuy:ug F- eTACa F2 eday meFüa)ayKImIeT. manviFIEtmYyKt;edIm,IGnuvtþGuksIutkmμedaymeFüa)ayGKÁIsnIviPaK. kñúgvis½y sSahkmμ kørk¾dUcCaPøúyGrEdrRtUvbegáIteLIgtamlMnaMGKÁIsnIviPaK. RbUmRtUv)anTegVIeLIgtamEbb]sSahkmμedayGuksIutkm μGIuy:ug Br- CamYykørEdlCa Pñak;garGuksIutkmμxøaMgRKb;RKan;edIm,IeFIVGuksIutkmμGIuy:ug Br- b:uEnþminEmnTwkeT³ 2Br-

(aq) Br2 (l) + 2e-

RbPBEdlsMbUrCageKmYyénGIuy:ug Br- KWsmuRTmrN³ (Dead Sea)manRbEhl 4000Epñk kñúgmYylan (ppm) énma:ssarFatuEdlrlayTaMgGs;kúñgsmuRTmrN³KWCa Br. tamlMnaMGuksIut kmμénGIuy:ug Br- RbUmRtUv)anpþac;ecjBIsUluysüúgedaypøúMxül;BIelIsUluysüúgenaH nigbnÞab;mk l,ayxül;-RbUmRtUvbBa©úHsItuNðPaBedIm,IeGaykøayeTACadMNk;RbUm¬rUb 3>17¦. GIuy:UtRtUv)anTegVIBITwksmuRT nigTwkGMbilFmμCatiedayGuksIutkmμGIuy:ug I- CamYykør. edaysarGIuy:ug Br- nig I- manvtþmanminERbRbYlkñúgRbPBdUcKña BYkvaTaMgBIrrgGuksIutkmμeday kør. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday vaKWCaTMnak;TMnggayRsYledIm,IEjkyk Br2 BI I2 BIeRBaHGIuy:UtKWCa

rUb 3>17karplitEbb]sSahkmμénTwk RbUmedaykareFIVGuksIutkm μsUluysüúg TwkEdlmanpÞúkGIuy:ug Br- CamYy]s μ ½n kør. GgÁFaturwgEdlrlayTaMgRsugkñúgTwk. lMnaMpøúMxül;enHnwgpþac;ykRbUmPaKeRcInEdl)anbegáIteLIg

143

b:uEnþnwgminmanplb:HBal;eTAnwgvtþmanGIuy:UteT. RbtikmμDIsμÚtkmμ RbePTBiessénRbtikmμerdukKWCaRbtikm μDIsμ Útkm μ. kñúgRbtikmμDIsμ Útkm μ FatumYykñúg PaBGuksIutkm μmYyrgGuksIutkmμ nigrgerdukmμkñúgeBldMNalKña. GgÁFatuRbtikrmYykñúgRbtikmμ DIsμ Útkm μ Canic©kalmanpÞúkFatumYyEdlya:gehacNas;manPaBGuksIutkm μbI. GgÁFatuRbtikr xøÜnvaKWfitenAkñúgPaBGuksIutkm μEdlCaGgÁFatukNþal mann½yfaTaMgPaBGuksIutkmμx<s; nigTab suT§EtmansMrab;FatuenaH. karbMEbkGuIRdUEsnEBGuksIutKWCa]TahrN_mYyénRbtikmμDIsμ Útkm μ ³ 2H2O2 (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

enATIenHcMnYnGuksIutkmμénGuksIuEsnkñúgGgÁFatuRbtikr (-1) EdlekIneLIgeTAdl;sUnü kñúg O2 nigfycuHeTAdl; -2 kñúg H2O. ]TahrN_mYyepSgeTotKWRbtikm μrvagm:UelKulkør nig sUluysüúg NaOH ³ Cl2 (g) + 2OH-

(aq) ClO-(aq) + Cl-

(aq) + H2O (l) RbtikmμenHB’NnaGMBIkarbegáIteLIgénPñak;garbnSrsMPar³eRbIR)as;kñúgpÞH sMrab;vaKWGIuy:ug GIub:UkørWu (ClO-) EdleFIVGuksIutkmμelIsarFatuEdlmanB’NkñúgsñamRblak;edaykarbMElgvaeTACa smasFatuK μanB’N. TIbBa©b;vaKYreGaycab;Garm μN_edIm,IeRbobeFobRbtikm μerduk nigRbtikmμGasIut-)as. vaRsedogKñakñúgRbtikmμGasIut-)asenaHEdlTak;TgeTAnwgkarepÞreGLicRtug. eTaHbICaya:gNa k¾edayenAxN³eBlEdlRbtikm μGasIut-)asgayRsYledIm,IsMKal ;¬edayehtufavaCanic©kal Tak;TgeTAnwgGasIut nig)as¦ K μanlMnaMsamBaØNasMrab;karkMNt;GtþsBaØaNdMeNIrkarRbtikm μ erdukeT. viFIc,as;las;EtmYyKt;KWeRbobeFobcMnYnGuksIutkm μénFatuTaMgGs;kñúgGgÁFatuRbtikr nigplitpl. ebImankarpøas;bþÚrcMnYnGuksIutkm μFanafaRbtikmμenaHKWCaRbePTRbtikmμerduk. kareFIVcMNat;fñak;énRbePTRbtikmμerdukepSg²KñaRtUv)ancg¥úlbgðajkñúg]TahrN_xag eRkam.

-1 -2 0

0 +1 -1

144

]TahrN_ 3>5 cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;RbtikmμerdukxageRkam nigcg¥úlbgðajGMBIkarpøas;bþÚrcMnYnGuksIutkmμén FatuTaMgenaHpg³ (a) 2N2O (g) 2N2 (g) + O2 (g)

(b) 6Li (S) + N2 (g) 2Li3N (S)

(c) Ni (S) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) Pb (S) + Ni(NO3)2 (aq)

(d) 2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)

cMelIy (a) enHKWCaRbtikmμbMEbkedayehtufaRbePTRbtikrmYyRtUv)anbMElgeTACaRbePTplit- plBIrxusKña. cMnYnGuksIutkmμén N pøas;bþÚrBI +1 eTA 0 enAxN³eBlEdlcMnYn n.oén O

bþÚrBI –2 eTA 0.

(b) enHKWCaRbtikmμbnSM ¬RbtikrBIrbegáIt)anCaplitplEtmYy¦.cMnYnGuksIutkmμrbs; Li pøas;BI 0 eTA +1 enAxN³eBlEdlcMnYnGuksIutkmμrbs; N bþÚrBI 0 eTA –3. (c) enHKWCaRbtikmμCMnYs. elah³ Ni CMnYs ¬eFIVerdukmμ¦GIuy:ug Pb2+. cMnYnGuksIutkmμ rbs; Ni ekIneLIgBI 0 eTA +2 enAxN³eBlEdlcMnYnrbs; Pb fycuHBI +2 eTA 0. (d) cMnYnGuksIutkmμrbs; N KW +4 kñúg NO2 +3 kñúg HNO2 nig +5 kñúgHNO3. eday

ehtufacMnYnGuksIutkmμekIneLIgpg nigfycuHpg enHKWCaRbtikmμDIsμ Útkmμ. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ cUrkMNt;GtþsBaØaNRbePTRbtikmμerdukxageRkam³ (a) Fe + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2

(b) S + 3F SF6 (c) 2CuCl Cu + CuCl2

(d) 2Ag + PtCL2 2AgCl + Pt kñúgGtßbT Chemistry in Action enATMB½rTI 34 B’NnaGMBIfaetIc,ab;bgçitbgçMbegáItkar eRbIR)as;Rbtikm μerdukedIm,Icab;)anGñkebIkbrEdlRsvwgRsa.

3>5 kMhab;sUluysüúg edIm,IsikSaGMBITMnak;TMngbrimaNkñúgsUluysüúgeyIgRtUvEtdwgfaetImanGgÁFatuRbtikr b:unμanEdlmanvtþmankñúgsUluysüúg nigrebobRtYtBinitübrimaNrbs;GgÁFatuRbtikrEdlRtUveRbI edIm,IeFIVeGayRbtikmμekItmankñúgsUluysüúgTwk. kMhab;sUluysüúg KWbrimaNénvtþmanGgÁFatu

145

rlaykñúgbrimaNGgÁFaturMlay rWsUluysüúgEdl)aneRbI. ¬cMeBaHkarBiPakSaenHeyIgnwgsn μt Chemistry in Action ]bkrN_viPaKdegðIm Caerogral;qñaMkñúgshrdæmanmnusSRbEhl 25000nak;RtUv)ansMlab; nigeRcInCag 500000

nak;rgrbYsedaysarkarebIkbrEdlRsvwgRsa. eTaHbICamankarxitxMRbwgERbgGb;rMdl;saFarN CnGMBIkareRKaHfñak;énkarebIkbrenAxN³eBlEdlRsvwgRsa nigeTasbBaØtþiya:gmWugma:t;cMeBaH eTas kmμsMrab;karebIkbrEdlRsvwgRsa TIPñak;garc,ab;bgçitbgMçRtUvEtTukkargarCaeRcInsMrab;yk GñkebIkbrEdlRsvwgRsaBIdgpøÚvrbs;Gaemric. CaerOy²b:UlIseRbI]brkN_müa:gehAfa ]bkrN_viPaKdegðImedIm,IeFIVetsþGñkebIkbrNa EdlCab;sgS½yfaRsvwgRsa. mUldæanKImIén]bkrN_enHKWRbtikmμerduk. PaKsMNakénkardk degðImrbs;]bkrN_RtUvbWtbBa©ÚleTAkñúg]bkrN_viPaKdegðImEdlenATIenaHvaRbRBwtþikmμCamYy sUluysüúgGasIuténb:UtasüÚmDIRkUma:t. Gal;kul ¬eGtaNul¦ kñúgkardkdegðImRtUvbMElgeTACa GasIutGaesTicdUcbgðajkñúgsmIkarxageRkam³

3CH3CH3OH + 2K2Cr2O7 + 8H2SO4 3CH3COOH + 2Cr2(SO4)3

+ 2K2SO4 + 11H2O

kñúgRbtikmμenHeGtaNulrgGuksIutkmμeTACaGasIutGaesTic nigRkUm (VI)kñúgGIuy:ug DIRkUma:tB’NelOgrgerdukm μeTACaGIuy:ugRkUm (III)B’Nébtg¬emIlrUb 3>22¦. kMritGal;kulkñúg Qamrbs;GñkebIkbrGacRtUv)ankMNt;CaeRscedaykarvas;kMriténkarpøas;bþÚrB’NenH¬GanBI naLikamaRtdæanenAelI]bkrN_¦. EdnkMNt;cMNuHGal;kulkñúgQamEdlRsbc,ab;Edl)andwgB¤ TUeTAkñúgshrdæKW 0,1PaKryKitCama:s. ebIelIsBIenHnwgeFVIeGayRsvwg. GgÁFaturlayKWCaGgÁFaturav rWGgÁFaturwg nigGgÁFaturMlayKWCaGgÁFaturav.¦ kMhab;sUluysüúg

eGtaNul b:UtasüÚmDIRkUma:t¬elOgTwkRkUc¦

GasIuts‘ulpYric GasIutGaesTic RkUm (III)s‘ulpat¬ébtg¦

b:UtasüÚms‘u;pat

146

GacbBa¢ak;tamviFIxus²KñaCaeRcIn. enATIenHeyIgnwgBicarNaGMBIxñatmYyEdlRtUv)aneRbIR)as;CaTUeTAbMputkñúgKImI KWm:ULarIet (M) rW kMhab;m:UElr EdlKWCacMnYnm:UlénGgÁFaturlaykñúg 1 lIRténsUluysüúg. m:ULarIetRtUv)aneGay niymn½yedaysmIkar. M = m:ULarIet = (3.1)

dUecñHsUluysüúgKøúykUs (C6H12O6) 1,46m:UElrRtUv)ansresr C6H12O6 1,46 M

EdlmanGgÁFaturlay (C6H12O6) 1,46m:Ulkñúg 1lIRténsUluysüúg. sUluysüúgG‘uyer [(NH2)2CO] 0,52 m:UElrRtUv)ansresr [(NH2)2CO] 0,52 M Edl

manGgÁFaturlay [(NH2)2CO] 0,52 m:Ulkñúg 1lIRténsUluysüúg.l. tamBitCanic©kaleyIgmineFIVkargarCamYysUluysüúgmaDCak;lak;1lIRt(1L)eT. enHminEmnCabBaðaeT drabNaeyIgcaMfaRtUvbMElgmaDsUluysüúgeTACalIRt. dUecñH

sUluysüúg 500mLEdlman C6H12O6 0,730m:Ulk¾mankMhab; 1,46M pgEdr ³ M = m:ULarIet = = 1,46 mol/L = 1,46 M

rUb 3>18 TegVIsUluysüúgEdlminsÁal;kMhab;m:ULarIet. (a) brimaNGgÁFaturlay EdlCaGgÁFaturwgminsÁal;RtUv)andak;cUleTAkñúgEkvvas;maD. bnÞab;mkbEnßmTwkeday eRbILav. (b) GgÁFaturwgRtUv)anrlayyWt²edaykarRkLúkEkvenaH.

maDsUluysüúg¬lIRt¦

0,730 mol

0,500L

m:UlénGgÁFaturlay

147

(c) bnÞab;mkGgÁFaturwg)anrlayTaMgRsug bEnßmTwkrhUtdl;kMritrbs;Twkesμ InwgKMnUs Rkwt. edaykarsÁal;maDrbs;sUluysüúg nigbrimaNénGgÁFaturlayEdl)an rlaykñúgenaH eyIgGacKNnakMhab;m:ULarIeténsUluysüúgEdleyIgeFIV)an. dUcGñkGacemIleXIjehIy xñaténkMhab;m:ULarIetKW m:UlkñúglIRt dUecñHsUluysüúg 500mL

Edlman C6H12O6 0,730m:UlKWmankMhab; 1,46mol/L rW 1,46M.cUrkt;cMNaMfakMhab;k¾dUcCa dg;sIuetEdrKWmanlkçN³RbBlPaB dUecñHtMélrbs;vaminGaRs½ynwgbrimaNénsUluysüúgEdl manvtþmanenaHeT. CasMxan;RtUvcgcaMfam:ULarIetGaRs½yEteTAelIbrimaNénGgÁFaturlayEdl)anrlay kñúgTwkBIdMbUgb:ueNÑaH nigminKitGMBIdMeNIrkarbnþbnÞab;eT dUcCakarEjkGMbil rWkarbMEbkCaGIuy:ugén GasIut. TaMgKøúykUs nigGu‘yerKWmincMlgcrnþGKÁIsnIeT dUecñHsUluysüúgG‘uyer 1,00M man 1mol

énm:UelKulG‘uyerkñúg 1L énsUluysüúg. b:uEnþcUrBicarNaGMBIGIVEdl)anekIteLIgenAeBlEdlPaK sMNakb:UtasüÚmkørY (KCl) EdlCaeGLicRtUlItxøaMg RtUv)anrMlaykñúgbrimaNTwkRKb;RKan edIm,I; begáIt)anCasUluysüúg 1M. KCl (S) K+

(aq) + Cl-

(aq)

eday KCl KWCaeGLicRtUlItxøaMg vargkarbMEbkTaMgRsugkñúgsUluysüúg. dUecñHsUluysüúg KCl

1M man 1mol énGIuy:ug K+ nig 1mol énGIuy:ug Cl- nigK μandMu KCl enAsl;eT. kMhab;énGIuy:ugGac sMEdgeday [K+] = 1M nig [Cl-] = 1M EdlXñab [ ] bBa¢ak;fakMhab;RtUvsMEdgCa m:ULarIet. RsedogKñaenHEdr kñúgsUluysüúg)arü:ÚmnIRtat [Ba(NO3)2] 1M ³ Ba(NO3)2 (S) Ba2+

(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

eyIgman [Ba2+] = 1M nig [NO3-] = 2M nigKμansl;dMu Ba(NO3)2 eT.

dMeNIrkarsMrab;TegIVsUluysüúgEdlminsÁal;kMhab;m:ULarIetKWdUcxageRkam³ dMbUg GgÁFaturlayRtUv)anføwgya:gCak;lak; nigepÞreTAkñúgEkvvas;maDedayeRbILav ¬rUb 3>18¦. bnÞab;mk bEnßmTwkeTAkñúgEkvenaH rYcRtUvRKElgedIm,IrMlayGgÁFaturwg. bnÞab;BIGgÁFatu rwgTaMgGs;rlay bEnßmTwkyWt²edIm,IeFIVeGaykMritsUluysüúgesμInwgKMnUsRkwtmaD. edaykar sÁal;maDénsUluysüúgkñúgEkvenaH nigbrimaNénsmasFatu ¬cMnYnm:Ul¦Edlrlay eyIgGac

H2O

H2O

148

KNnakMhab;m:ULarIeténsUluysüúgedayeRbIsmIkar (3.1). cUrkt;cMNaMfadMeNIrkarenHminRtUv karsÁal;brimaNTwkEdlRtUvbEnßmenaHeT drabNamaDénsUluysüúgcugeRkayRtUv)ansÁal;. ]TahrN_ 3>6 cg¥úlbgðajGMBIviFIedIm,ITegVIsUluysüúgEdlminsÁal;kMhab;m:ULarIet. ]TahrN_ 3>6 etIeKRtUvkarb:UtasüÚmDIRkUma:t (K2Cr2O7) b:un μanRkamedIm,ITegIVsUluysüúg 250mL Edl mankMhab; 2,16 M ? cMelIy dMNak;kalTImYyKWRtUvkMNt;cMnYnm:Ulén K2Cr2O7kñúgsUluysüúg 250mL EdlmankMhab; 2,16 M ³ cMnYnm:Ul K2Cr2O7 = 250mL x = 0,540 mol

ma:sm:UelKulén K2Cr2O7 KW 294,2 g dUecñHeyIgsresr cMnYnRkam K2Cr2O7EdlRtUvkar = 0,540 mol x = 159 g

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ etIkMhab;m:ULarIeténsUluysüúgeGtaNul (C2H5OH) 85,0 mL Edlman 1,77 g én eGtaNulesμ Inwgb:un μan? karBRgavsUluysüúg sUluysüúgxab;CaerOy²RtUv)aneKrkSaTukkñúgbnÞb;sþúkkñúgTIBiesaFsMrab;kareRbIR)as;enA eBlRtUvkar. Cajwkjab;eyIgEtgEtBRgavsUluysüúgEdlmansþúkTukenHmunnwgykvaeTAeRbI R)as;. karBRgav KWCadMeNIrkarsMrab;TegIVsUluysüúgEdlmankMhab;tUcCagBIsUluysüúgEdlman kMhab;FMCag. ]bmafaeyIgcg;TegIVsUluysüúg KMnO4 0,400 M cMnYn 1L BIsUluysüúg KMnO4

EdlmankMhab; 1,00 M. sMrab;eKalbMNgenH eyIgRtUvkar KMnO4 0,400 mol. edayehtufa

2,16 mol

1000mL

294,2 g

1mol

149

man 1,00 mol én KMnO4 kñúg 1L rW 1000mLénsUluysüúg KMnO4 1,00 M dUecñHman 0,400mol én KMnO4 kñúg 0,400 x 1000mL rW 400mL énsUluysüúgdEdl ³ =

dUecñH eyIgRtUvkarTajyk 400mL BIsUluysüúg KMnO4EdlmankMhab; 1,00 M nig BRgavvaeTACa 1000mL edaykarbEnßmTwk ¬kñúgEkvvas;maD 1L¦. viFIsa®sþenH)anpþl;eGay eyIg 1L énsUluysüúg KMnO4 0,400 M EdleyIgRtUvkar. kñúgkarGnuvtþn_dMeNIrkarBRgav vamanRbeyaCn_RtUvcgcaMfakarbEnßmGgÁFaturMlayeTAelI brimaNénsUluysüúgsúþkEdl)aneRbI)anpøas;bþÚr ¬bnßy¦ kMhab;énsUluysüúgedayK μankarpøas; bþÚrcMnYnm:UlénGgÁFaturlayEdlmanvtþmankñúgsUluysüúgenaHeT ¬rUb 3>19¦. müa:geTot ³ cMnYnm:UlénGgÁFaturlaymunBRgav = cMnYnm:UlénGgÁFaturlayeRkayeBlBRgav edayehtufam:ULarIetRtUvkMNt;Cam:UlkñúgmYYylIRténsUluysüúg eyIgeXIjfacMnYnm:UlénGgÁFatu rlayRtUv)anpþl;eday

x maDsUluysüúg (L) = m:UlénGgÁFaturlay

rW M V = cMnYnm:UlénGgÁFaturlay edaysarGgÁFaturlayTaMgGs;)anmkBIsUluysüúgsþúkedIm eyIgGacsnñidæanfa Mi Vi = Mf Vf (3.2)

m:UlénGgÁFaturlay m:UlénGgÁFaturlay muneBlBRgav eRkayeBlBRgav

Edl Mi nig Mf KWCakMhab;edIm nigbBa©b;énsUluysüúgKitCam:ULarIet nig Vi nig Vf KWCamaD edIm nigbBa©b;énsUluysüúgtamerog. tamBitxñatén Vi nig Vf RtUvEtdUcKña (mL rW L) sMrab;kar KNnaedIm,IeFIVkargar. edIm,IepÞógpÞat;PaBsmehtuplénlT§plrbs;Gñk RtUvR)akdfa Mi > Mf

nig Vf > Vi .

1,00 mol 1000mL

0,400 mol 400mL

m:UlénGgÁFaturlay

(L) énsUluysüúg

M V

150

rUb 3>19 karBRgavsUluysüúgEdlmankMhab;FMCag (a) eTACasUluysüúgEdlman

kMhab;tUcCag (b) minpøas;bþÚrcMnYnm:UlsrubénGgÁFaturlayeT. eyIgGnuvtþsmIkar (3.2) kñúg]TahrN_xageRkam. ]TahrN_ 3>7 cUrB’NnaGMBIrebobEdlGñkRtUvTegVI 5,00 x 102 mL énsUluysüúg H2SO4 1,75 M eday karcab;epþImBIsUluysüúgsþúkén H2SO4 8,61 M. cMelIy edayehtufakMhab;énsUluysüúgbBa©b;tUcCagkMhab;énsUluysüúgedIm dUecñHenHKWCa dMeNIrkarBRgavsUluysüúg. eyIgerobcMsMrab;karKNnaedayerobcMCataragTinñn½y ³ Mi = 8,61 M Mf = 1,75 M Vi = ? Vi = 5,00 x 102mL

edaykarCMnYskúgsmIkar (4.2) (8,61 M) (Vi) = (1,75 M) (5,00 x 102mL)

Vi =

= 102 mL

dUecñH eyIgRtUvBRgav 102 mL énsUluysüúg H2SO4 8,61 M CamYyTwkRKb;RKan;edIm,I eGay)anmaDbBa©b; 5,00 x 102mLkñúgEkvvas;maD500mL edIm,ITTYl)ankMhab;EdleyIgRtUvkar. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ etIGñkRtUvTegVI 2,00 x 102 mL énsUluysüúg NaOH 0,866 M edaykarcab;epþImBI sUluysüúgsþúk 5,07 M dUcemþc? \lUvenHedayeyIg)anBiPakSaGMBIkMhab; nigkarBRgavsUluysüúg eyIgGacRtYtBinitüGMBI TidæPaBbrimaNénRbtikmμkñúgsUluysüúgTwk rWTMnak;TMngbrimaNsUluysüúg. Epñk 3>6-3>8

(1,75 M) (5,00 x 102mL)

8,61 M

151

epþateTAelIbec©keTsBIrya:gsMrab;sikSaGMBITMnak;TMngbrimaNsUluysüúg³ karviPaKEdleRbI rgVas;ma:s nigGRtakmμ. bec©keTsTaMgenHKWCa]bkrN_caM)ac;énkarviPaKbrimaNEdlCakarkMNt; rkbrimaN rWkMhab;énsarFatukñúgPaKsMNak. karviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:s karviPaKrgVas;ma:sKWCabec©keTsviPaKEdlEp¥keTAelIkarvas;ma:s. karBiesaFn_viPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:smYyRbePTTak;TgeTAnwgkarbegáIt karEjk nigkarkMNt;ma:s énkkr. CaTUeTAdMeNIrkarenHRtUvGnuvtþcMeBaHsmasFatuGIuy:ug. CadMbUg sarFatuPaKsMNakén smasPaBEdlminsÁal;RtUv)anrMlaykúñgTwk nigTukeGayvamanRbtikm μCamYysarFatumYyepSg eTotedIm,IbegáItkkr. bnÞab;mkkkrRtUv)aneRcaH sMgYt nigføwg. edaykarsÁal;ma:s nigrUbmnþKImI énkkrEdl)anbegáIteLIg eyIgGacKNnama:sénsmasPaKKImINamYy ¬mann½yfa Gaj:úg rW kacug¦ énPaKsMNakedIm. TIbBa©b; BIma:sénsmasPaKenaH nigma:sénPaKsMNakedIm eyIgGac kMNt;smasPaBCaPaKryKitCama:sénsmasPaKenaHkñúgsmasFatuedIm. RbtikmμmYyEdlCaerOy²RtUv)aneKsikSakñúgkarviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:sedaysarGgÁFatu RbtikrGacRtUvTTYl)ankñúgsNæansuT§KW AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (S)

smIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlKW Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) AgCl (S)

kkrEdlTTYl)anKWCaR)ak;kørY ¬emIltarag 3>2¦. Ca]TahrN_ cUrGnuBaØatieGayeyIg niyayfaeyIgcg;kMNt;PaKryedaykarBiesaFn_KitCama:sén Cl kñúg NaCl. CadMbUgeyIgRtUvføwg ma:sPaKsMNak NaCl eGay)anCak;lak; nigrMlayvakñúgTwk. bnÞab;mkeyIgRtUvbEnßmsUluy- süúgAgNO3 RKb;RKan;eTAelIsUluysüúg NaCl edIm,IbegáIteGaymankkrén Cl- TaMgGs;Ed;lman vtþmankñúgsUluysüúgeTACa AgCl. kñúgdMeNIrkarenH NaCl KWCaer:Gak;TIbkMNt; nig AgNO3

Caer:Gak;TIbEdlelIs. kkr AgCl RtUv)anEjkecjBIsUluysüúgedaykareRcaH sMgYt nigføwg. BIma:s AgCl Edl)anføwg eyIgGacKNnama:sén Cl Edl)aneRbICaPaKryKitCama:s Cl kñúg AgCl.edayehtufa brimaN Cl dEdlenHmanvtþmankñúgPaKsMNak NaCl edIm eyIgGacKNna PaKryKitCama:s Cl kñúg NaCl. rUb 3>20 bgðajGMBIrebobEdldMeNIrkarenHRbRBWtþeTA.

152

rUb 3>20dMNak;karmUldæansMrab;karviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:s. (a) sUluysüúgmYy EdlmanbrimaN NaCl minsÁal;kñúgEkvebEs‘rmYy. (b) karbegáItkkr AgCl eday karbEnßmsUluysüúg AgNO3 BIsuILaMgRkwksMrab;vas;. kñúgRbtikm μenH AgNO3

Caer:Gak;TIbEdlelIs nig NaCl Caer:Gak;TIbkMNt;. (c) sUluysüúgEdlmankkr AgClRtUv)aneRcaHdak;eTAkñúgcansMrab;sMgYtEdl)anføwgma:sCamunnwgTukeGay GgÁFaturav ¬b:uEnþminEmnkkreT¦ qøgkat;. bnÞab;mkcansMgYtenaHRtUv)anykecjBI ]bkrN_ehIysMgYtkñúgLkMedA nigføwgmþgeTot. PaBxusKñarvagma:senH nigma:s rbs;cansMgYtTeT)anpþl;ma:sénkkr AgCl.

karviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:sKWCabec©keTsEdlmanPaBCak;lak;x<s; edayehtufama:sén PaKsMNakGacRtUv)anvas;ya:gCak;lak;. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday dMeNIrkarenHGacGnuvtþ)an EtcMeBaHRbtikmμEdlRbRBwtþeTAedaycb;sBVRKb; rWmanTinñplswgEtmYyryPaKryb:ueNÑaH. dUecñH RbsinebI AgCl rlaytictYcCYskarminrlayvij vaminGacmanlT§PaBedIm,Ipþac;ykGIuy:ug Cl-

TaMgGs;BIsUluysüúg NaCl nigkarKNnabnþbnÞab;eTotk¾RtUvxusEdr. ]TahrN_xageRkambgðajGMBIkarKNnaEdlTak;TgkñúgkarBiesaFn_EdleRbIrgVas;ma:s. ]TahrN_ 3>8 PaKsMNakénsmasFatuGIuy:ug 0,5662 g EdlmanGIuy:ugkørY nigelah³EdlminsÁal;RtUv

153

)anrlaykñúgTwk nigRtUveGaymanGMeBICamYy AgNO3 elIs. RbsinebI 1,0882 g énkkr AgCl

)anbegáIteLIg etIman Cl b:unμanPaKryKitCama:skñúgsmasFatuedIm? cMelIy ma:s Cl kñúg AgCl ¬ehIynwgenAkñúgsmasFatuedIm¦RtUv)ankMNt;edaykarKuNma:s AgCl nigPaKryCama:sén Cl kñúg AgCl ³ ma:s Cl = 1,0882 g AgCl x x x

= 0,2690 g Cl

bnÞab;mkeyIgKNnaPaKryKitCama:sén Cl kñúgPaKsMNakEdlminsÁal;dUcxageRkam³ % Cl Cama:s = x 100%

= x 100% = 47,51 %

karBnül; CakareRbobeFob cUrKNnaPaKryCama:sén Cl kñúg KCl. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ PaKsMNak 0,3220 g énsmasFatuGIuy:ugEdlmanGIuy:ugRbUmY (Br-) RtUv)anrMlaykñúgTwk nigeGaymanGMeBICamYy AgNO3 elIs. RbsinebIma:sénkkr AgBr EdlbegáIteLIgKW 0,6964 g

etIPaKryCama:sén Br kñúgsmasFatuedImesμ Inwgb:un μan? cUrkt;cMNaMfa karviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:smin)aneFIVniTsSn_GtþsBaØaNkm μTaMgmUlén sarFatuEdlminsÁal;enaHeT. dUecñHkñúg]TahrN_ 3>8 eyIgenAEtminsÁal;etIvaKWCakacugGIVeT. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday karsÁal;PaKryCama:sén Cl )anCYyeyIgeRcInNas;kñúgkarEsVgrk kacug. BIeRBaHK μansmasFatuBIEdlmanpÞúkGaj:úgEtmYy ¬rWkacug¦ mansmasPaBPaKryCa ma:s edaykareRbobeFobPaKryCama:sEdlTTYl)anBIkarviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:sCamYyenaH )anKNnaBIes‘rIénsmasFatuEdlsÁal;nwgRtUvbgðajGtþsBaØaNkm μsmasFatuEdlminsÁal;.

1mol AgCl

143,4 g AgCl 1mol AgCl

1 mol Cl 35,45 g Cl

1 mol Cl

ma:s Cl

ma:sPaKsMNak0,2690 g

0,5662 g

154

3>7 GRtakmμGasIut-)as karsikSabrimaNénRbtikmμbnSabGasIut-)asgayRsYlGnuvtþbMputedaykareRbIR)as; bec©keTsEdlFøab;sÁal;CaGRtakm μ. kñúg GRtakm μ sUluysüúgEdlsÁal;kMhab;Cak;lak;ehAfa sUluysüúgsþg;da RtUv)anbEnßmbnþicmþg²eTAelIsUluysüúgmYyeTotEdlminsÁal;kMhab;rhUt Tal;EtRbtikm μKImIrvagsUluysüúgTaMgBIrRtUv)ancb;sBVRKb;. RbsinebIeyIgsÁal;maDénsUluy- süúgsþg;da nigsUluysüúgEdlminsÁal;kMhab;Edl)aneRbIkñúgGRtakmμenaH CamYynwgkMhab; énsUluysüúgsþg;da eyIgGacKNnakMhab;énsUluysüúgEdlminsÁal;enaH)an. sUdüÚmGIuRduksIutKWCa)asmYyEdlRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;ya:geRcInkñúgTIiBiesaF. eTaHbICaya:g Nak¾edayvaBi)akedIm,ITTYl)ansUdüÚmGIuRduksIutrwgkñúgsNæansuT§BIeRBaHvamanTMenarRsUbykTwkBI xül; nigsUluysüúgrbs;vamanGMeBICamYykabUnDIGuksIut. edayehtuplTaMgenH sUluysüúg sUdüÚmGIuRduksIutRtUvEteFIVsþg;dakmμmunvaRtUv)anykeTAeRbIR)as;kñúgkargarviPaKCak;lak;. eyIg GaceFIVsþg;dakmμsUluysüúgsUdüÚmGIuRduksIutedaykarGRtakmμvaCamYynwgsUluysüúgGasIutEdl sÁal;kMhab;Cak;lak;. CaerOy²GasIutEdlRtUv)aneRCIserIssMrab;kargarenHKWCaGasIutm:UNURbUTwc ehAfab:UtasüÚmGIuRdUEsnpþaLat (KHP) EdlmanrUbmnþm:UelKul KHC8H4O4. KHP KWCaGgÁFatu rwgEdlrlayB’NsEdlGacrkTij)anenATIpSarkúñgsNæansuT§x<s;. Rbtikmμrvag KHP nigsUdüÚm GIuRduksIutKW KHC8H4O4 (aq) + NaOH (aq) KNaC8H4O4 (aq) + H2O (l) nigsmIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlKW HC8H4O4

- (aq) + OH- (aq) C8H4O4

2- (aq) + H2O (l)

dMeNIrkarsMrab;GRtakmμRtUv)anbgðajkñúgrUb 3>21. dMbUgbrimaN KHP EdlsÁal;RtUv )anepÞreTAkñúEkvEG‘kELn nigTwkbitxøHRtUv)anbEnßmedIm,IbegáItCasUluysüúg. bnÞab;mksUluy- süúg NaOH RtUv)anbEnßmya:gRbugRby½tñeTAkñúgsUluysüúg KHP BIb:uyEr:trhUtTl;EteyIg TTYl)ancMnucsmmUl mann½yfa CacMnucEdlGasIutmanRbtikm μcb;sBVRKb;CamYy rWRtUv)anbnSab eday)as. cMnucsmmUlCaFmμtabgðajCasBaØaeGaydwgedaykarpøas;bþÚrB’Nya:gxøaMgénGgÁFatu cg¥úlB’NkñúgsUluysüúgGasIut. kñúgGRtakmμGasIut-)as GgÁFatucg¥úlB’N KWCasarFatuEdl manB’NxusKña²ya:gxøaMgkñúgmCÆdæanGasIut nig)as. GgÁFatucg¥úlB’NmYyEdlRtUv)aneKeRbI

155

R)as;CaTUeTAKWepNulpþaelGIunEdlvaKμanB’NkñúgsUluysüúgGasIut nigNWt b:uEnþvamanB’NpáaQUk RkhmkñúgsUluysüúg)as. enAcMnucsmmUlvtþman KHP TaMgGs;RtUv)anbnSabedayNaOH Edl )anbEnßm ehIysUluysüúgenAEtKμanB’N. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday RbsinebIeyIgbEnßmsUluy- süúg NaOH EtmYydMNk;eTotBIb‘uyEr:t sUluysüúgnwgERbeTACaB’NpáaQUkPøamBIeRBaHsUluy- süúg \lUvenHKWCa)as.

rUb 3>21 (a)Ca]bkrN_sMrab;GRtakm μ. sUluysüúg NaOH RtUv)anbEnßmBIb‘uyEr:t eTAelIsUluysüúg KHP kñúgEkvEG‘kELn. (b) B’NpáaQUkRkhmbgðajenAeBl mkdl;cMnucsmmUl. enATIenHB’NekItmanya:gc,as;sMrab;karbgðajeGayeXIjedayEPñk. ]TahrN_ 3>9 nwgcg¥úlbgðajGMBIGRtakmμ. ]TahrN_ 3>9 kñúgBiesaFn_GRtakmμ nisSitmñak;rkeXIjfa 0,5468 g én KHP RtUvkaredIm,IbnSabeGay )ansBV 23,48 mL énsUluysüúg NaOH. etIkMhab; ¬Cam:ULarIet¦ énsUluysüúg NaOH esμ I b:unμan?

156

cMelIy smIkarlMnwgsMrab;RbtikmμenHRtUv)anbgðajxagelI. dMbUgeyIgKNnacMnYnm:Ulén KHP

EdlRtUveRbIkñúgGRtakmμ³ cMnYnm:Ulén KHP = 0,5468 g KHP x = 2,678 x 10-3 mol KHP

edayehtufa 1mol KHP RtUvkar 1mol NaOH RtuVEtman 2,678 x 10-3 mol én NaOH kñúg sUluysüúg NaOH 23,48 mL. TIbBa©b; eyIgKNnam:ULarIetén NaOH duuUcxageRkam³ m:ULarIeténsUluysüúg NaOH = x = 0,1141 M

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ etIeKRtUvkar KHP b:unμanRkamedIm,IbnSab 18,64 mL énsUluysüúg NaOH 0,1004 M? RbtikmμbnSabrvag NaOH nig KHP KWCaRbePTsamBaØbMputmYyénRbtikm μbnSabGasIut-)asEdleyIgFøab;sÁal;. ]bmafakñúgRbtikmμenaHCYseGay KHP eyIgcg;eRbIR)as;GasIutDIRbUTic dUcCa H2SO4 sMrab;GRtakm μ. Rbtikm μenHtageday 2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) edayehtufa 2mol NaOH RtUvkar 1mol H2SO4 eyIgRtUvkar NaOH eTVdgedIm,ImanRbtikm μsBV CamYysUluysüúg H2SO4 EdlmankMhab;m:UElr nigmaDes μ IKñaCasUluysüúg KHP. müa:geTot eyIgRtUvkarbrimaNGasIut HCl eTVdgedIm,IbnSabsUluysüúg Ba(OH)2 ebIeRbobeFobeTAnwg sUluysüúg NaOH EdlmankMhab; nigmaDesμIKñaBIeRBaH 1mol Ba(OH)2 )anpþl; 2mol énGIuy:ug OH- ³ 2HCl (aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq) BaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l) kñúgkarKNnaEdlTak;TgeTAnwgGRtakmμGasIut-)as eday\tKitGMBIGasIut rW)asEdlcUlrYmkñúg RbtikmμeT cUrcaMfacMnYnm:UlsrubénGIuy:ug H+ Edl)aneFIVRbtikmμenAcMnucsmmUlRtUvEtesμ IeTAnwg cMnYnm:UlsrubénGIuy:ug OH- Edl)aneFIVRbtikmμ. cMnYnm:UlénGasIutkñúgmaDCak;lak;RtUv)anpþl; eday ³

1mol KHP 204,2 g KHP

2,678 x 10-3 mol NaOH

23,48 mL sUluysüúg1000mL sUlu> 1 L sUlu>

157

cMnYnm:UlénGasIut = m:ULarIet (mol/L) x maD (L) = M V

Edl M KWCam:ULarIet nig VKWCamaDKitCalIRt. kenSamRsedogKñaenHGacRtUv)ansresr sMrab;)as. ]TahrN_xageRkambgðajGMBIGRtakmμénsUluysüúg NaOH CamYyGasIutDIRbUTic. ]TahrN_ 3>10 etIeKRtUvkarsUluysüúg NaOH 0,610 M b:un μanmIlIlIRt (mL) edIm,IbnSabsBV 20,0 mL

énsUluysüúg H2SO4 0,245 M? cMelIy smIkarsMrab;Rbtikm μbnSabRtUv)anbgðajenATMB½rmun. CadMdUgeyIgKNnacMnYnm:Ulén H2SO4 kñúgsUluysüúg 20,0 mL³ cMnYnm:Ul H2SO4 = x x 20,0 mL sUlu> = 4,90 x 10-3 mol H2SO4

BITMnak;TMngbrimaNenHeyIgeXIjfa 1mol H2SO4 RtUvkar 2mol NaOH . dUecñH cMnYnm:Ul NaOH

EdleFIVRbtikm μRtUvEt 2 x 4,90 x 10-3 mol rW 9,80 x 10-3 mol. BIniymn½ym:ULarIet [ emIl smIkar (3.1) eyIgman maDsUluysüúg =

rw maD NaOH =

= 0,0161 L rW 16,1 mL lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ etIeKRtUvkarsUluysüúg H2SO4 1,28 M b:un μanmIlIlIRtedIm,IbnSab 60,2 mL énsUluy- süúg KOH 0,427 M?

0,245 mol H2SO4

1 L sUlu>1 L sUlu> 1000 mL sUlu>

cMnYnm:UlénGgÁFaturlaym:ULarIet

9,80 x 10-3 mol NaOH

0,610 mol/L

158

3>8 GRtakmμerduk dUc)anbgáajBImunrYcehIy Rbtikm μerdukTak;TgeTAnwgkarepÞreGLicRtug nigRbtikmμ GasIut-)asTak;TgeTAnwgkarepÞrRbUtug. dUcCaGasIutGacRtUvGRtaCamYy)asEdr eyIgGacGRta Pñak;garGuksIutkmμCamYyPñak;garerdukm μEdleRbIR)as;dMeNIrkarRsedogKña. ]TahrN_eyIgGacbEnßmsUluysüúgya:gRbugRby½tñEdlmanPak;garGuksIutkm μeTAelI sUluysüúgEdlmanPñak;garerdukmμ. cMnucsmmUl)anQanmkdl;enAeBlPñak;garerdukmμrg GuksIutkmμTaMgRsugedayPñak;garGuksIutkmμ.

rUb 3>22 BIeqVgeTAsþaM ³sUluysüúgEdlmanGIuy:ug MnO4- Mn2+ Cr2O7

2- nigCr3+

dUcCaGRtakm μGasIut-)asEdr CaFmμtaGRtakmμerdukRtUvkarGgÁFatucg¥úlB’NEdlbþÚrB’N ya:gc,as;las;. kñúgvtþmanbrimaNya:geRcInénPñak;garerdukmμ B’NénGgÁFatucg¥úlB’NKWsMKal; lkçN³énsNæanrgerdukm μrbs;va. GgÁFatucg¥úlB’Nsn μtCamunnUvB’NénsNæanrgGuksIutkmμ rbs;vaenAeBlvamanvtþmankñúgmCÄdæanGuksIutkmμ. enA rWEk,rcMnucsmmUlkarbþÚrB’Nya:gxøaMg rbs;GgÁFatucg¥úlB’NnwgekItmaneLIgenAeBlEdlvabþÚrBIsNæanmYyeTAsNæanmYyeTot. dUecñH cMnucsmmUlGacgayRsYlsMKal;xøaMgNas;. Pñak;garGuksIutkmμsamBaØBIrKWb:UtasüÚmDIRkUma:t (K2Cr2O7) nigb:UtasüÚmEBm:g;kaNat (KMnO4).

dUcmanbgðajkñúgrUb 3>22 B’NénGaj:úgDIRkUma:t nigEBm:g;kaNatKWxusKñaya:gxøaMgBI B’NénRbePTKImIEdlrgerdukmμ ³ Cr2O7

2- Cr3+

sVay páaQUkRsal TwkRkUc ébtg

159

elOgTwkRkUc ébtg MnO4

- Mn2+

B’NsVay páaQUkRsal dUecñHPñak;garGuksIutkmμTaMgenH vaGacRtUv)aneRbICaGgÁFatukNþalkñúgGRtakmμerduk BIeRBaHBYkvamanB’NxusKñaya:gxøaMgkñúgsNæanrgGuksIutkmμ nigrgerdukmμ. GRtakmμerdukRtUvkarRbePTKNnadUcKña ¬Ep¥kelIviFIsa®sþm:Ul¦ dUcCaRbtikmμbnSab GasIut-)asEdr. PaBxusKñaKWfasmIkar nigTMnak;TMngma:smanTMenareTArkPaBs μ úKsμajCag sMrab;Rbtikmμerduk. xageRkamenHKWCa]TahrN_énGRtakmμerduk. ]TahrN_ 3>11 maD 16,42 mL énsUluysüúg KMnO4 0,1327 M RtUvkaredIm,IeFIVGuksIutkm μelImaD 20,00 mL énsUluysüúg FeSO4 kñúgmCÄdæanGasIut. etIsUluysüúg FeSO4 mankMhab;b:un μan? smIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlKW 5Fe2+ + MnO4

- + 8H+ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O

cMelIy cMnYnm:Ulén KMnO4 kñúgsUluysüúg 16,42 mL KW cMnYnm:Ul KMnO4 = 16,42 mL x x = 2,179 x 10-3 mol KMnO4

BIsmIkarenHeyIgeXIjfa 5 mol Fe2+ RtUvkar 1 mol MnO4- . dUecñHcMnYnm:Ulén FeSO4

Edl)anrgGuksIutkm μKW cMnYnm:Ul FeSO4 = 2,179 x 10-3 mol KMnO4 x = 1,090 x 10-2 mol FeSO4

kMhab;énsUluysüúg FeSO4 KitCam:UlkñúglIRtKW

[FeSO4] = x = 0,5450 M

0,1327 mol KMnO4

1 L sUlu>1 L sUlu>

1000 mL sUlu>

5 mol FeSO4

1 mol KMnO4

1,090 x 10-2 mol FeSO4

20,00 mL sUlu>1000 mL sUlu>

1 L sUlu>

160

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ etIeKRtUvkarsUluysüúg HI 0,206 M b:unμanmIlIlIRtedIm,IeFIVerdukm μeTAelI 22,5 mL én sUluysüúg KMnO4 0,374 M edayEp¥keTAelIsmIkarxageRkam³ 10 HI + 2 KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 5I2 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 8H2O

kñúgGtßbT Chemistry in Action enATMB½r 50-51 B’NnaGMBIdMeNIrkar]sSahkmμEdl Tak;TgeTAnwgRbePTRbtikmμEdl)anBiPakSakñúCMBUkenH. segçbsmIkarKnøwH

• m:ULarIet (M) = (3.1) sMrab;karKNnam:ULarIet

• Mi Vi = Mf Vf (3.2) sMrab;karBRgavsUluysüúg segçb 1.sUluysüúgTwkcMlgcrnþGKÁIsnIRbsinebIGgÁFaturlayKWCaeGLicRtUlIt. RbsinebI

GgÁFaturlayminEmnCaeGLicRtUlItsUluysüúgenaHmincMlgcrnþGKÁIsnIeT. 2.RbePTRbtikmμKImIsMxan;²cMnYnbIEdlekIteLIgkñúgsUluysüúgTwkKW RbtikmμbegáItkkr Rbtikm μGasIut-)as nigRbtikmμGuksIudU-erdukmμ. 3.BIc,ab;TUeTAGMBIkMritrlayénsmasFatuGuIy:ug eyIgGacTsSn_TayfaetIkkrnwgbegáIt eLIgkñúgRbtikmμ. 4.GasIut Arrhenius bMEbkGIuy:ugkñúgTwkedIm,Ipþl;CaGIuy:ug H+ nig)as Arrhenius bMEbk GIuy:ugkñúgTwkedIm,Ipþl;CaGIuy:ug OH-. GasIut Bronsted pþl;RbUtug nig )as Bronsted

TTYlykRbUtug. 5.RbtikmμrvagGasIut nig)asRtUv)anehAfaCaRbtikmμbnSab. 6.Rbtikmμerduk Canic©kalGuksIutkmμ nigerdukmμekIteLIgdMNalKña. GuksIutkm μsMKal;

cMnYnm:UlénGgÁFatu

maDsUluysüúg (L)

161

lkçN³edaykar)at;bg;eGLicRtug erdukm μsMKal;lkN³edaykarcMeNjeGLicRtug. 7.cMnYnGuksIutkmμCYydl;eyIgedIm,IcaM)anGMBIr)aybnÞúk nigRtUvkMNt;elIGatUmTaMgGs;. kñúgsmasFatu rWGIuy:ugGaRs½yeTAnwgc,ab;Biess. GuksIutkm μGacRtUv)ankMNt;Cakar ekInnUvcMnYnGuksIutkm. cMENkerdukm μGacRtUv)ankMNt;CakarfycuHcMnYnGuksIutkmμ. 8.RbtikmμerdukCaeRcInGacRtUv)anEbkEckCafñak;tUc²dUcCaRbtikm μbnSM bMEbk CMnYs rW vismamaRt. 9.kMhab;sUluysüúgKWCabrimaNénGgÁFaturlayEdlmanvtþmankñúgbrimaNsUluysüúg NamYy. m:ULarIetbBa¢ak;GMBIkMhab;CacMnYnm:UlénGgÁFaturlaykñúg 1 LénsUluysüúg.

10.karbEnßmGgÁFaturMlayeTAelIsUluysüúg EdlCadMeNIrkarmYyEdlRtUv)aneKsÁal; CakarBRgav )anbnßykMhab;¬m:ULarIet¦énsUluysüúgedayKμankarpøas;bþÚrcMnYnm:Ul srubénGgÁFaturlayEdlmanvtþmankñúgsUluysüúgenaHeT. 11.karviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:sKWCabec©keTssMrab;kMNt;gtþsBaØaNkmμénsmasFatumYy nig rWkMhab;énsUluysüúgedaykarvas;ma:s. karBiesaFn_EdleRbIrgVas;ma:sCaerOy² Tak;TgeTAnwgRbtikmμbegáItkkr. 12.kñúgGRtakm μGasIut-)as sUluysüúgEdlsÁal;kMhab; ¬GacniyayfaCa)as¦ RtUv)an bEnßmbnþicmþg²eTAkñúgsUluysüúgEdlminsÁal;kMhab; ¬GacniyayfaCaGasIut¦ kñúg eKalbMNgedIm,IkMNt;kMhab;EdlminsÁal;enaH. cMnucEdlRbtikmμkñúgGRtakm μcb; sBVRKb;RtUv)aneKehAfaCacMnucsmmUl.

13.GRtakmμerdukKWRsedogKñaeTAnwgGRtakmμGasIut-)asEdr. cMnucEdlRbtikmμ GuksIutkm μ-erdukmμcb;sBVRKb;RtUv)aneKehAfaCacMnucsmmUl.

Chemistry in Action

elah³)anBITwksmuRT ma:ej:süÚmKWCaelah³TMgn;RsalEdlGacrk)anEdlRtUv)aneRbICarUbFatuEdlrcnam:Ud

162

k¾dUcCakñúgsMelah³ kñúgGaKuy ¬f μBil¦ nigkñúgkarviPaKKImI. eTaHbICama:ej:süÚmsMbUrkñúgsMbk EpndI vamantMélefakcMeBaH : GNþÚgEr: : elah³Edl)anmkBITwksmuRT. ma:ej:süÚmbegáItkacug fñak;TIBIrya:gsMbUrbMputkñúgsmuRT ¬bnÞab;BIsUdüÚm¦ . manRbEhl 1,3 g énma:ej:süÚmkñúgmYy KILÚRkaménTwksmuRT. dMeNIrkarsMrab;karTTYl)anma:ej:süÚmBITwksmuRTedIm,IbMerIeGayRbtikmμ TaMgbIRbePTEdl)anBiPakSakñúgCMBUkenH ³ Rbtikm μbegáItkkr GasIut-)as nigerduk. dMNak;karTImYykñúgkarTajykma:ej:süÚm fμkMe)ar (CaCO3) RtUvdutkMedAenAsItuNðPaB x<s;edIm,IbegáItCakMe)arrs rWkal;süÚmGuksIut (CaO) ³ CaCO3 (S) CaO (S) + CO2 (g)

enAeBlkal;süÚmGuksIutmanGMeBICamYyTwksmuRTvabegáIt)anCakal;süÚmGuIRduksIut [Ca(OH)2] EdlrlaytictYc nigbMEbkCaGIuy:ug Ca2+ nig OH- ³ CaO (S) + H2O (l) Ca2+

(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

GIuy:ugGIuRduksIutEdlelIs)anbegáIteGaymanma:ej:süÚmGIuRduksIutEdlrlaytictYc eTACakkr ³

Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-

(aq) Mg(OH)2 (S) ma:ej:süÚmGIuRduksIutrwgRtUv)aneRcaHnigmanGMeBICamYyGasIutkørIRTicedIm,IbegáIt)anCa ma:ej:süÚmkørY (MgCl2) ³

Ma(OH)2 (S) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l) ma:ej:süÚmGIuRduksIutRtUvTTYl)anBITwksmuRTedaykarbegáItRsHTwkenAÉ Dow Chemical

Company kñúg Freeport rdæ Texas . bnÞab;BITwkRtUv)anrMhYt ma:ej:süÚmkørYrwgRtUvrlaykñúgBileFIVBIEdkEfb.ma:ej:süÚmkørY EdlrlaymanpÞúkTaMgGIuy:ug Mg2+ nig Cl- . kñúgdMeNIrkarenHehAfa GKÁIsnIviPaK Edlcrnþ GKÁIsnIRtUvqøgkat;tamBiledIm,IeTAeFIVerdukmμGIuy:ug Mg2+ nigeFIVGuksIutkm μGIuy:ug Cl-. smIkarBak;kNþalRbtikmμKW

Mg2+ + 2e- Mg 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-

smIkarTaMgmUlKW MgCl2 (l) Mg (l) + Cl2 (g)

enHKWCarebobEdlelah³ma:ej:süÚmRtUvpliteLIg.]s μ ½nkørEdl)anbegáIteLIgGacbMElg eTACaGasIutkørIRTic nigekItmaneLIgvijtamry³dMeNIrkarenH.

163

BaküKnwøH es‘rIskmμPaB TMB½r Activity series

sUluysüúgTwk TMB½r Aqueous solution

GasIut Brønsted TMB½r Brønsted acid

)as Brønsted TMB½r Brønsted base

RbtikmμcMehH TMB½r Combustion reaction

kMhab;sUluysüúg TMB½r Concentration of reaction

RbtikmμbMEbk TMB½r Decomposition reaction

karBRgav TMB½r Dilution

DIRbUTicGasIut TMB½r Diprotic acid

RbtikmμCMnYs TMB½r Displacement reaction

RbtikmμDIsμÚtkmμ TMB½r Disproportionation reaction

eGLicRtUlIt TMB½r Electrolyte

cMnucsmmUl TMB½r Equivalence point

karviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;m:as TMB½r Gravimetric analysis

Bak;kNþalRbtikmμ TMB½r Half-reaction

GIuRdatkmμ TMB½r Hydration

GIuy:ugGIuRdUj:Úm TMB½r Hydronium ion

GgÁFatucg¥úlB’N TMB½r Indicator

smIkarGIuy:ug TMB½r Ionic equation

kMhab;m:UEl TMB½r Molar concentration

m:ULarIet (M) TMB½r Molarity (M)

smIkarm:UelKul TMB½r Molecular equation

m:UNURbUTicGasIut TMB½r Monoprotic acid

smIkarGIuy:ugsMrYl TMB½r Net ionic equation

RbtikmμbnSab TMB½r Neutralization reaction

minEmneGLicRtUlIt TMB½r Nonelectrolyte

cMnYnGuksIutkmμ TMB½r Oxidation number

PaBGuksIutkm μ TMB½r Oxidation number

RbtikmμGuksIutkm μ TMB½r Oxidation reaction

RbtikmμGuksIudU-erdukmμ TMB½r Oxidation-redution reaction

Pñak;garGuksIutkmμ TMB½r Oxidazing agent

kkr TMB½r Precipitate

RbtikmμbegáItkkr TMB½r Precipitation reaction

karviPaKbrimaN TMB½r Quantitative analysis

Rbtikmμerduk TMB½r Redox reaction

Pñak;garerdukm μ TMB½r Reducing agent

Rbtikmμerdukm μ TMB½r Reduction reaction

RbtikmμeTAkm TMB½r Reversible reaction

GMbil TMB½r Salt

PaBrlay TMB½r Solubitity

GgÁFaturlay TMB½r Solute

sUluysüúg TMB½r Solution

GgÁFaturMlay TMB½r Solvent

164

GIuy:ugTsSnik TMB½r Spectator ion

sUluysüúgsþg;da TMB½r Standard solution

GRtakmμ TMB½r Titration

RTIRbUTicGasIut TMB½r Triprotic acid

165

sMnYr nig lMhat; lkçN³énsUluysüúgTwk sMnYrrMlwkemeron 3.1 cUreGayniymn½yénBakü GgÁFaturlay GgÁFaturMlay nigsUluysüúgedayBiB’Nna GMBIkarrMlayGgÁFaturwgkñúgGgÁFaturavpg. 3.2 etImanPaBxusKñaya:gdUcemþcrvagminEmneGLicRtUlIt nigeGLicRtUlIt? rvag

eGLicRtUlItexSay nigeGLicRtUlItxøaMg? 3.3 cUrB’NnaGMBIGIuRdatkm μ. etITwkmanlkçN³GIVEdlGaceGaym:UelKulrbs;vaeFIVGnþrkmμ CamYyGIuy:ugkñúgsUluysüúg? 3.4 etImanPaBxusKñaya:gdUcemþcrvagnimitþsBaØakñúgsmIkarKImI³ → nig ≡ ? 3.5 TwkKWCaeGLicRtUlItexSayxøaMgNas; dUecñHehIyvaminGaccMlgcrnþGKÁIsnI)aneT. etIehtuGIV)anCaerOy² eyIgRtUv)aneKENnaMmineGayeRbIeRKOgEdleRbIcrnþGKÁIsnI enAeBlEdlédrbs;eyIgesIm? 3.6 lIcUmPøúyGrY (LiF) KWCaeGLicRtUlItxøaMg. etImanvtþmanRbePTKImIGIVxøHkñúg LiF (aq)?

lMhat; 3.7 cUrrkGtþsBaØaNkmμsarFatunimYy²xageRkamCa eGLicRtUlItxøaMg eGLicRtUlIt exSay rWminEmneGLicRtUlIt ³ (a) H2O (b) KCl (c) HNO3 (d) CH3COOH

(e) C12H22O11. 3.8 cUrrkGtþsBaØaNkmμsarFatunimYy²xageRkamCa eGLicRtUlItxøaMg eGLicRtUlIt exSay rWminEmneGLicRtUlIt ³ (a) Ba(NO3)2 (b) Ne (c) NH3 (d) NaOH. 3.9 karqøgkat;éncrnþGKÁIsnItamsUluysüúgeGLicRtUlItRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedayclna én (a) eGLicRtug (b) kacug (c) Gaj:úg (d) TaMgkacug nigGaj:úg. 3.10 cUrTsSn_Tay nigBnül;etIRbB½n§xageRkamNaxøHEdlcMlgcrnþGKÁIsnI ³ (a) NaCl rwg (b) NaCl rlay (c) sUluysüúgTwkén NaCl. 3.11 GñkRtUv)aneKpþl;eGaysmasFatuEdlrlaykñúgTwk X . cUrB’NnaGMBIrebobEdl GñkRtUvkMNt;faetIvaCaeGLicRtUlIt rWminEmnCaeGLicRtUlIt. RbsinebIvaCa eGLicRtUlIt etIGñkRtUvkMNt;faetIvaCaeGLicRtUlItxøaMg rWexSayya:gdUcemþc? 3.12 cUrBnül;etIehtuGIVsUluysüúgén HCl kñúgbg;EsnmincMlgcrnþGKÁIsnI b:uEnþkñúgTwkva

cMlg.

166

RbtikmμbegáItkkr sMnYrrMlwkemeron 3.13 etImanPaBxusKñaya:gNarvagsmIkarGIuy:ug nigsmIkarm:UelKul?

3.14 etIkarsresrsmIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlmanplRbeyaCn_GIV? lMhat;

3.15 cUrkMNt;lkçN³smasFatuxageRkamCa smasFaturlay rWminrlaykñúgTwk³ (a) Ca3(PO4)2 (b) Mn(OH)2 (c) AgClO3 (d) K2S. 3.16 cUrkMNt;lkçN³smasFatuxageRkamCa smasFaturlay rWminrlaykñúgTwk³ (a) CaCO3 (b) ZnSO4 (c) Hg(NO3)2 (d) HgSO4 (e) NH4ClO4. 3.17 cUrsresrsmIkarGIuy:ug nigGIuy:ugsMrYlsMrab;Rbtikm μxageRkam³ (a) 2AgNO3 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) (b) BaCl2 (aq) + ZnSO4 (aq) (c) (NH4)2CO3 (aq) + CaCl2 (aq)

3.18 cUrsresrsmIkarGIuy:ug nigGIuy:ugsMrYlsMrab;Rbtikm μxageRkam³ (a) Na2S (aq) + ZnCl2 (aq) (b) 2K3PO4 (aq) + 3Sr(NO3)2 (aq) (c) Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq)

3.19 etIdMeNIrkarxageRkamNaxøHnwgRbEhlCalT§plRbtikm μbegáItkkr? (a) karlaysUluysüúg NaNO3 CamYysUluysüúg CuSO4. (b) karlaysUluysüúg BaCl2 CamYysUluysüúg K2SO4. cUrsresrsmIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlsMrab;Rbtikm μbegáItkkr.

3.20 edayeyageTAelItarag 3>2 cUrpþl;nUvviFIsa®sþmYyEdlGñkRbEhlCaGacEjk ³ (a) K+ ecjBI Ag+ (b) Ag+ ecjBI Pb2+ (c) NH4

+ ecjBI Ca2+

(d) Ba2+ecjBI Cu2+. kacugTaMgGs;RtUv)ansnμtfafitenAsUluysüúgTwk nigGaj:úgCaTUeTAKWCaGIuy:ug nIRtat.

RbtikmμGasIut-)as sMnYrrMrwkemeron

3.21 cUrbegáItCataragGMBIlkçN³TUeTAénGasIut nig)as. 3.22 cUrpþl;niymn½yénGasIut nig)asrbs; Arrhenius nig Bronsted. etIehtuGIV)anCa niymn½yrbs; Bronsted mansar³RbeyaCn_eRcInCagkñúgkarB’NnaGMBIlkçN³

167

GasIut-)as. 3.23 cUrpþl;]TahrN_énGasIutm:UNURbUTic GasIutDIRbUTic GasIutRTIRbUTic. 3.24 etIRbtikmμbnSabGasIut-)asmanlkçN³sMKal;ya:gdUcemþc? 3.25 etImanktþaGIVxøHEdlGackMNt;fasmasFatumYyCaGMbil? cUrbBa¢ak;fasmasFatu xageRkamNaxøHCaGMbil³

CH4 NaF NaOH CaO BaSO4 HNO3 NH3 KBr?

3.26 cUrkMNt;GtþsBaØaNkmμsmasFatuxageRkamCaGasIut rW)asexSay rWxøaMg³ (a) NH3 (b) H3PO4 (c) LiOH (d) HCOOH ¬GasIutpmic¦ (e) H2SO4

(f) HF (g) Ba(OH)2. lMhat; 3.27 cUrkMNt;GtþsBaØaNkmμRbePTKImInimYy²xageRkamCa GasIut )as Bronsted

rWTaMgBIr³ (a) HI (b) CH3COO- (c) H2PO4

- (d) HSO4-.

3.28 cUrkMNt;GtþsBaØaNkmμRbePTKImInimYy²xageRkamCa GasIut )as Bronsted

rWTaMgBIr³ (a) PO43-

(b) ClO2- (c) NH4

+ (d) HCO3-.

3.29 cUrføwgsmIkarxageRkam nigsresrsmIkarGIuy:ug nigGIuy:ugsMrYlEdlRtUvKña ¬RbsinebI smRsb¦³ (a) HBr (aq) + NH3 (aq)

( HBr KWCaGasIutxøaMg ) (b) Ba(OH)2 (aq) + H3PO4 (aq) (c) HClO4 (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (S)

3.30 cUrføwgsmIkarxageRkam nigsresrsmIkarGIuy:ug nigGIuy:ugsMrYlEdlRtUvKña ¬RbsinebI smRsb¦³ (a) CH3COOH (aq) + KOH (aq)

(b) H2CO3 (aq) + NaOH (aq) (c) HNO3 (aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq)

RbtikmμGuksIudU-erdukm μ sMnYrrMlwkemeron

3.31 cUrpþl;]TahrN_GMBIRbtikmμerdukEdlCaRbtikmμbnSM RbtikmμerdukEdlCaRbtikmμ bMEbk nigRbtikmμerdukEdlCaRbtikmμCMnYs. 3.32 RbtikmμcMehHTaMgGs;KWCaRbtikmμerduk. Bit rWminBit? cUrBnül;. 3.33 etIcMnYnGuksIutkmμKWCaGIV? etIeKeRbIvaedIm,IkMNt;GtþsBaØaNrbs;Rbtikmμerduk ya:gdUemþc? cUrBnül;faehtuGIV)anCaelIkElgcMeBaHsmasFatuGIuy:ugEdlcMnYn

168

GuksIutkmμminmansar³sMxan;. 3.34 (a) edayminEp¥keTAelIrUb 3>10 cUrpþl;cMnYnGuksIutkm μénelah³Gal;kaLaMg nigelah³Gal;kalINUETrWukñúgsmasFaturbs;va. (b) cUrpþl;cMnYnGuksIutkmμx<s; bMputEdlFatuRkum 3A-7A Gacman. 3.35 etIes‘rIskm μPaBRtUv)aneKbegáIteLIgya:gdUcemþc? etIvaRtUv)aneKeRbIkñúgkarsikSa énRbtikmμerdukya:gdUcemþc? 3.36 cUreRbIRbtikmμxageRkamedIm,IeGayniymn½yGMBIRbtikm μerduk Bak;kNþalRbtikmμ Pñak;garGuksIutkmμ nigPñak;garerdukm μ ³ 4Na (S) + O2 (g) 2Na2O (S)

3.37 etIvaGacmanRbtikmμmYyEdlkñúgenaHGuksIutkm μekIteLIg nigerdukmμminekIteLIg? cUrBnül;. 3.38 etIvaRtUvkarGIVcMeBaHFatumYyedIm,IeGayvaTTYlrgRbtikmμDIsμÚtkmμ ? cUreGayeQμaH FatusamBaØ cMnYnR)aMEdlvaTMngCacUlrYmkñúgRbtikm μEbbenH?

lMhat; 3.39 cMeBaHRbtikmμerduksBVEdl)anpþl;eGayxageRkam ³ (i) cUrbMEbkRbtikmμnimYy²eTACaBak;kNþalRbtikmμrbs;va nigkMNt;GtþsBaØaNkm μ Pñak;garGuksIutkmμ nigPñak;garerdukm μ ³ (a) 2Sr + O2 2SrO (b) 2Li + H2 2LiH (c) 2Cs + Br2 2CsBr

(d) 3Mg + N2 Mg3N2

3.40 cMeBaHRbtikmμerduksBVEdl)anpþl;eGayxageRkam cUrbMEbkRbtikmμnimYy²eTACaBak;kNþalRbtikmμrbs;va. (ii) kMNt;GtþsBaØaN kmμPñak;garGuksIutkmμ. (iii) kMNt;GtþsBaØaNkmμPñak;garerdukm μ. (a) 4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3 (b) Cl2 + 2NaBr 2NaCl + Br2 (c) Si + 2F2 SiF4 (d) H2 + Cl2 2HCl

3.41 eroblMdab;RbePTKImIxageRkameTAtamkarekIneLIgéncMnYnGuksIutkmμrbs;GatUm s<an;F½r ³ (a) H2S (b) S8 (c) H2SO4 (d) S2- (e) HS- (f) SO2 (g) SO3 . 3.42 pUsV½rbegáItCaGuksUGasIutCaeRcIn. cUrcg¥úlbgðajGMBIcMnYnGuksIutkmμénpUsV½rkñúg GasIutnimYy²xageRkam ³ (a) H3PO3 (b) H3PO2 (c) H3PO3 (d) H3PO4 (e) H4P2O7

169

(f) H5P3O10 . 3.43 cUrpþl;cMnYnGuksIutkmμénGatUmEdl)anKUsbnÞat;BIeRkamkñúgm:UelKul nigGIuy:ug nimYy²xageRkam ³ (a) ClF (b) IF7 (c) CH4 (d) C2H2 (e) C2H4 (f) K2CrO4

(g) K2Cr2O7 (h) KMnO4 (i) NaHCO3 (j) Li2 (k) NaIO3

(l) KO2 (m) PF6- (n) KAuCl4.

3.44 cUrpþl;cMnYnGuksIutkmμsMrab;RbePTKImIxaeRkam ³ H2 Se8 P4 O U As4 B12 . 3.45 cUrpþl;cMnYnGuksIutkmμcMeBaHGatUmEdl)anKUsbnÞat;BIeRkamkñúgm:UelKul nigGIuy:ug nimYy²xageRkam ³ (a) Cs2O (b) CaI2 (c) Al2O3 (d) H3AsO3 (e) TiO2 (f) MoO4

2-

(g) PtCl42- (h) PtCl6

2- (i) SnF2 (j) ClF3 (k) SbF6

-.

3.46 cUrpþl;cMnYnGuksIutkmμénGatUmEdl)anKUsbnÞat;BIeRkamkñúgm:UelKul nigGIuy:ug nimYy²xageRkam ³ (a) Mg3N2 (b) CsO2 (c) CaC2 (d) CO3

2- (e) C2O42- (f) ZnO2

2-

(g) NaBH4 (h) WO42-.

3.47 GasIutnIRTicKWCaPñak;garGuksIutkm μxøaMg. cUrbBa¢ak;faetIRbePTKImIxageRkamNamYy RbEhlCatictYcNas;EdlnwgRtUvbegáIteLIgenAeBlGasIutnIRTicmanRbtikmμCa mYyPñak;garerdukmμxøaMgdUcCaelah³sgá½sI nigcUrBnül;faehtuGIV ³ N2O NO NO2 N2O4 N2O5 NH4

+ . 3.48 etIelah³xageRkamNaxøHGacmanRbtikmμCamYyTwk? (a) Au (b) Li (c) Hg (d) Ca (e) Pt. 3.49 Ep¥kelImUldæanénkarKitGMBIcMnYnGuksIutkm μmanGuksIutxageRkammYynwgminamn RbtikmμCamYym:UelKulGuksIuEsneT ³ NO N2O SO2 SO3 P4O6 . etIvaKWCaGuksIutNamYy? ehtuGIV? 3.50 cUrTsSn_TayplitplrMBwgTukénRbtikmμEdltagedaysmIkarxageRkamedaykar eRbIR)as;es‘rIskm μPaB nigføwgsmIkarTaMgenHpg.

(a) Cu (S) + HCl (aq) (b) I2 (S) + NaBr (aq) (c) Mg (S) + CuSO4 (aq) (d) Cl2 (g) + KBr (aq)

3.51 cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;RbtikmμerdukxageRkam ³ (a) 2H2O2 2H2O + O2

(b) Mg + AgNO3 Mg(NO3)2 + 2Ag

170

(c) NH4NO2 N2 + 2H2O (d) H2 + Br2 2HBr

3.52 cUreFIVcMNat;fñak;RbtikmμerdukxageRkam ³ (a) P4 + 10Cl2 4PCl5

(b) 2NO N2 + O2 (c) Cl2 + 2KI 2KCl + I2 (d) 3HNO3 HNO3 + H2O + 2NO

kMhab;sUluysüúg sMnYrrMlwkemeron

3.53 cUrsresrsmIkarsMrab;karKNnam:ULarIet. etIehtuGIV)anCam:ULarIetKWCaxñat kMhab;EdlgayRsYlkñúgKImI? 3.54 cUrB’NnaGMBIdMNak;karEdlTak;TgenAkñúgkarTegIVsUluysüúgEdlsÁal;kMhab;m:UElr edaykareRbIR)as;Ekvvas;maD.

lMhat; 3.55 cUrKNnama:sén KI CaRkamEdlRtUvkaredIm,ITegVI 5,00 x 102 mL énsUluysüúg 2,80 M.

3.56 brimaN 5,25g én NaNO3 RtUv)anrMlaykñúgbrimaNRKb;RKan;énTwkedIm,IbegáIt)anCa sUluysüúgBitR)akd 1 L . etIm:ULarIeténsUluysüúges μ Ib:unμan? 3.57 etIman MgCl2 b:un μanm:UlEdlmanvtþmankñúg 60,0 mL énsUluysüúg MgCl2

0,100 M . 3.58 etIman KOH b:unμanRkamEdlmanvtþmankñúg 35,0 mL énsUluysüúg 5,50 M. 3.59 cUrKNnam:ULarIeténsUluysüúgnimYy²xageRkam ³

(a) 29,0 g éneGtaNul (C2H5OH) kñúg 545 mL énsUluysüúg. (b) 15,4 g énsak;karUs (C12H22O11) kñúg 74,0 mL énsUluysüúg. (c) 9,00 g énsUdüÚmkørY (NaCl) kñúg 86,4 mL énsUluysüúg.

3.60 cUrKNnam:ULarIeténsUluysüúgnimYy²xageRkam ³ (a) 6,57 g énemtaNul (CH3OH) kñúg 1,50 x 102 mL énsUluysüúg. (b) 10,4 g énkal;süÚmkørY (CaCl2) kñúg 2,20 x 102 mL énsUluysüúg. (c) 7,82 g énNab;taELn (C10H8) kñúg 85,2 mL énsUluysüúgbg;Esn.

3.61 cUrKNnamaDCa mL énsUluysüúgEdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;edIm,Ipþl;eGay)anbrimaN dUcxageRkam ³

171

(a) 2,14 g énlUdüÚmkørY BIsUluysüúg 0,270 M. (b) 4,30 g éneGtaNul BIsUluysüúg 1,50 M. (c) 0,85 g énGasIutGaesTic (CH3COOH) BIsUluysüúg 0,30 M.

3.62 cUrkMNt;faetIeKRtUvkarGgÁFaturlaynimYy²xageRkamb:unμanRkamedIm,ITegIVeGay)an 2,50 x 102 mL énsUluysüúg 0,100 M ³ (a) essüÚmGIuy:UDY (CsI) (b) GasIuts‘ulpYric (H2SO4)

(c) sUdüÚmkabUNat (Na2CO3) (d) b:UtasüÚmDIRkUma:t (K2Cr2O7)

(e) b:UtasüÚmEBm:g;kaNat (KMnO4)

karBRgavsUluysüúg sMnYrrMlwkemeron

3.63 cUrB’NnaGMBIdMNak;karsMxan;²EdlTak;TgkñúgkarBRgavsUluysüúgEdlsÁal; kMhab;. 3.64 cUrsresrsmIkarEdlGaceGayeyIgKNnakMhab;énsUluysüúgrav. cUrpþl;xñat

sMrab;BakünimYy²pg. lMhat;

3.65 cUrB’NnaGMBIrebobTegIV 1L énsUluysüúg HCl 0,646 MEdlcab;epþImBIsUluysüúg HCl 2,00 M.

3.66 eKbEnßmTwkeTAkñúg 25,0 mL énsUluysüúg KNO3 0,866 M rhUtTalEtmaDén sUluysüúgBitR)akdKW 500 mL. etIkMhab;énsUluysüúgcugeRkayenHesμ Inwg b:unμan?

3.67 etIGñkRtUvTegIV 60,0 mL én HNO3 0,200 M BIsUluysüúgsþúkén HNO3 4,00 M

ya:gdUcemþc? 3.68 Gñkman 505 mL énsUluysüúg HCl 0,125 M ehIyGñkcg;BRgavvaeGay)an

kMhab;BitR)akd 0,100 M. etIGñkRtUvEfmTwkb:un μan? 3.69 eKlay 35,2 mL énsUluysüúg KMnO4 1,66 M CamYy 16,7 mL énsUluysüúg

KMnO4 0,892 M . cUrKNnakMhab;énsUluysüúgcugeRkay. 3.70 eKlay 46,2 mL énsUluysüúgkal;süÚmnIRtat [Ca(NO3)2] 0,568 M CamYy 80,5 mL

énsUluysüúgkal;süÚmnIRtat 1,396 M. cUrKNnakMhab;énsUluysüúg

cugeRkay.

172

karviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:s sMnYrrMlwkemeron

3.71 cUrB’NnaGMBIdMNak;karsMxan;²EdlTak;TgkñúgkarviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:s. etIdMeNIrenHCYyeyIgedIm,IkMNt;GtþsBaØaNénsmasFatu rWPaBsuT§énsmasFatu ya:gdUcemþcRbsinebIeyIgsÁal;rUbmnþrbs;va?

3.72 TwkbitRtUv)aneKeRbIkñúgkarviPaKEdleRbIrgVas;ma:sénkørY. ehtuGIV? lMhat;

3.73 RbsinebIeKbEnßm 30,0 mL én CaCl2 0,150 M eTAkñúg 15,0 mL én AgNO3 0,100 M

etIma:sCaRkaménkkr AgNO3 esμ Inwgb:un μan? 3.74 PaKsMNak 0,6760 g énsmasFatuminsÁal;EdlmanpÞúkGIuy:ug)arüÚm (Ba2+) RtUv

)aneKrMlaykñúgTwk nigeGaymanGMeBICamYy Na2SO4 elIs. RbsinebIma:sénkkr )arüÚms‘ulpat (BaSO4) EdlRtUvbegáIteLIgKW 0,4105 g etIPaKryCama:sén Ba

kñúgsmasFatuedImEdlminsÁal;kMhab;enaHes μ Inwgb:unμan? 3.75 etIeKRtUvkar NaCl b:un μanRkamedIm,IbegáItkkrCamYyGIuy:ug Ag+ eGay)aneRcInbMput

BI 2,50 x 102 mL énsUluysüúg AgNO3 0,0113 M? cUrsresrsmIkarGIuy:ug sMrYlsMrab;RbtikmμenH.

3.76 kMhab;énGIuy:ug Cu2+ kñúgTwk ¬EdlmanpÞúkGIuy:ugs‘ulpatpgEdr¦)anpþac;ecjBI rukçCati]sSahkm μNamYyRtUv)ankMNt;edaykarbEnßmsUluysüúgsUdüÚs‘ulPY (Na2S)elIseTAkñúg 0,800 L énTwk. smIkarm:UelKulKW Na2S (aq) + CuSO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + CuS (s)

cUrsresrsmIkarGIuy:ugsMrYl nigKNnakMhab;m:UElrén Cu2+ kñúgTwkPaKsMNak RbsinebI 0,0177 g énGgÁFaturwg CuS RtUv)anbegáIteLIg.

GRtakm μGasIut-)as sMnYrrMlwkemeron

3.77 cUrB’NnaGMBIdMNak;karsMxan;²EdlTak;TgkñúgGRtakm μGasIut-)as. ehtuGIV)anCa bec©keTsenHmantMélxagEpñkGnuvtþn_ya:gelIslub?

3.78 etIGgÁFatucg¥úlB’NGasIut-)asdMeNIrkarya:gdUcemþc? lMhat;

3.79 cUrKNnamaDCa mL énsUluysüúg NaOH 1,420 M EdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;edIm,IGRta

173

sUluysüúgnimYy²xageRkam ³ (a) 25,00 mL énsUluysüúg HCl 2,430 M

(b) 25,00 mL énsUluysüúg H2SO4 4,500 M

(c) 25,00 mL énsUluysüúg H3PO4 1,500 M

3.80 etIeKRtUvkarmaDsUluysüúg HCl 0,50 M b:un μanedIm,IbnSabsUluysüúgnimYy² xageRkameGay)ansBV ³

(a) 10,0 mL énsUluysüúg NaOH 0,30 M

(b) 10,0 mL énsUluysüúg Ba(OH)2 0,20 M

GRtakm μerduk sMnYrrMlwkemeron

3.81 etImanPaBdUcKña nigPaBxusKñaGIVxøHrvagGRtakm μGasIut-)as nigGRtakmμerduk? 3.82 cUrBnül;faehtuGIVb:UtasüÚmEBrm:g;kaNat (KMnO4) nigb:UtasüÚmDIRkUma:t (K2Cr2O7) GaceRbIsMrab;CaGgÁFatucg¥úlB’NkñúgxøÜnvakñúgGRtakmμerduk.

lMhat; 3.83 Edk (II) GacrgGuksIutkmμedaysUluysüúg K2Cr2O7 kúñúgmCÄdæanGasIutEdlEp¥k

eTAelIsmIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlxageRkam ³ Cr2O7

2- + 6Fe2+ + 14H+ 2Cr3+ + 6Fe3+ + 7H2O

RbsinebIvaRtUveRbIGs; 26,0 mL énsUluysüúg K2Cr2O7 0,0250 M edIm,IeFIVGRta 25,0 mL énsUluysüúgEdlmanpÞúk Fe2+ etIkMhab;m:UElrrbs; Fe2+ esμ Inwgb:un μan?

3.84 vtþman SO2 kñúgbriyakaseRcInEtCaedImehtusMrab;)atuPUtePøógGasIut. kMhab;rbs;vaGacRtUvkMNt;edaykareFIVGRtaCamYysUluysüúgEBrm:g;kaNatsþg;da

dUcxageRkam ³ 5SO2 + 2MnO4

- + 2H2O 5SO42- + 2Mn2+ + 4H+

cUrKNnabrimaNCaRkamén SO2 kñúgPaKsMNakénbriyakasRbsinebI 7,37 mL

énsUluysüúg KMnO4 0,00800 M RtUvkarcaM)ac;sMrab;GRtakm μsBV. 3.85 PaKsMNakEr:EdkEdlmanma:s 0,2792 g RtUv)aneKrMlaykñúgsUluysüúgGasIutrav

ehIy Fe (II) TaMgGs;RtUvbMElgeTACaGIuy:ug Fe (III). sUluysüúgenHRtUvkar 23,30 mLénsUluysüúg K2Cr2O7 0,0194 M sMrab;GRtakmμsBV. cUrKNnaPaK ryCama:sénEdkkñúgEr:Edk. ¬sUmemIllMhat; 3.83 sMrab;smIkarlMnwg¦

3.86 kMhab;énsUluysüúgGIuRdUEsnEBrGuksIutGacRtUv)ankMNt;ya:ggayRsYleday

174

GRtakmμCamYysUluysüúgb:UtasüÚmEBrm:g;kaNatEdl)aneFIVsþg;dakm μkñúgmCÄdæan GasIuttamsmIkarxageRkam ³ 2MnO4

- + 5H2O2 + 6H+ 5O2 + 2Mn2+ + 8H2O

RbsinebIeKRtUvkarcaM)ac; 36,44 mL énsUluysüúg KMnO4 0,01652 M edIm,IeFIV GuksIutkmμsBVCamYy 25,00 mL énsUluysüúg H2O2 cUrKNnam:ULarIetén sUluysüúg H2O2.

3.87 GIuy:ugGIuy:Udat (IO3-) eFIVGuksIutkm μelI SO3

2- kñúgsUluysüúgGasIut. Bak;kNþal RbtikmμsMrab;GuksIutkmμKW SO3

2- + H2O SO42- + 2H+ + 2e-

sUluysüúgPaKsMNak 100,0 mL EdlmanpÞúk 1,390 g én KIO3 manRbtikmμ CamYy 32,5 mL én NaSO3 0,500 M. etIPaBGuksIutkmμ ¬cMnYnGuksIutkmμ¦ én GIuy:Utes μ Ib:un μanbnÞab;BIRbtikmμekIteLIgcb;sBVRKb;?

3.88 GasIutGuksalic (H2C2O4) manvtþmankñúgrukçCati nigbEnøCaeRcIn. RbsinebIeKRtUv kar 24,0 mL énsUluysüúg KMnO4 0,0100 M edIm,IeFIVGRtaCamYy 1,00 g én H2C2O4 eTAdl;cMnucsmmUl etIPaKryCama:sén H2C2O4 kñúgPaKsMNakes μ Inwg b:unμan? smIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlKW 2MnO4

- + 16H+ + 5C2O42- 2Mn2+ + 10CO2 + 8H2O

3.89 eKeFIVGRtabrimaN 25,0 mL énsUluysüúgmYyEdlmanpÞúkTaMgGIuy:ug Fe2+ nigFe3+

CamYy 23,0 mL én KMnO4 0,0200 M ¬kñúgGasIuts‘ulpYricrav¦. CalT§pl Fe2+

TaMgGs;)anrgGuksIutkm μeTACaGIuy:ug Fe3+. bnÞab;mksUluysüúgRtUv)andak;eGay manRbtikmμCamYyelah³ Zn edIm,IbMElgGIuy:ug Fe3+ TaMgGs;eTACaGIuy:ug Fe2+. TIbBa©b;sUluysüúgenaHmanpÞúkEtGIuy:ug Fe2+ RtUvkar 40,0 mL énsUluysüúg KMnO4 dEdlsMrab;GuksIutkmμeTACaGIuy:ug Fe3+ . cUrKNnakMhab;m:UElrén Fe2+

nig Fe3+ kñúgsUluysüúgedIm. smIkarGIuy:ugsMrYlKW MnO4

- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O

3.90 kal;süÚmGuksaLat (CaC2O4) minrlaykñúgTwkeT. cMeBaHehtuplenHvaRtU)an eKeRbIR)as;edIm,IkMNt;brimaNénGIuy:ug Ca2+ kñúgvtßúravdUcCaQam. kal;süÚm GuksaLatEdl)anEjkecjBIQamRtUvrMlaykñúgGasIut nigeFIVGRtaCamYy sUluysüúg KMnO4 Edl)aneFIVsþg;dakm μdUcbgðajkñúglMhat; 3.88 . kñúgkareFIV etsþmYyeKeXIjfakal;süÚmGuksaLatEdlEjk)anBIPaKsMNakQam 10,0 mL

RtUvkar 24,2 mL én KMnO4 9,56 x 10-4 M sMrab;GRtakmμsBV. cUrKNnabrimaN

175

CamIlIRkam (mg) énkal;süÚmkñúg mIlIlIRt (mL) énQam. cMelIylMhat;Gnuvtþn_ 3.1 (a) minrlay (b) minrlay (c) rlay 3.2 Al3+

(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3 (S)

3.3 (a) )as Brønsted (b) GasIut Brønsted 3.4 (a) P : +3 , F : -1 (b) Mn : +7 , O : -2

3.5 (a) Rbtikm μCMnYsGIuRdUEsn (b) Rbtikm μbnSM (c) Rbtikm μDIsμ Útkmμ (d) RbtikmμCMnYselah³ 3.6 0,452 M

3.7 BRgav 34,2 mL énsUluysüúgsþúkeTACa 200 mL . 3.8 92,02 % 3.9 0,3822 g 3.10 10.0 mL 3.11 204 mL

176

emeronTI 4 ³ lkçN³énFatuenAkñúgtaragxYb 1 karbegáIttaragxYbKImI enAstvtSTI19KImIviTUCaeRcInmin)anyl;c,as;GMBIGatUmnigm:UelKulnigmin)andwgfa kñúgGatUm man eGLicRtug nigRbUtugeT.BYkeK)anerobcMtaragxYbKImIedayBwgEp¥kelIma:sGatUm eRBaHBYkeKyl; fa GMeBIKImIén RKb;GatUmmankarTak;TgeTAnwgma:srbs;va. kñúgqñaM 1864 KImIviTUCnCatiGg;eKøs John Newlands )anbgðajfa enAeBlEdlFatuKImI RtUv)aneKerobcMtamlMdab;ma:sGatUmRKb;FatucMnYn 8 manlkçN³RsedogKñaeTAnwgFatucMnYn 8 epSg² eTot. Kat;)anbk RsaylkçN³BiessenHtameKalkarN_ 8 Fatu (law of octaves) EteTaHCaya:g Nak¾edayeKalkarN_enHmin)anbkRsaycMeBaHFatuEdlmanma:sGatUmFMCag Ca eT dUecñHkargarrbs; elak

Newlands minRtUv)anshKmn_ GñkviTüasaRsþTTYlsÁal;eLIy. kúñugqñaM 1869 KImIviTUCnCatirusSIúeQμaH Dmitri Mendeleev nigKImIviTUCnCatiGaLWm:g;eQμaH Lother Meyer )anerobcMtaragxYbKImIf μ ImYyEdlmanlkçN³RbesIrCagmun ¬rUb 2>1¦. karEbgEck FatuKImIrbs; Mendeleev manehtuplBIrRbesIrCag Newlands KW ³

TI1 ÷ FatuKImIRtUv)anerobcMCaRkumCak;lak; edayEp¥kelIlkçN³rbs;va. TI2 ÷ mankarRBagTukCamuncMeBaHFatumYycMnYnEdlminTan;rkeXIjenAeLIy.]TahrN_ Mendeleev

)anTsSn_TayTuknUvFatumYyEdlKat;dak;eQ μaHfa Eka-aluminium niglkçN³rbs;va mYycMnYn. (Eka: CaBakü sMRsáwt mann½yfaTImYy “first” dUecñH Eka-alumium KYrEtCaFatuTImYy enAeRkam Al kñúgRkumCamYyKña ). ry³eBl4qñaMeRkaymk eK)anrkeXIjFatukalüÚm (Ga) Edlman lkçN³RsedogKñaeTAnwglkçN³RBagTuk rbs;Fatu Eka-aluminium ÷ Eka-aluminium (Ea) Gallium (Ga)

ma:s;GatUm 68 69,9

sItuNðPaBrlay Tab 30,15 oC

dg;sIuet 5,9g/cm3 5,94g/cm3

GuksIut Ea2O3 Ga2O3

taragxYb Mendeleev manFatucMnYn 66 ehIyenAqñaM 1900 FatuKImIcMnYn 30 eTotRtUv)aneK bBa©Úl bEnßmeTAkñúgtaragRtg;kEnøgTMenr. eTaHbICataragxYbenHRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedayeCaKC½yk¾ eday k¾enAmankEnøg ERbRbYlmYycMnYnEdr. ]TahrN¾ Gakug (Ar) manma:sGatUm 39,95 FMCag ma:sGatUmb:UtasüÚm (K) 39,10 RbsinebIFatuKImIRtUv)anerobeTAtamkarekIneLIgénma:sGatUm enaH GakugKYrEtsßitenATItaMgrbs;b:UtasüÚm EtK μan GñkKImINamñak;dak;GakugEdlCa]sμ ½nkMreTAkñúgRkum Li, Na... EdlsuT§EtCaRkumelah³skm μeLIy.enHbgðajfa

177

lkçN³rbs;FatumYycMnYnminTak;TgeTAnwg ma:sGatUmTaMgRsugenaHeT EtTak;TgeTAnwgelxGatUmpgEdrEdl elak

Mendeleev min)anKitdl;. tarag 1 taragxYbKUreday Mendeleev dMbUg REIHEN

GRUPPE I ----- R2O

GRUPPE II ----- RO

GRUPPE III ----- R2O3

GRUPPE IV RH4 RO2

GRUPPE V RH3 R2O5

GRUPPE VI RH2

RO3

GRUPPE VII RH R2O7

GRUPPE VIII ----- RO4

1 H = 1 2 Li = 7 Be = 9,4 B = 11 C = 12 N = 14 O = 16 F = 19 3 Na = 23 Mg = 24 Al = 27,3 Si = 28 P = 31 S = 32 Cl = 35,5 4 K = 39 Fe = 56, Co = 59, Ni = 59, Cu = 63. 5 (Cu = 63) Zn = 65 - = 68 - = 72 As = 75 Se = 78 Br = 80 6 Rb = 85 Sr = 87 ?Yt = 88 Zr = 90 Nb = 94 Mo = 96 - = 100 Ru = 104, Rh = 104, Pd = 106, Ag = 108. 7 (Ag = 108) Cd = 112 In = 113 Sn = 118 Sb = 122 Te = 125 J = 127 8 Cs = 133 Ba = 137 ?Di = 138 ?Ce = 140 - - - --------- 9 (-) - - - - - 10 - - ?Er = 178 ?La = 180 Ta = 182 W = 184 - Os = 195, Ir = 197 Pt = 198, Au = 199. 11 (Au = 199) Hg = 200 Ti = 204 Pb = 207 Bi = 208 - - 12 - - - Th = 231 U = 240 -

*RbeLaHcMhRtUv)anrkSaTuksMrab;FatuEdlrkminTan;eXIj Edlmanm:asGatUmRBagTuk 44 68 72 nig100 rUb1 RkahVicbgðajBIcMnYnFatuKImI nigqñaMEdleKrkeXIj

CaFmμtataragxYbbgðajBIelxGatUmCamYyKñanwgnimitþsBaØaénFatu.elxGatUm)anbgðajnUv cMnYn eGLicRtug

nigRbUtugkñúgGatUménFatumYypgEdr. plRbeyaCn_éntaragxYbKWGac[eyIgdwg BIlkçN³ nigTMenarTUeTA énFatuKImI kñúgRkum b¤xYb nigGacRBagTuknUvlkçN³rbs;FatumYycMnYn eTaHCa eyIgminFøab; eXIjFatuTaMgenaHk¾eday. 2 r)ayeGLicRtug

elxGatUm eKGacehAmüa:geTotfa elxlMdab; EdltagedayGkSr Z eyIg)an³ Z = cMnYnRbUtug = cMnYneGLicRtug

178

kñúgEpñkenHeyIgnwgsikSaeTAelIeRKageGLicRtugénGatUmepSg²EdlmanelxlMdab;Znig rebobénkarerob cMeGLicRtugeTAtamRsTab;eGLicRtugnImYy².

2>1 RsTab;eGLicRtug enAqñaM 1912 r:UfWpt )andak;ecjnUvKMrUGatUmdUcxageRkam³ -GatUmrYmman éNVy:U ¬bnÞúkviC¢man¦ nigeGLicRtug ¬bnÞúkGviC¢man¦ vilCMuvijéNVy:U. -rgViléneGLicRtugbegáIt)anCakMlaMgBIrKW kMlaMgcakp©it nigkMlaMgcUlp©it. enAqñaM 1913 elak Niels Bohr (1885-1962) )anbEnßmelIKMrUGatUmfa eGLicRtugvilCuMvij éNVy:Utam

KnøgmYykMnt;edayminbeBa©jfamBl ehIyclnaeGLicRtugCaclnaesμI. 2>1>1 cMnYnkg;Ticem n (n CacMnYnRsTab;eGLicRtug )

cMnYnkg;Ticem KWCaTMhMbBa¢ak;BIkMritfamBlenAelIRsTab;eGLicRtugNamYy. RsTab;nImYy² sMKal; edayelxerog ¬cMnYnkg;Tic¦ n = 1,2,3.....( n ∈ N* ) b¤GacsMKal;edayGkSr K,L,M...

]TahrN_ n = 1................... RsTab; K

n = 2................... RsTab; L

n = 3................... RsTab; M

n = 4................... RsTab; N

2>1>2 cMnYnkg;Ticrg l ( l CacMnYnRsTab;rg )

cMnYnkg;Ticrg CaTMhMbBa¢ak;BIEpñkfamBlelIRsTab;eGLicRtugNamYy. enAkñúgRsTab;TI n Gac manRsTab;rg l cMnYn n Edr. dUecñHeKGackMNt;tMél l)anKW ³ l = [ 0,(n-1) ]

]TahrN¾ ebI n = 1 => l = [0] <=> l = 0 (l man 1 tMél )

n = 2 => l = [0,1] <=> l = 0, l = 1 (l man 2 tMél )

n = 3 => l = [0,2] <=> l = 0, l = 1, l = 2 (l man 3 tMél )

n = 4 => l = [0,3] <=> l = 0, l = 1, l = 2, l = 3 (l man 4 tMél )

tamtMélenHeyIg)an ³ l = 0 <=> RsTab;rg s

l = 1 <=> RsTab;rg p

l = 2 <=> RsTab;rg d

l = 3 <=> RsTab;rg f 2>1>3 cMnYnkg;Ticma:ej:Tic m ( m CacMnYnfteGLicRtug )

cMnYnkg;Ticma:ej:Tic CaTMhMbBa¢ak;BIm:Um:g;ma:ej:TicéneGLicRtugelIKnøgNamYyEdl m = [-l, + l]

]TahrN_ ebI l = 0 => m = 0 ¬man 1 tMél¦ => RsTab;rg s man 1 ft

179

l = 1 => m = {-1,0,1} ¬man 3 tMél¦ => RsTab;rg p man 3 ft

l = 2 => m = {-2,-1,0,1,2} ¬man 5 tMél¦ => RsTab;rg d man 5 ft

l = 3 => m = {-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3} ¬man 7 tMél¦ => RsTab;rg f man 7 ft

2>1>4 cMnYnkg;Tics<In s

cMnYnkg;Tics<InCaTMhMbBa¢ak;BIsV½yvilrbs;eGLicRtugCMuvijG½kSrbs;vakñúgftnImYy².edayftnImYy²manBIr eGLicRtugviltamTisedARcas;Kña dUecñHcMnYnkg;Tics<In s rbs;vamantMél EtBIrb:ueNÑaHKW S = ±½.

tarag2 taragbgðajBIcMnYnkg;Tic énRsTab;eGLicRtug 3 dMbUg cMnYnkg;Ticem ¬RsTab;em ¦

cMnYnkg;Ticrg ¬RsTab;rg ¦

cMnYnkg;Ticma:ej:Tic¬f¦ cMnYnkg;Tics<In cMnYneGLicRtug

n l m s RsTab;rg l RsTab;em n

1 (K) 0 (1s) 0 -½ , +½ 2 2

0 (2s) 0 -½ , +½ 2

2 (L) 1 (2p)

-1 0 1

-½ , +½ -½ , +½ -½ , +½

6 8

0 (3s) 0 -½ , +½ 2

1 (3p) -1 0 1

-½ , +½ -½ , +½ -½ , +½

6

3 (M)

2 (3d)

-2 -1 0 1 2

-½ , +½ -½ , +½ -½ , +½ -½ , +½ -½ , +½

10

18

2>2 r)ayeGLicRtug 2>2>1 eKalkarN_ Pauli

kñúgqñaM 1925 Pauli )aneBalfa enAkñúgGatUmmYyminGacmaneGLicRtugBIr EdlmantMél n , l,m nigs dUcKñaTaMgGs;enaHeT ya:gehacNas;k¾mantMél s xusKñaEdr.

]TahrN_ eGLicRtug2 sßitkñúgRsTab; n, l nig m dUcKña Et s mantMélxusKña ¬-½ nig÷½ ) viltamTisedA pÞúyKña.

Pauli )anelIkeLIgeTotfa kñúgRsTab; n mYy maneGLicRtugya:geRcInbMputRtwm 2n2. ]TahrN_ n = 1 (K) => cMnYn e- = 2 x 12 = 2

n = 2 (L) => cMnYn e- = 2 x 22 = 8

n = 3 (M) => cMnYn e- = 2 x 32 = 18

2>2>2 eKalkarN_ Klechkowski

180

Klechkowski )anniyayfa kñúgkarbMeBj e- cUlkñúgRsTab;nImYy² KWRtUvbMeBjcUlkñúg RsTab; Edlman kMritfamBlTabCamunsin. kMritfamBltamRsTab;nImYy² KW ³ 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d.........

enAkñúgkMritfamBltamRsTab;nImYy² GacmankEnøgxøHekItmansNæanrMejac dUcCaenARsTab; 4s3d, 5s4d, 5d ≈ 4f, 6d ≈ 5f.

]TahrN_ Fatu Cu ( Z = 29 ) <=> 29 e- : 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9 b¤ 4s13d10

krNIenHekItmaneLIg kalNaRsTab; d b¤ f maneGLicRtugCitEq¥t b¤ CitBak;kNþalEq¥t. kñúgft nImYy²GacpÞúkeGLicRtugya:geRcInbMput 2e- dUecñH ÷

RsTab; s ¬man 1 ft ¦ GacpÞúk)aneRcInbMput 2e- <=>

RsTab; p ¬man 3 ft ¦ GacpÞúk)aneRcInbMput 6e- <=>

RsTab; d ¬man 5 ft ¦ GacpÞúk)aneRcInbMput 10e- <=>

RsTab; f ¬man 7 ft ¦ GacpÞúk)aneRcInbMput 14e- <=>

KMnUsbMRBYjénkarrayeGLicRtugtamRsTab;nImYy² RsTab; ³ n = 1 n = 2 n = 3 n = 4 n = 5 n = 6 n= 7 ( K ) ( L ) ( M ) ( N ) ( O ) ( P ) ( Q )

181

2>2>3 eKalkarN_ Hund

Hund )aneBalfa bNþaeGLicRtugmanTMenarbMeBjcUlkñúgftnImYy² edayélya:gNa[maneGLicRtug cUlbMeBjeTalsin bnÞab;mkeTIbbMeBjCaKUtameRkay. ]TahrN_TI1 enARsTab; p : 1e- 2e- 3e- 4e- 5e- 6e-

]TahrN_TI2 cMeBaHkarrayeGLicRtugtamRsTab;nImYy²énFatu ³ Na ( Z = 11 ) : 1s22s22p63s1 b¤ [Ne]3s1 K2 L8 M1

Cl ( Z = 17 ) : 1s22s22p63s23p5 b¤ [Ne]3s23p5 Ca ( Z = 20 ) : 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 b¤ [Ar]4s2

3 cMNat;fñak;FatuKImIkñúgtaragxYb 3>1 taragxYb (Periodic Table) CaTUeTAeKEcktaragxYbCaBIrEpñkKW Rkum nigxYb.

3>1>1Rkum(Group)

KWCasMnMuénFatuEdlsßitenAkñúgCYrQrkñúgtaragxYb. RkumEckecjCaBIreTotKW RkumA nigRkumB. -RkumA mancab;BIRkum1A rhUtdl;Rkum8A. FatukñúgRkumTaMgenHmanr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab; eRkAdUc xageRkam÷

tarag 3 ³ Rkum r)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A

ns1

ns2

ns2np1

ns2np2

ns2np3

ns2np4

ns2np5

ns2np6

-RkumB mancab;BIRkum1B rhUtdl;Rkum8B. FatukñúgRkumTaMgenHmanr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab; eRkAdUc xageRkam÷ tarag4 ³

Rkum r)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA 1B 2B 3B 4B

(n-1)d10 ns1 or (n-1)d9 ns2 (n-1)d10 ns2

(n-1)d1 ns2

(n-1)d2 ns2

182

5B 6B 7B 8B: B1

B2 B3

(n-1)d3 ns2

(n-1)d4 ns2

(n-1)d5 ns2

(n-1)d6 ns2

(n-1)d7 ns2

(n-1)d8 ns2

3>1>2 xYb KWCaesrIénFatuerobtambnÞúknuyeKøEG‘r(Z)ekIncab;epþImBIelah³Gal;kaLaMgbBa©b;Rtwm]sμ ½nkMrtamCYredk. FatukñúgxYbnImYy² manr)ayeGLicRsTab;eRkAdUcxageRkam÷

tarag5 ³ xYb r)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1s1, 1s2

2s1,2s2, 2s22p1,......... 2s22p6

3s1,3s2, 3s23p1,......... 3s23p6

4s1,4s2, 3d14s2,.........3d104s2, 4s24p1......4s24p6

5s1,5s2, 4d15s2,......... 4d105s2, 5s25p1.....5s25p6

6s1,6s2, 5d16s2.........5d106s2, 6s26p1.....6s26p6 7s1,7s2 ,6d17s2............6d107s2

3>2 cMNat;fñak;FatuKImI ¬rUb2CataragxYbbgðajBIr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAénFatuKImI¦. cab;BIGuIRdUEsneTAeyIgeXIjfaRsTab;

rgRtUv)anbMeBjeGLicRtugtamlMdab;ehIytamry³énkarbMeBjeGLicRtugtamRsTab;rgenH eKGacEck FatuKImI CaeRcInRbePTdUcCa FatutMNag ]sμ ½nkMr Fatuqøg ¬elah³qøg¦ GMbUr Lanthanides nigGMbUr Actinides.

-FatutMNag ¬ehAmüa:geTotfa RkuménFatusMxan; ¦ CaFatuEdlsßitenAkñúgRkum 1A rhUtdl; 7A. FatuenHmankarbMeBjeGLicRtugminTan;Eq¥tenARsTab;eRkAbg¥s;elIRsTab;rg s nigp.

-]sμ ½nkMr CaFatuEdlsßitenAkñúgRkum 8A. elIkElgEt He ecj]sμ ½nkMrTaMgGs;suT§Et)anbMeBj eGLicRtugEq¥tenARsTab;eRkAelIRsTab;rg s nig p Edlr)ayeGLicRtugrbs; He KW 1s2 nig ns2np6 sMrab ;]sμ½n kMrepSgeTot ( n CacMnYnkg;Ticem ). ]sμ ½nkMrTaMgGs;manGMeBIKImIRsedogKña Edl suT§EtCaFatuGskmμKImI ¬Fatunicl¦ eRBaHFatuTaMgenHmankarbMeBjeGLicRtugEq¥tenARsTab;rg s nig p énRsTab;eRkAbg¥s; naM[va manesßrPaBbMput.

-Fatuqøg CaFatuEdlsßitenAkñúgRkum 1B, 3B rhUtdl; 8B. FatuTaMgenHmankarbMeBj eGLicRtugminTan;Eq¥tenARsTab;rg d ¬elah³TaMgenHCYnkaleKGacehAfaCa Fatuqøg Block-d ¦. edayELkRkum 2B rYm man Zn, Cd nigHg minEmnCaFatutMNag ehIyk¾minEmnCaFatuqøgEdr nigminmaneQμaHBitR)akdsMrab; Rkumelah³TaMgenHeT.

183

-GMbUr Lanthanides nigActinides GacehAmüa:geTotfa Fatuqøg Block-f eRBaHvaman karbMeBj eGLicRtugminTan;Eq¥tenAelIRsTab;rg f ¬rUb3 bgðajBIPaBxusKñaénFatukñúgRkumnImYy² ¦.

r)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAénFatutamRkumnImYy²manlkçN³dUcKñanaM[vamanlkçN³KImIRsedogKñaEdr. ]TahrN_ cMeBaHFatutMNagkñúgRkum 7A ¬RkumGaLÚEsn ¦ suT§Etmanr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab; eRkA ns2np5

dUcKña naM[lkçN³rbs;vak¾RsedogKñaEdr. EteTaHCaya:gNak¾eday eyIgRtUvRbugRby½tñpgEdrcMeBaHFatukñúgRkum 3A dl; 6A. ]TahrN_ FatukñúgRkum 4A manr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA ns2np2 dUcKñaEtmanlkçN³xusKñakñúg

cMenamFatuTaMgenaHeday C CaGelah³ Si nig Ge CaFatuGMpUETr (Metalloids) Sn nigPb Caelah³.

rUb2 taragxYbbgðajBIr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAénFatuKImI

rUb3 taragxYbbgðajBIPaBxusKñaénFatuKImItamRkumnImYy²

184

3>3 karbgðajBIFatuesrIkñúgsmIkarKImI

edaysarelah³minmanm:UelKulEdlenAdac;²BIKña eyIgEtgEteRbIrUbmnþgayenAkñúgsmIkarKImI. rUbmnþ gaydUcKñaeTAnwgnimitþsBaØaEdr ]TahrN_ rUbmnþgayénEdkKW Fe dUcnimitþsBaØaEdkEdr.

Gelah³RtUv)aneKsresrtamrebobCaeRcIndUcCakabUn CaGelah³Etm:UelKulrbs;vamanTMrg; vimaRtbI (An extensive three-dimensional network of atoms ) dUecñHeyIgRbIrUbmnþgayrbs;vaKW C edIm,IbgðajBIFatu kabUnkñúgsmIkarKImI. EtcMeBaH GuIRdUEsn GasUt GuksIuEsn nigGaLÚEsnvij CaBBYk Gelah³Edlmanm:UelKul DIGatUm dUecñHeyIgeRbIrUbmnþgay ¬rUbmnþm:UelKul ¦ rbs;vaKW H2, N2, O2, F2.....kñúgsmIkarKImI.

TMrg;esßrPaBrbs;pUsVrKW m:UelKul P4 dUecñHeyIgeRbI P4 sMrab;sresrkñúgsmIkarKImI. dUcKñaEdr cMeBaH s<an;F½r EdlCajwkjab;GñkKImIviTüa)aneRbIrUbmnþgay S kñúgsmIkarKImIticCag S8 EdlCaTMrg; esßrPaBrbs;va.

]TahrN_ smIkarcMehHs<an;F½reKsresr ³ S8 (s) + 8O2 (g) 8SO2 (g)

Cajwkjab;eyIgsresr ³S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

]sμ ½nkMrCaRbePTm:UNUGatUm dUecñHeyIgeRbInimitþsBaØarbs;vaKW He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe nig Rn. elah³GMpUETr (Metalloids) edaysarvasuT§EtmanTMrg;vimaRtbI dUecñHeyIgbgðajvakñúg smIkar KImIeday

rUbmnþgay EdlCanimitþsBaØarbs;va B, Si, Ge....

3>4 r)ayeGLicRtugénkacug nigGaj:úg dUcKñanwgGatUmNWtEdr eyIgeRbIeKalkarN_ Pauli nigHund edIm,Isresrr)ayeGLicRtugtamRsTab;

rbs;kacug nigGaj:úg. 3>4>1 GIuy:ugTTYl)anBIFatutMNag

GuIy:ugénFatutMNagPaKeRcInmanr)ayeGLicRtugdUc]sμ ½nkMrEdr ( ns2np6 ) begáIt)anCakacugedaye)aHbg;

185

1 b¤ 2e-ecjBIRsTab;eRkAbg¥s;. xageRkamenHCar)ayeGLicRtugénGatUmNWt nigkacugrbs;va ÷ Na : [Ne]3s1 Na+ : [Ne] Ca : [Ar]2s2 Ca2+ : [Ar] Al : [Ne]3s23p1 Al3+ : [Ne]

kñúgkarbegáIt)anCaGaj:úg eGLicRtug ! b¤ @ RtUv)anbMeBjbEnßmedayEpñkeTAelIRsTab;eRkA bg¥s;én GatUmmYy.

]TahrN_ H : 1s1 H- : 1s2 = [He] F : 1s22s22p5 F- : 1s22s22p6 = [Ne] O : 1s22s22p4 O2-:1s22s22p6 = [Ne] N : 1s22s22p3 N3-: 1s22s22p6 = [Ne]

dUecñHeyIgeXIjfa GuIy:ugnImYy²manr)ayeGLicRtugdUc]sμ ½nkMrEdr. F-, O2-, N3-, Na+, Al3+ nigNe manr)ayeGLicRtugdUcKñaEdleKfa RbePTKImITaMgenHCa GIusUeGLicRtUnic

nwgKña. 3>4>2 kacug)anmkBIelah³qøg

eyIgnwgBinitüeXIjfa elah³qøgenACYredkTI1 (Be Sc eTA Cu) G½rb‘Ítal; 4s EtgEtbMeBjmun G½rb‘Ítal; 3d ]TahrN_ Mn : [Ar] 4s23d5 edIm,IbegáIt)anCa Mn2+ eyIgRbEhlCaRclMfa 2e- RtUv)an e)aHbg;ecjBIG½rb‘Í tal; 3d edIm,ITTYl)an [Ar] 4s23d3 EttamBitr)ayeGLicRtug Mn2+ KW [Ar]3d5 enaHKWbNþalmkBI Gnþrkmμ rvageGLicRtugnigeGLicRtug eGLicRtug nigéNVy:U kñúgGatUmNWtmYy xusBIGIuy:ugrbs;va. edayELk G½rb‘Ítal; 4s RtUv)anbMeBjmunG½rb‘Ítal; 3d Canic©enAkñúgGatUm Mn ehIyedIm,I)an +2Mn RtUvpþac; 2e-ecjBIG½rb‘Í tal; 4s eRBaH G½r b‘Ítal; 3d manesßrPaBCag 4s kñúgGIuy:ugelah³qøg. dUecñHelah³qøgbegáItkacugedaypþac; eGLicRtugecj BIG½rb‘Ítal; ns Camunsin bnÞab;mkeTIbG½rb‘Ítal; (n-1)d. elah³qøgGacbegáIt)ankacugeRcIn CagmYy¬÷!¦ ehIyCajwkjab; kacugTaMgenaH minGIusUeGLicRtUnicnwg]sμ ½nkMreT. 4 bMErbMrYltaragxYbtamlkçN³rUb

r)ayeGLicRtug)anbgðaj[eXIjBIbMErbMrYlFatukñúgtaragxYbCamYynwgelxGatUm. Cajwkjab;mankarERb RbYlpgEdrtamlkçN³rUb niglkçN³KImI. 4>1 bnÞúkéNVy:U (Effective nuclear charge)

eyIgBinitüemIlGatUmeGlüÚm ( He : 1s2 )edayeGlüÚmmanBIreGLicRtug (2e-) enaHnaM[va manRbUtugBIr EdlbNþal[éNVy:Urbs;vamanbnÞúk +2 Edr EtkMlaMgTMnajrbs;bnÞúkenHeTAelI 2e- én RsTab;rg 1s ekIteLIg

edayEpñkb:ueNÑaH bNþalmkBImankMlaMgcMranrvageGLicRtug nigeGLicRtug (e- - e- ) eKniyayfa 2e- énRsTab; 1s karBarxøÜnÉgBIkarRsUbTajedayéNVy:U.

186

tamkarvas;EvgeKeXIjfa edIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugmYydMbUgBI 1mol HeeKRtUvkarfamBl2373 KJ nig eGLicRtugcugeRkayBI 1mol He+ RtUvkarfamBl 5251 KJ. dUecñHedIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugTIBIr ecjBI He+ eKRtUvkarfamBleRcInCagkarpþac;eGLicRtugmYydMbUgecjBI He. bBaðaenHKWbNþalmkBIeGLicRtugTIBIrenHRtUv )anRsUbTajya:gxøaMgBIéNVy:UbnÞúk +2 edayK μankarkarBar.

cMeBaHGatUmEdlmancab;BI 3e-eLIgeTAeGLicRtugEdlenAkñúgRsTab;rgmYyRtUv)ankarBaredayeGLicRtug kñúgRsTab;rgxagkñúgva¬EdlCaRsTab;rgCitéNVy:UCag¦EtminEmnkarBaredayRsTab; rgxageRkAeT.

]TahrN_ GatUmNWtrbs; Li manr)ayeGLicRtug 1s22s1 dUecñH 1e- enARsTab;rg 2s RtUv)an karBar eday 2e- enARsTab;rg 1s Et 1e- énRsTab;rg 2s min)ankarBar 2e- énRsTab;rg 1s vijeT.

eGLicRtugenARsTab;rgxagkñúg karBareGLicRtugenARsTab;rgxageRkAmanRbsiT§PaBCag eGLicRtugkñúg RsTab;dUcKñakarBarKñaeTAvijeTAmk. 4>2 kaMGatUm

lkçN³rUbmYycMnYndUcCa dg;sIuet cMnucrlay cMnucrMBuH suT§EtmanTMnak;TMngeTAnwgTMhMGatUm Eteday sarGatUmCaPaKl¥ittUcbMputminGacemIlnwgEPñkeXIj eFVI[eKBi)akkMNt;TMhMGatUmNas;.

eKcat;Tukfa GatUmmanragCaEsV‘rtUcbMput EdleKkMNt;kaMrbs;vacenøaHBI 50 - 300 pm eKfa tMélkaMGatUm sßitkñúglMdab; 102 pm.

]TahrN_ kaMGatUm H = 50 pm = 0.50.102 pm Fe = 120 pm = 1.20.102 pm

kaMGatUmbBa¢ak;GMBITMhMénkMlaMgRsUbrvageGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA nigéNVy:U. kalNabnÞúk éNVy:U kan;EtFM kMlaMgRsUbTajeGLicRtugénéNVy:Uk¾kan;EtxøaMgEdrCaehtunaM[kaMGatUmkan;EttUc. ]TahrN_ FatuEdlsßitenAkñúgxYbTI2 rYmman Li rhUtdl; F eyIgeXIjfa BIeqVgeTAsþaM cMnYn eGLicRtugRsTab;rg 1s2 mantMélefr RsbeBlnwgbnÞúkéNVy:UekIneLIgCalMdab;. eGLicRtug Edl RtUvbEnßmeTAkñúgRsTab; 2s nig 2p edIm,I[mantulüPaBKñanwgkarekIneLIgénbnÞúkéNVy:U KWsßiteRkam karkarBard¾manRbsiT§PaBBI eGLicRtug 1s2. eyIgeXIjfabnÞúkéNVy:UekIneLIgCalMdab; xN³Edl cMnYnkg;TicemmantMélefr (n = 2). 1e- enARsTab;eRkA (2s) rbs; Li RtUv)ankarBarBIéNVy:U ( 3 protons) eday 2e- énRsTab; 1s dUecñHeyIgGacsnñidæan )anfaplkarBarrbs; 2e- énRsTab; 1s KW)an bnSab ( cancel ) bnÞúk +2 kñúgéNVy:U naM[ 1e- RsTab; 2s rgnUvkarRsUb BIéNVy:U EtmYyRbUtugb:ueNÑaH ¬bnÞúkéNVy:UeBlenHKWesμ Inwg +1¦.

kñúgGatUm Be ( 1s22s2 ) eGLicRtugnImYy²RtUv)ankarBareday 2e- RsTab;kñúg (1s) Edl)an rMlay 2 RbUtug (+2) kñúgcMenam 4 RbUtug (+4) rbs;éNVy:U ehIy 2e- énRsTab; 2s minGac karBarKñava)anl¥eT CaehtunaM [bnÞúkéNVy:UEdlmanRbsiT§PaBeTAnwg 2e- RsTab; 2s RtUvFMCag +1.

187

dUecñHbnÞúkéNVy:URtUvekIneLIgBI Li eTA F eBlenaHkaMGatUmRtUv)anfycuHCabnþbnÞab;. enAkñúgRkumnImYy²énFatu eyIgeXIjfa kaMGatUmekIneLIgtamkMeNInénelxGatUm. ]TahrN_ Rkumelah³Gal;kaLaMg (1A) eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAsßitenAelIG½rb‘Ítal; ns eday sarcMnYn

G½rb‘Ítal;ekIneLIgenAeBlNacMnYnkg;Tic (n) ekIneLIg enaHTMhMénGatUmkñúgRkumk¾ekIn eLIgEdrBI Li eTA Cs. eyIgGacBnül;dUcKñaEdrcMeBaHFatukñúgRkumepSg²eTot. rUb4 kaMGatUménFatutMNag RtUv)antMerobeTAtamTItaMgrbs;va kñúgtaragxYb

rUb5 RkahVicbgðajBIkaMGatUménFatu GnuKmn_eTAnwgelxGatUmrbs;va

4>3 kaMGIuy:ug

kaMGuIy:ug CakaMénkacug b¤Gaj:úgEdleKvas;)antamry³rMj½rénkaMrs μI X. kaMGIuy:ugman\T§iBl elIlkçN³rUb niglkçN³KImIénsmasFatuGIuy:ugmYy (Ionic compound ).

eBlGatUmmYykøayCaGIuy:ugeyIgKitfavamuxCamankarERbRbYlTMhMrbs;vaCaminxan.RbsinebI GatUmmYy begáItCaGaj:úg (-) enaHTMhM b¤kaMrbs;vaRtUvekIneLIg eRBaHvabNþalmkBIcMnYnbnÞúkéNVy:U KμankarERbRbYl Et plcMranEdlekIteLIgBIeGLicRtug)anbEnßm begáIt)anCaBBkeGLicRtugd¾FMmYy.

pÞúyeTAvijkarpþac; 1e- b¤ 2e- BIGatUmNamYynaM[mankarbnßynUvkMlaMgcMranrvageGLicRtugnigeGLicRtug EtbnÞúkéNVy:UenAmancMnYndEdl dUecñHBBkeGLicRtugRtUv)anrYmcuHvij CaehtunaM[ kacugRtUvtUcCagGatUm ¬rUb6 bgðajBIkarERbRbYlTMhMGatUm nigGIuy:ugénelah³Gal;kaLaMg nigRkum GaLÚEsn/ rUb7 bgðajBIkarERbRbYl TMhM

188

EdlekIteLIgenAeBlGatUm Li RbtikmμCamYyGatUm F edIm,I)anCa LiF nigrUb8 bgðajBIkaMGIy:ugrbs;FatuEdl )anerobeTAtamTItaMgrbs;vakñúgtaragxYb¦. ebIeyIgBinitüemIlGIuy:ugGIusUeGLicRtUnicnwgKñaeyIgeXIjfa kaMkacugtUc CagkaMGaj:úg.

]TahrN_ kaMGIuy:ug Na+ tUcCag F- GIuy:ugTaMgBIrmancMnYneGLicRtugdUcKña Et Na (Z = 11) manRbUtug eRcInCag F (Z = 9) bnÞúkéNVy:Ud¾FMrbs; Na+ CamUlehtubNþal[vamankaMtUcCag F-.

cMeBaHkacugGIusUeGLicRtUnic eyIgeXIjfa kaMGIuy:ugEdlmanbnÞúk +3 tUcCagGIuy:ugbnÞúk +2. ]TahrN_ GIy:ugkñúgxYbTI 3 ³ Al3+, Mg2+ nig Na+. Al+3 mancMnYneGLicRtugdUc Mg+2 Edr b:uEnþvaman

RbUtugelIs Mg+2cMnYnmYy dUecñHBBkeGLicRtugrbs; Al+3 RtUv)anTajcUlkñúgxøaMgCag Mg+2. cMeBaH Mg+2 tUcCag Na+ GacBnül; )antamrebobdUcKña.

rUb6 kareRbobeFobkaMGatUm nigkaMGuIy:ugénelah³Gal;kaLaMg nigRkumGaLÚEsn

rUb7> karERbRbYlTMhMénFatu Li nig F eBlvamanRbtikmμkøayCa LiF

rUb8³ kaMGuIy:ugénFatuerobeTAtamTItaMgrbs;vakñúgtaragxYb

189

cMeBaHkaMGaj:úgGIusUeGLicRtUnicvijeyIgeXIjfa kaMGuIy:ugekIneLIgBI GuIy:ugbnÞúk –1 eTA –3 dUecñHkaMGIuy:ug

GuksIut (O2-)FMCag F-eRBaHGuksIuEsnmanRbUtugticCagPøúyGrCaehtunaM[BBkeGLicRtugénGIuy:ug O2-rIkFMCag F-. 4>4 bMErbMrYlFatutamRkum nigxYb

BIeqVgeTAsþaMmankarqøgmYyBIelah³eTAelah³GMpUETr (Metalloids) nigBIelah³GMpUETreTA Gelah³. kñúgxYbTI3 BIsUdüÚm (Na) eTAGakug (Ar) eXIjfaFatuTI1 (Na) Caelah³skmμ cMENkÉkør (Cl) CaGelah³ skmμ ehIyFatuenAcenøaHFatuTaMgBIrenH)anbgðajBIkarERbRbYlbnþicmþg² BIelah³ eTAGelah³ ÷

-Na, Mg nig Al suT§EtCaelah³bNþajvimaRtbIEdlP¢ab;KñaBIGatUmmYyeTAGatUmmYytam lkçN³ énelah³.

-Si Caelah³GMpUETr enAeBlGatUm Si P¢ab;Kñaya:gmaM vabegáIt)anCaTMrg;vimaRtbIdUcelah³Edr

-cab;BIPeTAFatumanlkçN³Fmμta Cam:UelKuldac;²BIKña ( P4, S8, Cl2, Ar) EdlmancMnucrlay nigrMBuHTab. karERbRbYlBIFatumYyeTAFatumYykñúgRkumCamYyKñaGac[eyIgeFVIkar)a:n;sμan b¤TayTuknUv lkçN³ mYycMnYn

énFatuTaMgenaHCamun)an CaBiessFatuEdlsßitenAkñúgPaBrUbdUcKña. ]TahrN_ cMnucrlayrbs; Ar nigXe KW –189,2 oC nig –111,9 oC erogKña eyIgGac):an;sμan

kMritrlayrbs; Kr )anedaykytMélmFümPaKéncMnucrlayrbs;FatuTaMgBIrenH ÷

dUecñHcMnucrlayrbs; Kr tamkarRBagTukKW -150,6 oC. tMélenHRbhak;RbEhleTAnwg tMélBitrbs;va KW -156,6 oC.

5 famBlGIuy:ugkmμ

CKr o6,1502

)9,111()2,189(−=

−+−=

190

r)ayeGLicRtugminRtwmEtmanTMnak;TMngeTAnwglkçN³rUbb:ueNÑaHeT Etk¾manTMnak;TMngCamYy lkçN³KImI pgEdr dUcEdleyIg)aneXIjehIyfa lkçN³KImIrbs;GatUmCaeRcIneKGackMNt;)antamry³eGLicRtugva:Lg; ¬eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA¦ rbs;va. esßrPaBéneGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAKWvaTak;Tg eTAnwgfamBlbMEbk GIuy:ug.

famBlGIuy:ugkmμCafamBlGb,brma ¬KitCa KJ.mol-1¦caM)ac;edIm,Ipþac;1e- ecjBIGatUmmYy b¤eKGac [niymn½ymüa:geTotfa famBlGIuy:ugkm μKWCabrimaNfamBl ¬KitCa KJ¦ RtUvkarcaM)ac; edIm,Ipþac; 1mol éneGLicRtug BI 1mol énGatUmmYy.

TMhMfamBlGuIy:ugkm μ CaTMhMmYybgðajBIlT§PaBtaMgenArbs;eGLicRtugkñúgGatUm. kalNafamBl GIuy:ugkmμkan;EtFM enaHkarpþac;eGLicRtugk¾kan;EtlM)akEdr.sMrab;GatUmEdlmaneGLicRtugeRcIn brimaNfamBl EdlcaM)ac;edIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugTI1 BIGatUmenaHmaneQ μaHfa famBlGIuy:ugkm μTI1 ( I1).

Energy + X X+ + 1e- ( I1) Energy + X+ X2+ + 1e- ( I2) Energy + X2+ X3+ + 1e- ( I3)

enAeBleGLicRtugmYyRtUv)anpþac;ecjBIGatUmNWt kMlaMgcMranrbs;eGLicRtug EdlenAsl; RtUvfycuH xN³EdlbnÞuúkéNVy:UenAdEdl dUecñHRtUvkarfamBleRcInedIm,Ipþac; 1e- eTotBIGIuy:ugbnÞúk +1 enaH. tamlkçN³ EbbenHfamBlGIuy:ugkmμRtUvekIneLIgCanic© KW I1<I2<I3.....

tarag6 bgðajBIfaBlGIy:ugkm μTI1 énFatu 20 dMbUg. karbMEbkGIuy:ugkm μCalMnaMRsUbkMedA EdlfamBl RtUv)anRsUbedayGatUm. tamrUb9 ¬bgðajBIbMErbMrYlfamBlGIuy:ugkm μTI1eFobeTAnwg elxGatUm¦ eyIgGacsegát eXIjfa famBlGIuy:ugkm μTI1ekIneLIgtamelxGatUm¬tamxYb¦ krNIenH KWbNþalmkBIbnÞúk éNVy:UekIneLIg BIeqVgeTAsþaMkñúgtaragxYb. bnÞúkéNVy:Ukan;EtFMmann½yfa karTaj eGLicRtugrbs;éNVy:Ukan;Et xøaMg dUecñHfamBl bMEbkGIuy:ugkmμTI1k¾kan;EtFMEdr. ]s μ ½nkMrmankMritfam BlGIuy:ugkmμx<s;eRBaHr)ay eGLicRtugrbs;vamanesßrPaB dUecñHvaCaFatuGskmμKImI Biess FatueGlüÚm (He: 1s2) CaFatuEdlmanfamBl GIuy:ugkmμTI1x<s;CageKbMput pÞúyeTAvijelah³Gal;kaLaMg Epñk xageRkameK (Cs) manfamBlGIuy:ugkmμTI1 TabCageKbMput. FatunImYy²kñúg Rkum 1A maneGLic Rtugva:Lg;mYy(ns1)RtUv)ankarBaredayeGLicRtug RsTab;Eq¥txagkñúgy:agman RbsiT§PaB. CaTUeTAvaman lkçN³gayRsYlkñúgkarpþac; 1e- ecjBIGatUmrbs;vaedIm,I )anCaGIuy:ugbnÞúk +1 ( Li+, Na+, K+...)

Edlr)ayeGLicRtugrbs;GIuy:ugTaMgenHGIusUeGLicRtUniceTAnwg]sμ ½nkMrenABImuxvakñúgtaragxYb. FatukñúgRkum 2A ¬elah³Gal;kalINUETruW¦ manfamBlGIuy:ugkmμx<s;Cagelah³Rkum 1A eRBaH elah³

Gal;kalINUETruWmaneGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA ns2 dUecñH 2e- énRsTab; ns minGackarBarxøÜnÉg BIéNVy:U)anl¥eT CaehtunaM[bnÞúkéNVy:Urbs;vaRtUvFMCagelah³Gal;kaLaMg ¬Rkum 1A¦. elah³ Gal;kalINUETruWmanGIuy:ug bnÞúk

+2 ( Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ ).

tarag6 tMélfamBlGIuy:ugkmμ ( KJ.mol- ) énFatu 20 dMbUg Z ELEMENT FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH

191

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca

1312 2373 520 899 801 1086 1400 1314 1680 2080 495,9 738,1 577,9 786,3 1012 999,5 1251 1521 418,7 589,5

5251 7300 1757 2430 2350 2860 3390 3370 3950 4560 1450 1820 1580 1904 2250 2297 2666 3052 1145

11815 14850 3660 4620 4580 5300 6050 6120 6900 7730 2750 3230 2910 3360 3920 3900 4410 4900

21005 25000 6220 7500 7470 8400 9370 9540 10500 11600 4360 4960 4660 5160 5770 5900 6500

32820 38000 9400 11000 11000 12200 13400 13600 14800 16000 6240 6990 6540 7240 8000 8100

47261 53000 13000 15200 15000 16600 18000 18400 20000 21000 8500 9300 8800 9600 11000

rUb9bgðajfafamBlGIyu:gkmμTI1rbs;elah³TabCagGelah³ehIyfamBlGIy:ugkmμTI1 énelah³GMpUETr CaTUeTAenAcenøaHtMélfamBlGIy:ugkm μénelah³ nigGelah³. PaBxusKñaénfamBl GIuy:ug kmμenHGac[eyIgyl; c,as;BImUlehtuEdlbNþal[elah³manTMenarbegáItkacugnigGelah³manTMenarbegáItGaj:úgkñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ug.

rUb9 bMErbMrYlfamBlGIuy:ugkmμTI1 énFatueFobnwgelxGatUmrbs;va

tamRkumnImYy²famBlGIuy:ugkm μfycuHBIelIcuHeRkam.FatukñúgRkumCamYyKñamanr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab; eRkAdUcKñaEtedaysarcMnYnkg;Tic (n) ekIneLIg enaHcMgaymFümrvag eGLicRtug va:Lg;eTAéNVy:Ukan;

Etq¶ay dUecñHBIelIcuHeRkamkñúgRkumCamYyKña lkçN³e)aHbg;eGLicRtugkan;Etgay RsYl ehIylkçN³elah³rbs;

192

Fatuk¾ekIneLIgEdr. ]TahrN_ FatukñúgRkum 4A man C CaGelah³ Si nigGe Caelah³GMpUETr nig Sn Caelah³. CaTUeTAeTaHbIfamBlGIuy:ugkm μekIneLIgBIeqVgeTAsþaMkñúgtaragxYbk¾edayk¾enAEtmankrNI ERbRbYlmYy cMnYn

EdrdUcCa ÷ -krNITI1 ekIteLIgcMeBaHFatukñúgRkum 2A nig3A kñúgxYbdUcKña. ]TahrN_ rvag Be nigB , Mg nigAl.

FatukñúgRkum 3A manfamBlGIuy:ugkmμTI1TabCagRkum 2A edaysarvamaneGLicRtug eTalmYy enAkñúgRsTab;rg p xageRkA ( ns2np1) EdlRtUv)ankarBarya:gl¥BIeGLicRtugRsTab;xagkñúg nigRsTab;rg ns2 dUecñHvaRtUvkar famBledIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugeTalkñúgRsTab;rg p enHTabCag eGLicRtugKUénRsTab; ns.

-krNITI2 ekIteLIgcMeBaHFatukñúgRkum 5A nig6A kñúgxYbdUcKñaEdr. ]TahrN_ rvag N nigO , P nigS FatukñúgRkum 5A manTMrg;eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA ns2np3 tameKalkarN_ Hund 3e- énRsTab;rg p RtUvsßitenA kñúgftdac;²BIKña ehIyFatukñúgRkum 6A manr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA ns2np4 dUecñHkñúgRsTab;rg p

RtUvmaneGLicRtugKUmYy ehIyedaysarEteGLicRtugKUenHehIy Edl bNþal[mankMlaMgcMraneGLicRtUsþaTicekIn eLIgEdlbgá[manlkçN³gayRsYlkñúgkarbegáItCa GIuy:ugCagFatukñúgRkum 5A eTaHbICabnÞúkéNVy:UvaekIn eLIg +1

k¾eday dUecñHfamBlGIy:ugkm μTI1 énFatukñúgRkum 6A TabCagRkum 5A kñúgxYbdUcKña. 6 cMnUleGLicRtug

lkçN³mYyepSgeTotEdlman\T§iBlelIlkçN³KImIénFatupgEdrKW lT§PaBrbs;va edIm,Icab; ykmYy b¤ eRcIneGLicRtug. lkçN³EbbenHeK[eQ μaHfa :cMnUleGLicRtug :.

cMnUleGLicRtugKWCafamBlEdlekIteLIgenAeBlEdleGLicRtugmYyRtUv)ancab;ykedayGatUmmYy edIm,I)anCaGaj:úg ÷

X + 1e- X- ¬beBa©jfamBl¦ famBlcMnUleGLicRtugpÞúyBIfamBlGIuy:ugkm μRtg;fa ÷ -tMélviC¢manénfamBlGIuy:ugkm μ CafamBlRtUvpþl;edIm,Ipþac;mYyeGLicRtugecjBIGatUmmYy. -tMélviC¢manénfamBlcMnUleGLicRtugCafamBlRtUvbeBa©jenAeBleGLicRtugmYyRtUv)an bEnßmeTAelI

GatUmmYy. edIm,I[kan;Etc,as; eyIgBinitüemIlkñúglMnaMcab;ykeGLicRtugrbs;PøúyGr ÷ F + 1e- F- ΔH = -328 KJ.mol-1

tMélenHbgðajfaCalMnaMbeBa©jfamBl EtedaytMélfamBlcMnUleGLicRtugCatMélviC¢man dUecñHeK GackMnt;)anfafamBlcMnUleGLicRtugCafamBlRtUvpþl;edIm,Ipþac;mYyeGLicRtugecjBIGuIy:ug GviC¢manenaHvij÷

F- F + 1e- ΔH = 328 KJ.mol-1

dUecñHfamBlcMnUleGLicRtugrbs;PøúyGrKW 328 KJ.mol-1.

193

tarag7 tMélfamBlcMnUleGLicRtug ( KJ.mol-1 ) énFatutMNag nig]sμ ½nkMr 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A H 73

He < 0

Li 60

Be ≤ 0

B 27

C 122

N 0

O 141

F 328

Ne < 0

Na 53

Mg ≤ 0

Al 44

Si 134

P 72

S 200

Cl 349

Ar < 0

K 48

Ca 2,4

Ga 29

Ge 118

As 77

Se 195

Br 325

Kr < 0

Bb 47

Sr 4,7

In 29

Sn 121

Sb 101

Te 190

I 295

Xe < 0

Cs 45

Ba 14

Tl 30

Pb 110

Bi 110

Po ?

At ?

Rn < 0

* famBlcMnUleGLicRtugrbs;]sμ ½nkMr Be nig Mg eKminGackMnt;)antamBiesaFn_eT EteKeCOfavamantMél Ek,rsUnü b¤GviC¢man.

famBlcMnUleGLicRtugmanlkçN³sMKal;BIrKW ÷ 1- famBlcMnUleGLicRtugénGatUmmYyKWmansBaØapÞúyeTAnwgtMélGg;tal;BIkñúglMnaMbegáItCaGIy:ug

GviC¢man ¬Gaj:úg¦ rbs;va. 2- tMélviC¢manénfamBlcMnUleGLicRtugrbs;GatUmmYykan;EtFM eKfaGatUmenaH manTMenarcab;yk

eGLicRtugkan;EtxøaMg ehIyGaj:úgEdlekIteLIgkan;EtmanesßrPaB. rUb10 famBlcMnUleGLicRtugénFatu 20 dMbUg eFobeTAnwgelxGatUmrbs;va

tamBiesaFn_famBlcMnUleGLicRtugRtUv)aneKkMnt;tamry³karpþac;mYyeGLicRtugecjBI Gaj:úgmYypÞúy

BIfamBlGIuy:ugkmμEdleKkMnt;)antamry³karpþac;mYyeGLicRtugecjBIGatUmmYy edIm,I)anCakacug. tarag7nigrUb10eyIgeXIjfa tMélfamBlRsUbeGLicRtugekIneLIgBIeqVgeTAsþaMtam taragxYb. famBl

cMnUleGLicRtugrbs;elah³ CaTUeTATabCagGelah³tMélenHERbRbYltictYc cMeBaH FatukñúgRkumCamYy Kña.

194

RkumGaLÚEsn (7A) manfamBlcMnUleGLicRtugx<s;CageK dUecñHvaman lkçN³RsUbeGLicRtugk¾xøaMgCag eKEdrehIyGaj:úgEdlTTYl)anmanesßrPaB nigmanr)ayeGLicRtug dUc]sμ ½nkMr.

]TahrN_ r)ayeGLicRtugénGIuy:ug F- : 1s22s22p6 <=> [Ne] Cl- : [Ne]3s23p6 <=> [Ar]

tamkarKN³nabgðajfa ]sμ ½nkMrTaMgGs;manfamBlcMnUleGLicRtugtUcCagsUnü dUecñHGaj:úg rbs;va min

manesßrPaBeT. 7 bMErbMrYllkçN³KImIénFatutMNag

famBlGIuy:ugkmμ nigfamBlcMnUleGLicRtugGacCYy[GñkKImIyl;BIdMeNIrkarénRbePT RbtikmμKImI nigFm μCatiénsmasFatu)anya:geRcIn CaBiessCYy[yl;c,as;GMBITMnajeGLicRtug TUeTAénGatUmmYy ÷

-famBlGIy:ugkmμ bgðajBITMnajeGLicRtugpÞal;rbs;GatUmmYy.

-famBlcMnUleGLicRtug bgðajBITMnajeGLicRtugbEnßmrbs;GatUmmYy. bBaØatienHeFVI[eyIgGac)an;sμanBIlkçN³KImIrbs;va)an.

7>1 TMenarTUeTAénlkçN³KImI eyIg)anniyayfa : FatuEdlsßitkñúgRkumCamYyKñamanlkçN³KImIdUcKña eRBaHvamanTMrg; eGLic

RtugRsTab;eRkAdUcKña : n½yenHk¾enAminTan;RtwmRtUvTaMgRsugEdr. tamkarsikSarbs;GñkKImI )an[dwgfa RKb; FatuTI1kñúgRkumnImYy² ¬FatukñúgxYbTI2 rab;BI Li eTA F¦ manlkçN³xusEbøkKña xøHBIFatuEdlenAkñúg Rkum CamYyKña.

]TahrN_ Li manlkçN³Caelah³Gal;kaLaMgexSay. dUcKñaEdrcMeBaH Be nigFatukñúgRkumepSg² eTot. lkçN³xusKñaenH bNþalmkBIFatunImYy²TaMgenaH manTMhMGatUmtUcxøaMgeBk ebIeFobeTAnwg FatudéT

eTotkñúgRkumCamYyKña ¬emIlrUb4 ¦. TMenarmYyeTotkñúglkçN³KImIénFatutMnagKW TMnak;TMngGgát;RTUg ( Diagonal relationships ). TMnak;TMng

Ggát;RTUgKWCalkçN³RsedogKñarvagFatuBIrEdlsßitkñúgRkumnigxYbxusKñakñúgtarabxYb ¬rUb11¦. )atuPUt enHKWva Tak;TgeTAnwgdg;sIuetbnÞúkrbs;va ¬dg;sIuetbnÞúk KWCabrimaNbnÞúkénGuIy:ug mYyEck[ maDrbs;va ¦. FatuEdlman dg; sIuetbnÞúkRbhak;RbEhlKña manRbtikm μRsedogKña ehIybegáIt)anCa smasFatuRbePTdUcKña. rUb11 TMnak;TMngGgát;RTUgénFatu

dUecñH Li manlkçN³RsedogKñanwg Mg Be - Al

Li Be B C

Na Mg

Al Si

195

B - Si eKfaKUelah³nImYy²manlkçN³RsedogKñatamTMnak;TMngGgát;RTUg. ebIeyIgBinitübEnßmeToteTAelIFatu

EdlsßitkñúgRkumEtmYyCamYyKña eyIgnwgeXIjfa lkçN³xusKña enAEtman dUcCaFatukñúgRkum 1A nig2A suT§EtCaelah³ / Rkum 7A nig8A CaGelah³ nigBIRkum 3A eTA 6A CaFatuERbRbYlBIGelah³eTAelah³ nigBIGelah³eTAelah³GMpUETr.

FatukñúgRkum 3A dl; 6A enHmankarERbRbYleRcInnUvlkçN³KImIrbs;va eTaHbICaFatu TaMgenaH sßitkñúg RkumEtmYy nigmanr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAdUcKñak¾eday.

\LÚveyIgnwgsikSa[kan;Etc,as;eTAelIlkçN³KImIénFatutMnag nig]s μ ½nkMreTAtamRkumrbs;va nImYy² ÷ 7>1>1 GuIRdUEsn ( H : 1s2 )

minmanTItaMgc,as;las;sMrab;FatuGIuRdUEsneTkñúgtaragxYbKImI. CaTUeTAGuIRdUEsnRtUv)an eKdak; kñúgRkum 1A tamcMnat;fñak;rbs;va eRBaHvadUceTAnwgelah³Gal;kaLaMgRtg;vamaneGLicRtugEtmYy Kt;enARsTab;rg s nigvaGacbegáIt)anCaGIuy:ugbnÞúk +1 (H+) kñúgsUluysüúgTwk. müa:geTotGIuRdUEsn k¾GacbegáIt)an CaGIuy:ug GIuRdYpgEdr (H-) enAkñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ugdUcCa NaH, CaH2..... Edlkñúg lkçN³enHGIuRdUEsn dUcKñaeTAnwg RkumGaLÚEsnEdr EdlGacbegáIt)anCaGIuy:ugbnÞúkGviC¢man –1 kñúg smasFatuGIuy:ug. GIuy:ugGIuRdYmanRbtikm μCamYy TwkbegáIt)anCa]sμ½n GIuRdUEsn nigGIuRduksuItelah³ ÷

2NaH + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2 ↑ CaH2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 ↓ + H2 ↑

smasFatusMxan;énGuIRdUEsnKWTwk (H2O).

7>1>2 FatukñúgRkum 1A ( ns1, n ≥ 2)

FatuTaMgenHmanfamBlGIuy:ugkm μTab CaehtunaM[vamanTMenare)aHbg;eGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA rbs; vamYy ecjedIm,I)anCaGuIy:ugbnÞúk+1. elah³TaMgenHskm μKImINas; ehtudUecñHehIy)anCaeKminEdl RbTHeXIjva sßitenA CaPaBsuT§eTkñúgFmμCati. elah³TaMgenHmanRbtikm μCamYyTwkbegáIt)anCa ]sμ ½nGIuRdUEsn nigGIuRduksIutelah³ EdlRtUvnwgva ÷

2M + 2H2O 2MOH + H2 ↑ ( M tag[elah³Gal;kaLaMg ) -eBlelah³Gal;kaLaMgb:Hxül;vargRbtikmμGuksIutkm μCamYyGuksIuEsn (O2) kñúgxül;Pøam edaybegáIt)an CaGuksIutkñúgenaH Li begáIt)anCa Li2O tamsmIkar ÷ 4Li + O2 2Li2O <=> ( 2Li+ + O2- )

-elah³Gal;kaLaMgepSgeTotbegáIt)anCaGuksIutpg nigEBGuksIutpg. ]TahrN_ dUcCa Na tamsmIkar ÷ 4Na + O2 2Na2O <=> ( 2Na+ + O2- ) 2Na + O2 Na2O2 <=> ( 2Na+ + O2

2- )

-K , Rb nig Cs k¾GacbegáIt)anCas‘ubEBGuksIut ( Superoxides) pgEdrtamsmIkar ÷

196

K + O2 KO2 <=> ( K+ + O2- )

mUlehtuEdlnaM[elah³Gal;kaLaMgbegáIt)anCaGuksIutepSg²KñaEbbenHKWGaRs½yelI esßrPaBrbs;vakñúg PaBCaGgÁFaturwg.GuksIutrbs;elah³Gal;kaLaMgCasmasFatuGIuy:ugTaMgGs; ehIy esßrPaBrbs;va GaRs½yeTAelI karcab;Kñarvagkacug nigGaj:úg. Li begáIt)anCa Li2O eRBaH smasFatu Li2O manesßrPaBCag Li2O2 ehIy cMeBaHelah³Gal;kaLaMgepSgeTot GacBnül;)antamrebob dUcKña. 7>1>3 FatukñúgRkum 2A ( ns2, n ≥ 2)

elah³kñúgRkum 2A b¤elah³Gal;kalINUETruW manskmμPaBKImIexSayCagelah³Gal;kaLaMg ¬1A¦. famBlGIuy:ugkmμTI1 nigTI2 fycuHBI Be eTA Ba dUecñHTMenarbegáItGIuy:ug M2+ niglkçN³elah³ekIneLIg BIelIcuHeRkam. smasFatu Be ( BeH2, BeCl2.....) nig smasFatu Mg ( MgCl2, Mg(OH)2....) CasmasFatu rlaytickñúgFmμCati.

GMeBIénelah³Gal;kalINUETruWCamYyTwkmankarERbRbYlKYr[kt;sMKal;. Be K μanRbtikmμ CamYyTwk eT rIÉ MgmanRbtikm μCamYyTwkluHRtaEtdutkMedA ehIy Ca, Sr nig Ba manRbtikmμ sBVCamYyTwkenAsItuNðPaBRbRktI edaybMPayGuIRdUEsn.

Ba + 2H2O Ba(OH)2 + H2 ↑

GMeBIénelah³TaMgenHCamYy O2 ekIneLIgBI Be eTA Ba eday Be nigMg begáIt)anCa BeO nigMgO luHRtaEtdutkMedA edayELk CaO, SrO nigBaO RtUv)anbegáIteLIgenAsItuNðPaB bnÞb;BiesaFn¾.

Mg RbtikmμCamYyGasIut[Ca]sμ½n H2 Pay ÷ Mg + 2H+ Mg2+ + H2 ↑

Ca, Sr nigBa k¾manRbtikm μCamYysUluysüúgGasIut[Ca]sμ½n H2 PayEdr EtkñúgeBl CamYy KñaenaH FatuTaMgenHRtUvmanRbtikm μCamYyTwkkñúgsUlusüúgGasIutenaHpgEdr dUecñHFatuTaMgenHCamYy sUluysüúgGasIutekIt manlMnaMRbtikmμBIrkñúgeBlCamYyKña ÷

Ca + 2H+ Ca2+ + H2 ↑ Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 ↓ + H2 ↑

7>1>4 FatukñúgRkum 3A ( ns2p1, n ≥ 2)

FatuTImYyénRkum 3A Caelah³GMpUETr ( Metalloid ) nigFatuEdlenAsl;Caelah³. B minbegáItCa smasFatuGIuy:ug ehIyk¾K μanGMeBIelI]sμ ½n O2 nigTwkEdr. FatubnÞab;eTotKW Al vabegáIt )anCaGaluymIn ( Al2O3 )

PøameBlb:HCamYyxül;tamsmIkar ÷ 2Al + 3O2 Al2O3

RsTab; Al2O3 EdlekIteLIg)ankarBar Al suT§Epñkxagkñúgmin[rgGuksIutkmμbnþeToteT. Al

begáIt)anCaGIuy:ug Al3+ eBlmanRbtikm μCamYysUluysüúgGasIuttamsmIkar ÷ 2Al + 6H+ 2Al3+ + 3H2

↑

elah³Rkum 3A epSgeTotGacbegáIt)anCaGIuy:ug M+ nig M3+ ehIyBIelIcuHeRkamGuIy:ug M+ manesßr

197

PaBCagGIuy:ug M3+.

FatuRkum 3A GacbegáIt)anCasmasFatum:UelKulCaRcInpgEdr ]TahrN_ Al manRbtikm μ CamYy]sμ½n H2 [Ca AlH3 dUcKñaEdrcMeBaH Be ¬tamTMnak;TMngGgát;RTUg¦. dUecñHBIeqVgeTA sþaMtamxYbéntaragxYbeyIg eXIjfa mankarpøas;bþÚrbnþicbnþÜcBIelah³eTAGelah³kñúgFatutMnag. 7>1>5 FatukúñgRkum 4A ( ns2p2, n ≥ 2)

FatuTImYyénRkum 4A ¬C¦CaGelah³ FatubnÞab;eTotman Si nigGe Caelah³GMpUETr FatuTaMgenH minGacbegáItCasmasFatuGIuy:ug)aneT. FatucugeRkayénRkumenHman Sn nig PbCaelah³Edl K μan Rbtikmμ CamYyTwkeT EtmanRbtikm μCamYyGasIut[Ca]sμ ½n H2 tamsmIkar ÷ Sn + 2H+ Sn2+ + H2 ↑

Pb + 2H+ Pb2+ + H2 ↑

FatukñúgRkumenHbegáIt)anCasmasFatutamcMnYnGuksIutkmμ +II nig+IV. cMeBaHFatu C nig Si cMnYn GuksIutkmμEdlmanesßrPaBKW +IV.

]TahrN_ CO2 manesßrPaBCag CO SiO2 - SiO

Pb EdlsßitenAkñúgcMnYnGuksIutkm μ +II CaFatuEdlmanesßrPaB eTaHbICar)ayeGLicRtug rbs;vaenA RsTab;eRkA 6s26p2 k¾eday k¾ Pb manTMenare)aHbg; 2e- ecjBIG½rb‘Ítal; 6p ¬edIm,I)an Pb2+¦ Cage)aHbg; 4e- ecjBIG½rb‘Ítal; 6s nig6p TaMgBIr ¬edIm,I)an Pb4+¦.


FatukñúgRkum 5A enHman N, P, As, Sb nig Bi EdlkñúgenaH N nig P CaGelah³ As nig Sb Caelah³GMpUETr nig Bi Caelah³.

GasUtCa]sμ ½nDIGatUm (N2) vabegáIt)anCaGuksIutmYycMnYndUcCa NO, N2O, NO2, N2O4 nigN2O5

EdlkñúgenaHmanEt N2O5 eTCaGgÁFaturwg eRkABIenaHCa]sμ½nTaMgGs;. GasUtmanTMenar cab;yk 3e- edIm,I)anCa N3- ( N3- Isoeclectronic nwg Ne ). elah³nIRdY (metallic nitrides) PaKeRcInCa smasFatuGIuy:ug ¬]TahrN_ Li3N, Mg3N2...¦.

pUs½Vrmanm:UelKulCa P4 nigbegáIt)anCaGuksIutrwgBIrKW P4O6 nigP4O10 (cMnYnGuksIutkmμ +III nig+V). GuksIutGasIutEdlsMxan;KW HNO3 nigH3PO4 EdlekIteLIgtamRbtikmμGuksIutkmμdUcxageRkam ÷ N2O5 + H2O 2HNO3 P4O10 + 6H2O 4H3PO4

As, Sb nig Bi suT§EtCaFatumanTMrg;vimaRtbI. Bi Caelah³manskmμPaBKImIexSayCag elah³EdlenA kñúgRkumepSg²eTot. 7>1>7 FatukúñgRkum 6A ( ns2p4, n ≥ 2)

FatubIdMbUgkñúgRkumenHman O, S, nigSe CaGelah³ nigFatuBIreTot Te nig Po Caelah³ GMpUETr.

198

GuksIuEsnCa]sμ ½nDIGatUm (O2). S nigSe manrUbmnþm:UelKul S8 nigSe8 cMENkÉ Te nigPo CaFatumanTMrg;vimaRtbI.

PoCaFatuviTüúskmμEdlBi)aksikSakñúgTIBiesaF.GuksIuEsnmanTMenarcab;yk2e-edIm,I)anCa GIuy:ugGuksIut (O2-) kñúgsmasFatuGIuy:ug. rIÉ S, Se nigTek¾GacbegáIt)anCaGaj:úgbnÞúk –2 pgEdrKW S2-, Se2- nigTe2-.

FatukñúgRkumenH BiessGuksIuEsnGacbegáIt)anCasmasFatuCaRcInCamYyelah³epSgeTot. smas FatusMxan;rbs;s<an;F½rKW SO2, SO3 nigH2S.

H2SO4 ekIt)anBIs‘ulpYRTIGuksIut ( SO3) Rbtikm μCamYyTwktamsmIkar ÷ SO3 + H2O H2SO4


FatukñúgRkum 7A ¬b¤ehAmü:ageTotfa RkumGaLÚEsn¦TaMgGs;CaGelah³nigmanrUbmnþ m:UelKul TUeTAtageday X2. edaysarEtvamanskmμPaBKImIxøaMg eKmin EdlRbTHeXIjvasßitenAkñúgPaBsuT§eT kñúgFmμCati. FatucugeRkayeKkñúgRkumenHKWGasþat (At) CaFatuviTüúskm μ EdleKsÁal;lkçN³rbs;va tictYc Nas;. cMEnkPøúyGr (F) vijmanlkçN³KImIskmμxøaMg vamanRbtikmμCamYyTwk[Ca]sμ ½n GuksuIEsn (O2) : 2 F2 + 2 H2O 4 HF + O2

Rbtikmμrvag F2 CamYyTwkCaRbtikmμmYysaMjaM KWfaplitplEdlTTYl)anvaGaRs½yeTAelI lkçxNÐén Rbtikmμ. plitplénRbtikmμxagelICaplitplmYykñúgcMenamplitplCaeRcIneTot. RkumGaLÚEsnmanfamBlGuIy:ugkmμx<s; ehIyfamBlcMnUleGLicRtugk¾x<s;Edr. GuIy:ug GaLÚEsn (X-) maneQ μaHfa GaLÚEsnY (halides) EdlGuIy:ugTaMgenHGIusUeGLicRtUniceTAnwg]s μ ½nkMrenABIeRkay vakñúgtaragxYb. ]TahrN_ F- GIusUeGLicRtUnicnwg Ne

Cl- GIusUeGLicRtUnicnwg Ar

GMbilGaLÚEsnYPaKeRcInCasmasFatuGuIy:ug.RkumGaLÚEsnGacbegáIt)anCasmasFatuCaeRcInpgEdr CamYy]s μ ½nKñava nigCamYyGelah³epSgeTot. ]TahrN_ NF3 ; PCl5 ; SF6 ; ICl nigBrF3. GaLÚEsnRbtikmμCamYy]sμ½nGuIRdUEsn(H2) [CaGuIRdUEsnGaLÚEsnY (Hydrogen halides) H2 (g) + X2 (g) 2HX (g)

RbtikmμenHpÞúHCamYy F2 EtexSayCamYy Cl2 ; Br2 nigI2. GuIRdUEsnGaLÚEsnYrlay kñúgTwkbegáIt )anCaGasuItGaLÚEsnic (Hydrohalide Acid). GasuIt HF (Hydrofluoric acid) CaGasuItexSayvarlaytic kñúgTwk EtGasuItGaLÚEsnicepSgeTotCaGasuItxøaMg ¬rlayxøaMgkñúgTwk¦. 7>1>9 FatukñúgRkum 8A ( ns2np6, n ≥ 2)

FatukñúgRkum 8A enHCaRkum]sμ ½nkMr EdlmanlkçN³CaGelah³TaMgGs;. GatUmrbs;va)an bMeBj eGLicRtugEq¥tenARsTab;eRkA(ns nig np)EdleFVI[vamanesßrPaBbMput.famBlGuIy:ugkm μrbs;FatukñúgRkumenHman

199

kMritx<s;bMputebIeFobnwgRkumepSgeTotehIy]sμ ½nTaMgenHBuMmanTMenarcab;ykeGLicRtugbEnßmeToteT.eK)an[ eQ μaH]sμ½nTaMgenHfaCa :]s μ ½nnicl:eRBaHKμanGñkKImINamñak;GacerobcMbegáItsmasFatuCamYy]s μ ½nkMr)aneT. luHdl;qñaM 1963 KImIviTUeQ μaH Neil Barlett CnCatiGg;eKøs )anBüayambegáItsmasFatu ]sμ½nkMr)an sMerceday[ Xe manRbtikmμCamYy)øaTInGuicsaPøúyGrY (PtF6) EdlCaPñak;garGuksuItkr d¾xøaMgmYytam smIkar ÷

Xe (g) + PtF6 (g) XePtF6 (S)

cab;taMgBIeBlenaHmk smasFatu Xe mYycMnYnRtUv)aneKbegáIteLIg dUcCa XeF4 ; XeO3 ; XeO4 ; XeOF4 nigsmasFatu Kr 2 b¤ 3 eTotdUcCa KrF2 CaedIm. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday smasFatu]s μ ½nkMreKmin EdlykmkeRbIR)as;eT ehIyvak¾minTak;TgeTAnwglMnaMCIvsaRsþFmμCatiEdr (natural biological processes). eKmin)ansÁal;smasFatuén He ; Ne ; nig Ar eT. 7>2 kareRbobeFobFatuKImIénRkum 1A nig1B

Rkum 1A manFatu Li , Na , K , Rb , Cs nigFrRkum 1B manFatu Cu , Ag nigAu eTaHbICaelah³kñúgRkumTaMgBIrenHmanr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAdUcKña(ns1)k¾edayEtlkçN³KImIrbs; vamindUcKñaeT. famBlGuIy:ugkm μTImYyénFatu Cu , Ag nigAuerogKña 745 KJ mol-1, 731 KJ mol-1 nig 890 KJ mol-1 tMélenHFMCagtMélfamBlGuIy:ugkm μrbs;Rkumelah³Gal;kaLaMgCaehtueFVI[Rkum 1B man skmμPaBKImIexSay CagRkum 1A. tMéld¾x<s;énfamBlGuIy:ugkmμrbs;FatukñúgRkum 1B bNþalmkBI ns1 min)ankarBareBjelj eday e- RsTab;rg d enAxagkñúgeT xusBIRkum 1A Edl 1e- RsTab;eRkA (ns1) mankarkarBary:ageBj elj BIéNVy:Ueday e- RsTab;xagkñúg. CaTUeTA e- RsTab;eRkAénFatuRkum 1BRtUv)an Taj RsUbxøaMgeday éNVy:U ehIyedaysarPaB Gskm μKImIrbs;va eKRbTHeXIjvasßitkñúgPaBsuT§kñúgFmμCati CaBiesseRBaH EtsarRbeyaCn_ nigPaBkMrénelah³ TaMgenHeFVI[vakøayCaelah³d¾mantMéledIm,IykeTAplitCa eRKOgeRbIR)as;epSg²dUcCa kak; (Coins) nigeRKOgGlgáar. PaBxusKñarvagRkum 2A nig2B GacBnül;)antamrebobdUcKña. 7>3 lkçN³GuksuIttamxYb eyIgnwgeFVIkareRbobeFoblkçN³GuksuIténFatukñúgxYbTI 3 edIm,I[eXIjfa lkçN³elah³ xusBI elah³GMpUET nigGelah³.

FatuxøHkñúgxYbTI 3 ( P, S nig Cl ) GacbegáIt)anCaGuksIutCaeRcInRbePT EtCaTUeTAeyIgKitEt GuksIutNa EdlmancMnYnGuksIutkmμx<s;bMputb:ueNÑaH. tamtarag2>15 ¬bgðajBIlkçN³GuksIiuténFatu mYycMnYnkñúgxYbTI3¦ lkçN³TUeTAmYycMnYnénGuksIutTaMgenHeyIgeXIjfa GuksIuEsnmanTMenarbegáItCa GIuy:ugGuksIut(O2-)TMenarenHekIt

200

eLIgenAeBlGuksIuEsncUlpSMCamYyelah³EdlmanfamBl GIuy:ugkm μ TabdUcCaRkum 1A, 2A rYmTaMgFatu Al eTot dUecñH Na2O, MgO nigAl2O3 CasmasFatuGIuy:ug eKGacsMKal;)anedaycMnucrlay nigcMnucrMBuH d¾x<s;rbs;va nigvamanTMrg;vimaRtbIkñúgm:UelKulEdlRtUv)anrMuB½T§edayGaj:úgmYycMnYn.edaysarfamBl GIuy:ugkmμekIneLIgBIeqVg eTAsþaMnaM[FmμCati GuksIutrbs;vaRtUvekIneLIgtamenaHEdr.

Si Caelah³GMpUETr GuksIutrbs;va (SiO2) k¾manTMrg;vimaRtbIpgEdr eTaHbIvaminEmnCa smasFatuGIuy:ug k¾eday.

GuksIutrbs;pUsVr (P) s<an;F½r (S) nigkør (Cl) CasmasFatum:uelKulEdlcUlpSMedayFatu dac;²BIKña. edaysarm:UelKulTaMgenHmankarcab;KñaexSay (weak attraction) eFVI[vaman cMnucrlay nigcMnucrMBuHTab.

GuksIutPaKeRcInRtUv)aneKcat;fñak;Ca GuksIutGasIut GuksIut)as nigGuksIutGMpUETr ÷

- GuksIutGasIut CaGuksIutTaMgLayNaEdl[CasUluysüúgGasIuteBlvamanRbtikm μCamYyTwkb¤Ca GuksIutTaMgLayNaEdlmanRbtikm μCamYysUluysüúg)as.

- GuksIut)as CaGuksIutTaMgLayNa Edl[CasUluysüúg)aseBlvamanRbtikmμCamYyTwk b¤Ca GuksIut TaMgLayNaEdlmanRbtikm μCamYysUluysüúgGasIut.

- GuksIutGMpUETr CaGuksIutTaMgLayNaEdledIrtYCaGasIutpg nigCa)aspg. Na2O Rbtikm μCamYyTwk[Ca sUdüÚmGIuRduksIut ( NaOH ) EdlmanlkçN³Ca)as ÷ Na2O + H2O 2NaOH

MgO rlayticbMputkñúgTwk. vaK μanRbtikmμCamYyTwkTaMgRsugenaHeT EtvamanRbtikmμ CamYyGasIut dUc RbtikmμGasIut-)asEdr ÷

MgO + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2O

plitplénRbtikmμenHKW GMbil MgCl2 nigH2O EdlCalT§plRbtikmμbnSabGasIut-)as. Al2O3 rlaykñúgTwkticCag MgO eTAeTot vaK μanRbtikmμCamYyTwkeT EtvabgðajlkçN³ Ca)aseday

manRbtikmμCamYyGasIut ÷ Al2O3 + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2O

Al2O3 k¾bgðajlkçN³CaGasIutpgEdr edayvamanRbtikmμCamYy)astamsmIkar ÷ Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 3H2O 2NaAl (OH)4

b¤ Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O

dUecñH Al2O3 manlkçN³CaGMpUETr eRBaHvamanlkçN³CaGasIutpg nigCa)aspg. GuksIut GMpUETrepSg eTotmandUcCa ZnO, BeO nig Bi2O3.

SiO2 minrlayeT vaK μanRbtikmμCamYyTwkeLIy EtvamanlkçN³CaGasIut eRBaHvamanRbtikmμ CamYy )astamsmIkar ÷

SiO2 + 2NaOH NaSiO3 + H2O

dUecñHsUlusüúg)asxøaMgdUcCaNaOH minGacrkSaTukkñúgEkvBIric ( Pyrex glass ) EdleFVIBI SiO2 )aneT.

201

GuksIutEdlenAsl;kñúgxYbTI3 enHsuT§EtCaGuksIutGasIut eRBaHvamanRbtikmμCamYyTwk[ CaGasIut ÷ P4O10 + 6H2O 4H3PO4 SO3 + H2O H2SO4 Cl2O7 + H2O 2HClO4

lkçN³GuksIutkñúgxYbTI 3 enHbegðaj[eXIjfa lkçN³énFatufycuHBIeqVgeTAsþaMtamxYb GuksIut rbs;vaERbRbYlBI)aseTAGMpUETr nigBIGMpUETreTAGasIut.

GuksIutelah³CaFmμtaCaGuksIut)as ehIyGuksIutGelah³PaKeRcInCaGuksIutGasIut. GuksIutGMpUETr KWCaGuksIuténFatuEdlmanTItaMgenAkNþalxYb. tarag8 lkçN³GuksIutmYycMnYnénFatukñúgxYbTI 3 Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO3 Cl2O7

smasFatu GIuy:ug m:UelKul TMrg; vimaRtbI dac;²BIKña cMnucrlay (oC) 1275 2800 2045 1610 580 16,8 -91,5

cMnucrMBuH (oC) ? 3600 2980 2230 ? 44,8 82

lkçN³GasIut)as )as )as GMpUET GasIut cMNaM lkçN³elah³énFatu ekIneLIgBIelIcuHeRkamtamRkum ¬FatutMnag¦ kñúgtaragxYb. GuksIut

elah³EdlmanelxGatUmFMmanlkçN³)asxøaMgCagFatuEdlmanelxGatUmtUc. sMNYr 1 > GatUmNWténFatumYyman 15eGLicRtug. cUreqøIynUvsMnYrxageRkamedayBMucaM)ac;mantaragxYbKImI ³ k-bgðajBIr)ayeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAénFatuenaH x-etIeKGaccat;fñak;énFatuenaHya:gdUcemþc? 2 > edayEp¥kelItaragxYbénFatuKImI cUrtMerobFatu P, Si, nigN eTAtamkarekIneLIgénkaMGatUmrbs;va? 3 > etIKUGIuy:ugxageRkamenH mYyNamankaMGIy:ugFMCag k- N3- nigF- x- Mg2+ nigCa2+ K- Fe2+ nigFe3+ 4 >sMrab;GatUm GuksIuEsn nigs<an;F½r etIGatUmmYyNamanfamBlGIuy:ugkmμTI1 tUcCageK? eRBaHGVI? 5 > sMrab;GatUmlIcUm nigebrüÚ:m etIGatUmNamYymanfamBlGIuy:ugkm μTI2 x<s;CageK? eRBaHGVI? 6> ehtuGVI)anCafamBlRsUbGIuy:ugénRkumelah³Gal;kalINUETrWmantMélGviC¢man b¤viC¢manEttUc? 7 > cUreFVIcMNat;fñak;énGuksIutxageRkam ¬GuksIutGasIut )as b¤GMpUETr¦

202

k- Rb2O x- BeO K- As2O5 8 > etIGIuy:ug nigGatUmxageRkamenH NaxøHCaGIusUeGLicRtUnicnwgKña? C, Cl-, Mn2+, B-, Ar, Zn, Fe3+, Ge2+

9> enAkñúgtaragxYbKImI FatuGIuRdUEsn CYnkaleKdak;vakñúgRkumCamYyelah³Gal;kaLaMg (1A) CYnkalkñúgRkum GaLÚEsn (7A). cUrBnül;faehtuGVI)anCa GuIRdUEsnmanlkçN³dUceTAnwgRkum 1A nigRkum 7A?

10 > etIRkumr)ayeGLicRtugxageRkamenH NaxøHbgðajfaGatUmrbs;vaGacmanlkçN³KImIRsedogKña?

a)1s22s22p63s2 a) 1s22s22p3 b) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 c) 1s22s2 d) 1s22s22p6 e) 1s22s22p63s23p3 f) 1s22s22p5 g) 1s22s1 h) 1s22s22p63s23p5 i) 1s22s22p63s23p64s1

11> GuIy:ug M2+ TTYl)anBIelah³qøgmYyEdlman 4e- enARsTab;;rg 3d etIFatuenaHGacCaFatuGVI? 12 > GIuy:ugelah³bnÞúk +3 mYy man 5e- enAkñúgRsTab;rg 3d etIGIuy:ugenaH)anmkBIelah³eQ μaHGVI? 13>etIkaMGatUmERbRbYlya:gdUcemþcebIeyIgrMkil ¬k¦BIeqVgeTAsþaMtamxYb ¬x¦ BIelIcuHeRkamtamRkum éntaragxYb? 14> cUr[niymn½ykaMGuIy:ug?etImankarERbRbYlTMhMya:gdUcemþc enAeBlGatUmmYykøayCa ¬k¦Gaj:úg ¬x¦kacug? 15> ehtuGVI)anCaGatUm He mankaMGatUmtUcCag H? nigehtuGVI)anCaGatUm Li mankaMFMCag H? 16> etIGIuy:ug N3- nigP3- mYyNamankaMFMCag? eRBaHGVI? 17 > GIuy:ug H- nigGatUm He man 2e- enARsTab;rg 1s dUcKña etIRbePTmYyNamankaMFMCag?eRBaHGVI? 18> CaFm μta famBlGIuuy:ugkm μekIneLIgBIeqVgeTAsþaMtamxYb EtehtuGVIk¾Fatu Al manfamBlGIuy:ugTabCag Mg

cUrBnül;? 19> ehtuGVI)anCaFatuRkum 1B manesßrPaBCagFatuRkum 1AeTaHbIvamaneGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAdUcKñak¾ eday ns1? 20> pÁÚrpÁgFatuxageRkamenH [RtUveTAnwglkçN³rbs;vanImYy² ³

a) Calcium (Ca) … GgÁFaturavBN’Rkhmcas; b) Gold (Au) … ]sμ ½nK μanBN’ nigeqHkñúgGuksIuEsn

c) Hydrogen (H2) … elah³skm μ EdlmanGMeBICamYyTwk

d) Bromine (Br) … elah³EdleKeRbICaeRKÓgGlgáa e) Argon (Ar) … ]sμ ½nkMr

203

21 >kaMGatUm F KW 72 pm nigF- KW 136 pm etImaDrbs;vaRtUvekIn)anb:unμanPaKry kalNa F køayCa F-? ¬eKcat;TukfaGatUmmanragCaEsV‘ ¦

204

CMBUkTI5 ]sμ½n ( Gases)

esckþIepþIm enAeRkamlkçxNÐsItuNðPaB nigsMBaFCak;lak; sarFatuPaKeRcInGacekItmaneLIgkñúgPaBNamYykñúg cMeNamPaBTaMgbIénrUbFatuKW PaBrwg PaBrav nigPaB]sμ ½n. ]TahrN_ TwkGacCaTwkkkrwg Twkrav b¤cMhayTwk. lkçN³rUbrbs;sarFatumYyKWGaRs½ynwgPaBrbs;va. kmμvtßúkñúgCMBUkenHKWsþIGMBI]s μ ½nEdlmanlkçN³gayRsYlCagGgÁFaturwg b¤GgÁFaturavtamviFICaeRcIn. clna m:UelKul]sμ½nKWmanlkçN³\tsNþab;Fñab; ehIykMlaMgTMnajrvagm:UelKul]s μ ½nKWexSayNas; CaehtueFVIeGay m:UelKulvanimYy²pøas;TIedayesrIehIyCaBiess KWminGaRs½ynwgm:UelKuldéTeToteLIy. PaBGaRs½yeTAnwgbMEr bMrYlénsItuNðPaB nigsMBaF]sμ ½nmanlkçN³EdlGaceGayeKkt;sMKal;)aneRcInCagGgÁFaturwg nigGgÁFatuuuuuuuuuuuuurav. c,ab;sþIGMBIlkçN³enHmantYnaTIy:agsMxan;kñúgkarBRgIkRTwsþIGatUménrUbFatu nigRTwsþIsuIenTicén m:UelKulrbs;]sμ ½n.

4>1 sarFatuEdlsßitenACaPaB]sμ ½n 4>2 sMBaFén]sμ ½n 4>3 c,ab;]sμ½n 4>4 smIkar]s μ ½nbrisuT§ 4>5 emKuN]sμ ½n 4>6 c,ab; Dalton sþIGMBIsMBaFedayEpñk 4>7 RTwsþIsuIenTicm:UelKulén]s μ ½n 4>8 lMgakBIlkçN³brisuT§

4>1 sarFatuEdlsßitenACaPaB]s μ½n eyIgrs;enA)atsmuRTénxül;mansmasPaBKitCamaDKWGasUt 78% GuksuIEsn 21% nig 1% én]sμ ½n epSg²eTotrab;bBa©ÚlTaMg]sμ ½n CO2pg. enAkñúgTsvtSqñaM1990 KImIénl,ay]sμ ½nEdlRTRTg;CIvit)ankøayeTACa RbPBEdleKcab;GarmμN_y:agxøaMg edaysarEtplxUcxaténPaBkgVk;brisßan. kñúgCMBUkenH eyIgnwgsikSaeTAelI lkçN³TUeTAénsarFatuEdlsßitenACaPaB]sμ ½neRkamlkçxNÐbriyakasFm μta KWsItuNðPaB 25 0C nigsMBaF 1atm. rUbPaBTI 4.1 bgðajBIFatuEdlCa]sμ ½nenAeRkamlkçxNÐbriyakasFmμta. KYrkt;sMKal;fa GuIRdUEsn GasUt GuksuIEsn PøúyGr nigkørsßitenACaPaB]sμ ½nm:UelKulDIGatUm³ H2 N2 F2 nig Cl2. vismrUbénGuuksIuEsn GUsUn (O3) KWCa]sμ½nEdr enAsItuNðPaBbnÞb;BiesaF. FatuTaMgLayenAkñúgRkum 8A Ca]sμ½nkMrm:UNUGatUm³ He Ne Ar Kr Xe nig Rn.

205

1 18 H 2 13 14 15 16 17 He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

rUbPaBTI 4.1 FatuEdlsßitenACaPaB]sμ ½nenAsItuNðPaB 25 0C nigsMBaF 1 atm. ]sμ ½nkMr ¬FatuRkum 8A¦ KWCaRbePT

Fatum:UNUGatUm FatuepSgeTotsßitenACaPaBm:UelKulDIGatUm. GUsUn (O3) k¾Ca]sμ ½n.

smasFatuGIuy:UnicminsßiitenACaPaB]sμ½neT enAsItuNðPaB 25 0C nigsMBaF 1 atm edaysarEtkacug

nigGaj:úgkñúgGgÁFaturwgGIuy:UnicenApþúMKñaedaykMlaMgeGLicRtUsþaTicrwgmaM. edIm,IbMEbkkMlaMgTMnajenH eyIgRtUvpþl; famBleRcIn EdlkñúgkarGnuvtþKWmann½yfa eyIgRtUvdutkMedAGgÁFaturwgeGay)anxøaMgkøa. enAeRkamlkçxNÐFm μta EdleyIgGaceFVI)anKWrMlayGgÁFaturwg. ]TahrN_ NaCl rlayenAsItuNðPaBx<s;KW 810 0

C. edIm,IrMlay NaCl eyIgRtUvEtdutkMedAeGaysItuNðPaBeLIgelIsBI 1000 0C. lkçN³énsmasFatum:UelKul KWmanlkçN³ERbRbYlxøaMg. smasFatum:UelKulmYycMnYnCa]sμ ½n ]TahrN_ dUcCa³ CO CO2 HCl NH3 nig CH4 ¬emtan¦ b:uEnþsmasFatum:UelKulPaKeRcIn KWCaGgÁFaturav b¤]sμ ½nenA sItuNðPaBbnÞb;BiesaFn_. eTaHbICay:agenHkþI enAeBldutkMedAsmasFatuTaMgenaHRtUv)anbMElgCa]sμ ½nmanlkçN³ gayRsYlCagsmasFatuGIuy:Unic. mü:agvijeTot tamFmμtasmasFatum:UelKulBuHenAsItuNðPaBTabCagsmasFatu GIuy:Unic. K μaneKalkarN_NaEdlGacCYyeyIgedIm,IkMNt;fa smasFatum:UelKulmYycMnYnCa]sμ½nenAeRkamlkçxNÐ briyakasFm μtaeT. edIm,IkMNt;PaBrbs;smasFatum:UelKul eyIgRtUvEsVgyl;BIFm μCati nigTMhMénkMlaMgTMnaj enAkñúgcMeNamm:UelKulénsmasFatuenaHEdleKehAfa kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul. CaTUeTAkalNakMlaMgTMnajkan;Et xøaMglkçN³EdlsmasFatuGacsßitenACaPaB]sμ½nkan;EtticenAsItuNðPaBFmμta. ]sμ ½nEdlmankñúgtaragTI 4.1 KWmanEtGuksuIEsn O2 eT EdlsMxan;sMrab;CIviteyIg. ]sμ ½nGuIRdUEsns‘ulpY (H2S) nig]sμ ½nGuIRdUEsnsüanY KWCa]s μ ½nBulEdlbNþaleGaysøab;. ]sμ ½nCaeRcIneTotdUcCa CO NO2 O3 nig SO2

KWmanlkçN³BulexSay. cMeBaH]sμ ½n He Ne nig Ar Ca]sμ ½nnicltamn½yKImI KWfavamineFVIRbtikm μCamYysarFatu déTeToteT. ]sμ ½nPaKeRcIn KWK μanBN’ elIkElgEt]sμ ½n F2 Cl2 nig NO2. BN’etñatRkem:Aén]sμ½n NO2 CYnkal GacemIleXIjkñúgxül;kxVk;. ]sμ½nTaMgGs;manlkçN³rUbdUcxageRkam³ - ]sμ ½nmanmaD nigRTg;RTaytamvtßúEdlpÞúkva. - ]sμ ½n KWCaPaBénrUbFatuEdlPaKeRcInGacbENÑn)an. - ]sμ ½nnwglaybBa©ÚlKñaTaMgRsug eBlpÞúkvaenAkñúgvtßúEdlpÞúkvaEtmYy. - ]sμ ½nmandg;suIetTabCagGgÁFaturav nigGgÁFaturwg.

206

tarag 4.1 sarFatumYycMnYnEdlsßitenAPaBCa]sμ½nenAsMBaF 1 atm nigsItuNðPaB 250C

Fatu smasFatu H2 GuIRdUEsn N2 m:UelKulGasUt O2 m:UelKulGuksuIEsn O3 GUsUn

F2 m:UelKulPøúyGr Cl2 m:UelKulkør

He eGlüÚm

Ne enGug

Ar Gakug

Kr RKIbtug

Xe esNug

Rn r:adug

HF GuIRdUEsnPøúyG‘rY HCl GuIRdUEsnkørY HBr GuIRdUEsnRbUmY HI GuIRdUEsnGuIy:UdY CO kabUnm:UNUGuksuIt

CO2 kabUnDIGuksuIt

NH3 Gam:Uj:ak; NO GasUtGuksuIt

NO2 GasUtDIGuksuIt

N2O nIRTWGuksuIt

SO2 s<an;F½rDIGuksuIt

H2S GuIRdUEsns‘ulpY HCN GuIRdUEsnsüanY

4>2 sMBaFén]s μ½n

]sμ ½ndak;bEnßmsMBaFeTAelIépÞGVIepSg² Edlvab:HCamYynwgvtßúenaH edaysarEtm:UelKul]s μ ½n KWmanclna \tQb;Qr. mnusSeyIg)anbnSúaMsrIrsaRsþ (Phychologically) y:agRbéBeTAtamsMBaFxül;enACuMvijxøÜneyIg EdlCaTUeTAeyIgmin)andwgeT KWdUcCaRtIEdlmin)andwgBIsMBaFTwkeTAelIxøÜnvaEdr. vaCakargayRsYleTedIm,IbkRsaybMPøWBIsMBaFbriyakas. ]TahrN_RbcaMéf¶mYy KWlT§PaBkñúgkarbWt ePsC¢³edayeRbITueya. karbWtxül;ecjBITueya )anbnßysMBaFenAkñúgTueya. sMBaFbriyakaseTAelIGgÁFaturav kan;EtFM nigCMrujeGayGgÁFaturavrt;eLIgcUlkúñgTueya eTAkEnøgEdlxül;RtUv)aneKbWtecj.

RbB½n§xñatGnþrCati SI énsMBaF sMBaF KWCalkçN³mYykñúgcMeNamlkçN³CaeRcInén]sμ ½nEdleKGacvas;)an. edIm,IgayRsYlyl;faetI eyIgvas;sMBaF]sμ½n)anedayviFINa eyIgRtUvsÁal;xñaténrgVas;sMBaF. eyIgsikSaeTAelIel,Ón nigsMTuH. el,Ón KWRtUv)ankMNt;edaycMgaybMlas;TIeFobnwgry³eBl mann½yfa

cMgaybMlas;TI ¬cr¦ ry³eBl

el,Ón =

207

xñat SI rbs;el,ÓnKW m/s b:uEnþeyIgeRbI cm/s pgEdr. sMTuH KWCabMErbMrYlel,ÓneFobnwgry³eBl sMTuH =

xñatsMTuH KWRtUv)anKitCa m/s2 b¤ cm/s2.

c,ab;TI2énclna EdlRtUv)antak;EtgeLIgeday Sir Isaac Newton enAcugstvtSTI 17 kMNt;edayBakü epSgeTotEdlxñatsMBaFRtUv)anbegáIteLIg KWeGayeQ μaHfakMlaMg. tamc,ab;enHKW kMlaMg = m:as x sMTuH

enAkñúgbribTenH xñat SI rbs;kMlaMg KWjÚ:tun (N) Edl 1 N = 1 kg m/s2. CaTIbBa©b;eyIgeGayniymn½y sMBaF KWCakMlaMgEdlpþl;elImYyxñatépÞKW sMBaF =

xñat SI rbs;sMBaF KW ):asáal; (Pa) Edl 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.

sMBaFbriyakas GatUm nigm:UelKulén]sμ ½nenAkñúgbriyakas dUcKñanwgrUbFatuTaMgLayEdr KWCakmμvtßúénTMnajEpndI. Caplvi)akbriyakas KWENnNab;xøaMgenACitRsTab;EpndICagenAry³kMBs;x<s;. ¬xül;enAxageRkAEdleFVIeGay sMBaFbnÞb;ynþehaHenAkMBs; 9 km KWBi)akdkdegðImNas;¦. tamBitdg;suIetxül;fycuHy:agrh½seBlEdlry³ kMBs;BIdIekIneLIg. karvas;Evg)anbgðajfa RbEhl 50% énbriyakaslatsn§wgkñúg 6,4 km énépÞEpndI 90% kñúg 16 km nig 99% kñúg 32 km. K μanGVIcMELkeT kalNaxül;kan;EtENnNab; KWsMBaFEdleRbIkan;EtxøaMg. kMlaMgEdlBiesaFn_elIépÞNamYyRtUvnwgbriyakasEpndI KWesμ InwgTMgn;KUeLan ¬column¦ énxül;xagelIva. sMBaF briyakas KWCasMBaFEdleRbIedaybriyakasEpndI. tMélBiténsMBaFbriyakas KWGaRs½ynwglkçxNÐTIkEnøg sItuNðPaB nigGakasFatu. etIsMBaFbriyakasRtUv)anvas;EvgedayviFINa? )ar:UEm:Rt KWRbEhlCa]bkrN_EdleKsÁal;CageKsMrab;kar vas;EvgsMBaFbriyakas. )ar:UEm:RtEdlsamBaØ KWmanbMBg;EkvEvgmYy mancugmçagbiTCit nigbMeBjeday)art. RbsinebIbMBg;Ekv KWRtUv)aneKpáab;kñúgcan)art dUcenHxül;minGaccUlkñúgbMBg;Ekv)aneT )artmYycMnYnnwghUrecjBI bMBg;EkvcUlkñúgcan begáItCasuBaØkasenAkMBUlxagelI ¬rUbPaBTI 4.3¦.

bMErbMrYlel,Ónry³eBl

kMlaMg épÞ

208

TMgn;én)artEdlenAsl;kñúgbMBg;Ekv KWRtUv)anRTRTg;edaysMBaFbriyakas manGMeBIelIépÞén)artenAkñúg can. sþg;dasMBaFbriyakas (1 atm) KWes μ Inwg sMBaFEdlpþl;[edaykMBs;)artBitR)akd 760 mm (b¤ 76 cm)

kñúgbMBg;enAsItuNðPaB 0oC enAkMritnIv:UsmuRT. mü:agvijeTot sþgdabriyakas KWes μInwgsMBaF 760mmHg Edl mmHg KWtageGaysMBaFEdleRbIedaykMBs;)art kñúgbMBg;Ekv 1mm. xñat mmHg KWRtUv)aneKehAfa t½r ¬torr¦ KW)anmkBIGñkviTüasaRsþCnCatiGuItalIeQ μaH Evangelista Torriceli EdlCaGñkbegáIt]bkrN_)ar:UEm:Rt. dUcenH 1 torr = 1 mmHg nig 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr

TMnak;TMngrvag xñatsMBaF nig):asáal;KW 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1,01325 x 105 Pa

nigeday 1000 Pa = 1 kPa (kilopascal) 1 atm = 1,01325 x 102 kPa

]TahrN_xageRkam bgðajkarbMlas;bþÚrxñatBI mmHg eTACa atm nig kPa. ]TahrN_ 4.1

sMBaFxageRkAynþehaH Føak;cuHeRkamkMritsþg;dasMBaFbriyakasKYreGaykt;sMKal;eBlEdlkMBugehaHehIr enAry³kMBs;x<s;. dUcenH xül;enAkñúgbnÞb;ynþehaHRtUv)anbBa©ÚledIm,ICYydl;kardkdegðImrbs;GñkdMeNIr. etI sMBaFkñúgbriyakasbnÞb;ynþehaHmanb:unμan atm RbsinebIGMNan]bkrN_)ar:UEmRtKW 688 mmHg? cMelIy sMBaFkñúgbriyakasbnÞb;ynþehaHRtUv)anKNnadUcxageRkam³ sMBaF = 688 mmHg x

1 atm

760 mmHg

rUbPaBTI 4.3 ]bkrN_)ar:UEm:RtsMrab;vas;sMBaFbriyakas. enABIelI)artkñúgbMBg;KWCasuBaØkas. srés )artRtUv)an RTRTg;eday sMBaFbriyakas.

209

= 0,905 atm

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ cUrbMElg 749 mmHg eTACasMBaF atm. ]TahrN_TI 4.2

sMBaFbriyakasenA San Francisco kñúgéf¶mYyKW 732 mmHg. etIéf¶enaHmansMBaFb:un μan ¬KitCa kPa¦? cMelIy tamsmIkarbMElg eyIg)an 1 atm = 1,01325 x 105 Pa = 760 mmHg

eyIgGacKNnasMBaFbriyakastam sMBaF = 732 mmHg x = 9,76 x 104 Pa = 97,6 kPa

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ cUrbMElg 295 mmHg eTACa kPa.

m:aNUEm:Rt (manometer) KWCa]bkrN_mYyEdleKeRbIedIm,Ivas;sMBaF]sμ ½nCagbriyakas. eKalkarN_ énkareRbIR)as;]bkrN_m:aNUEm:Rt KWmanlkçN³RsedogKñanwg]bkrN_)ar:UEm:RtEdr. ]bkrN_m:aNUEm:RtmanBIr RbePTdUcbgðajkñúgrUbPaBTI 4.4. ]bkrN_m:aNUEm:RtbMBg;biTCit (closed-tubemanometer) CaFmμtaRtUv)an eRbIsMrab;vas;sMBaFeRkamsMBaFbriyakas ¬rUbPaBTI 4.4a¦ cMENkÉm:aNUEm:RtbMBg;cMh(open-tube manometer)

KWeRbIsMrab;vas; sMBaFEdlx<s;Cag b¤esμInwgsMBaFbriyakas ¬rUbPaBTI 4.4b¦.

rUbPaBTI 4.4 RbePTm:aNUEm:RtTaMgBIrEdleRbIsMrab;vas;sMBaF]s μ ½n. (a) sMBaF]sμ ½nticCagsMBaFbriyakas. (b) sMBaF]sμ ½nFMCagsMBaFbriyakas.

1,01325 x 105 Pa

760 mmHg

210

esIÞrEtRKb;)ar:UEm:RtTaMgGs; nigm:aNUEm:RtPaKeRcIneRbIR)as;)artCasarFaturav fVIebIvaCasarFatuBulEdl cMhayGacbgáeGayeRKaHfñak;k¾eday. mUlehtuKWedaysar)artmandg;suIetFMNas; (13,6 g/ml) ebIeFobnwg GgÁFaturavdéTeTot. edaysarEtkMBs;énGgÁFaturavkñúgbMBg;Rcas;smamaRtnwgdgsuIetGgÁFaturav KWeyIgGaceFVI ]bkrN_)ar:UEm:Rt nigm:aNUEm:RttUc²)an.

4>3 c,ab;]s μ½n c,ab;]sμ ½nEdleyIgnwgelIkmkeFVIkarsikSaenAkñúgCMBUkenH KWCalT§plénBiesaFn_rab;minGs;BIlkçN³rUbén ]sμ ½nEdl)anRtUvGnuvtþn_enAbNþaRbeTsCaeRcIn. PaBTUeTAnimYy² KWKiteTAelIlkçN³m:aRkUsáÚbénsarFatu]sμ ½n EdltMNageGaybegÁalcMgaykñúgRbvtþisaRsþénviTüasaRsþ. vaedIrtYnaTIcMbgkñúgkarBRgIknUvTsSn³CaeRcInkñúgEpñk KImIviTüa.

TMnak;TMngsMBaF-maD ³ c,ab;b‘y (BOYLE)

enAstvtSTI 17 elak Robert Boyle)aneFVIkarsikSaBIlkçN³én]sμ ½ntamRbB½n§ nigbrimaN. kñúges‘rIén karsikSamYy elak Boyle )antamdaneXIjTMnak;TMngsMBaF-maDénPaKsMNak]sμ½nedayeRbI]bkrN_mYydUc)an bgðajkúñgrUbPaBTI 4.5. kñúgrUbPaBTI 4.5(a) sMBaF)andak;kMlaMgelI]sμ ½ntamry³karbEnßm)arteTAkñúgbMBg; KWes μ InwgsMBaFbriyakas. kñúgrUbPaBTI 4.5(b) kMeNInsMBaFbNþalmkBIkarbEnßm)art KWCalT§plmaD]sμ½nfycuH ehIyvamines μ Inwg kMritén)artenAkñúgbMBg;eT. elak Boyle )ankt;sMKal;eXIjfa eBlEdlsItuNðPaBefr brimaNmaD (V)én]s μ ½nfycuHxN³EdlsMBaF (P) srub)aneRbI ¬KWsMBaFbriyakasrYmnwgsMBaF EdlbNþalmkBI karbEnßm)art¦ekIneLIg. TMnak;TMngrvagsMBaF nigmaDenH KWRtUv)anbgðajeGayeXIjkñúgrUbPaBTI 4.5(a), (b), (c)

nig (d). pÞúyeTAvij RbsinebIsMBaFEdleRbIfycuH enaHmaD]s μ ½nrIkkan;EtFMeLIg. lT§plénrgVas;sMBaF-maD CaeRcIn KWmankñúgtaragTI 4.2.

rUbPaBTI 4.5 ]bkrN_sMrab;sikSaBITMnak;TMngsMBaF nigmaDén]sμ ½n. (a) sMBaF]s μ ½nesμ InwgsMBaFbriyakas. sMBaF)an

eRbIelI]sμ ½nekIneLIgBI (a) eTA (d) eBlEdl)artRtUv)aneKbEnßm RBmKñaenaHEdrmaD]sμ ½nfycuHeTAtamkar TsSTayedayc,ab; Boyle. sMBaFelIsEdleRbIelI]sμ ½nRtUv)anbgðajedaykMritxusKñaén)art (h mmHg). sItuNðPaBén]sμ ½n RtUv)aneKrkSaeGayenAefr.

211

taragTI 4.2 TMnak;TMngsMBaF-maDEdlTTYl)antamc,ab;b‘y P (mmHg) 724 869 951 998 1230 1893 2250

V (arbitrary units) 1,50 1,33 1,22 1,16 0,94 0,61 0,51

PV 1,09 x 103 1,16 x 103 1,16 x 103 1,16 x 103 1,2 x 103 1,2 x 103 1,1 x 103

Tinñn½y P-V Edl)ankt;RtakñúgtaragTI 4.2 KWsßitenACamYynwgkenSamKNitviTüa bgðajBITMnak;TMngRcas³

PV 1

∝

EdlsBaØa ∝ mann½yfasmamaRtnwg. edIm,IbþÚrsBaØa ∝ eTACasBaØaesμ IvijeyIgRtUvsresr³ V = k1 x (4.1a)

Edl k1 efr ehAfaefrsmamaRt. smIkar (4.1a) KWCakenSaménc,ab; Boyle EdlEcgfa brimaNkMNt;én maD]sμ ½nEdlrkSaenAsItuNðPaBefr KWRcassmamaRtnwgsMBaF]sμ ½n. eyIgGacsresrsmIkar (4.1a) eTACa PV = k1 (4.1b) TMrg;énc,ab; Boyle enHeBalfaplKuNénsMBaF nigmaDrbs;]sμ ½nenAsItuNðPaBefr KWefr. KMniténbrimaNmYyEdlsmamaRtnwgbrimaNmYyeTot nigkareRbIefrsmamaRtGacRtUv)anbBa¢ak;tamkar eRbobeFobxageRkam. R)ak;cMNUlRbcaMéf¶rbs;eragPaBynþmYy KWGaRs½yelItMélsMbuRt ¬KitCaduløa¦ nigcMnYn sMbuRtEdllk;)an. ]bmafaeragPaBynþenaH lk;sMbuRtTaMgGs;kñúgtMélEtmYyRbePT enaHeyIgGacsresr R)ak;cMNUl = ¬duløa/sMbuRt¦ x cMnYnsMbuRtlk;)an edaysarEtcMnYnsMbuRtlk;)anERbRbYlBImYyéf¶eTAmYyéf¶ dUcenHR)ak;cMNUlenAéf¶kMNt;mYy KWsmamaRt nwgcMnYnsMbuRtlk;)an³ R)ak;cMNUl ∝ cMnYnsMbuRtlk;)an = C x cMnYnsMbuRtlk;)an Edl C ¬efrsmamaRt¦ KWCatMélkñúgsMbuRtmYy. rUbPaBTI 4.6 bgðajBIviFIsamBaØBIry:agénkarbBa¢ak;lT§plrbs;elak Boyle enAelIExSekag. rUbPaBTI 4.6(a) KWCaExSekag tageGaysmIkar PV = k1 rIÉrUbPaBTI 4.6(b) KWtageGayExSekagénsmIkarsmmUlnwg

VkP 1

1 ×= . KYrkt;sMKal;fa ExSekagTI2 KWCasmIkarlIEnEG‘rénsmIkarEdlmanTMrg; y = mx + bEdl b = 0.

1

P

212

rUbPaBTI4.6 ExSekagbgðajBIbMErbMrYlmaDénPaKsMNak]sμ ½nedaysarsMBaFEdleRbIelI]sμ ½nenHenAeBlEdlsItuNðPaBefr.

(a) ExSekagtageGaysMBaF P nigmaD V . KYrkt;sMKal;fa maDén]sμ ½nekIneTVr eBlEdlsMBaFfycuHBak; kNþal. (b) ExSekagtageGaysMBaF P nigmaD 1/V.

eTaHbIebItMéledayELk²énsMBaF nigmaDGacERbRbYlxøaMgcMeBaHPaKsMNak]s μ ½nkMNt;mYyk¾eday eGay EtenAefr nigbrimaNén]s μ ½nminERbRbYl enaHplKuN P x V KWCanic©kalesμ InwgcMnYnefrdUcKña. dUcenH cMeBaH PaKsMNak]sμ ½nkMNt;mYy enAeRkamlkçxNÐBIrepSgKñaEdlmansItuNðPaBefr eyIg)an³ P1V1 = k1 = P2 V2

b¤ P1V1 = P2V2 (4.2)

Edl V1 nig V2 CamaDenAsMBaF P1 nig P2tamerogKña. bMerIbMras;samBaØmYyénc,ab; Boyle KWeFVIkarTsSTayfaetImaDén]s μ½nnwgrg\T§iBledaykarERbRbYlsMBaF b¤sMBaFEdleRbIeday]sμ ½nnwgrg\T§iBledaykarERbRbYlmaDy:agdUcemþc edayEp¥kelIsmIkar (4.2). ]TahrN_ 4.3 bkRsayBIrebobedaHRsaylMhat;edayeRbIc,ab; Boyle. ]TahrN_ 4.3 e):age):agmYymanmaD 0,55 L enAkMritnIvU:smuRT (1,0 atm) nigRtUv)anbegðaHeLIgdl;kMBs; 6,5 km

EdlenATIenaHmansMBaFRbEhl 0,40 atm. edaysn μtfasItuNðPaBenAefr etIe):age):agenHmanmaDb:unμan? cMelIy eyIgeRbIsmIkar (4.2)³ P1V1 = P2V2 Edl lkçxNÐedIm lkçxNÐcugeRkay P1 = 1,0 atm P2 = 0,40 atm V1 = 0,55 L V2 = ?

dUcenH V2 = V1 x 21

PP

213

= 0,55 L x atm 0,40

atm 1,0

= 1,4 L

karbkRsayBnül; enAeBlEdlsMBaFRtUv)anbBa©úH ¬enAxN³EdlsItuNðPaBefr¦ maDekIneLIg. maDcugeRkay KWFMCagmaD edImrbs;va. dUcenH cMelIyenH KWsmehtupl. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ PaKsMNak]s μ ½nkørmanmaD 946 mL enAsMBaF 726 mmHg. KNnasMBaFén]s μ ½n ¬KitCa mmHg¦ RbsinebI maDRtUv)anbBa©úHmkenARtwm 154 mL enAxN³EdlsItuNðPaBvaefr.

TMnak;TMngsItuNðPaB-maD³ c,ab;qal(CHARLES) nigc,ab;ékluysak; (GAY-LUSSAC) c,ab;b‘y GaRs½yelIsItuNðPaBénRbB½n§ EdlrkSaeGayenAefr. b:uEnþ]bmafa sItuNðPaBERbRbYl etI bMErbMrYlsItuNðPaBman\T§iBlGVIeTAelImaD nigsMBaFén]s μ½n? CadMbUgcUreyIgRkeLkemIl\TæiBlénsItuNðPaBelI maDén]sμ ½n. GñktamdanGegátdMbUgbMputénTMnak;TMngenH KWCaGñkviTüasaRsþCnCati)araMgeQ μaH Jacques Charles

nig Joseph Gay-Lussac. karsikSarbs;BYkKat;)anbgðajfa enAsMBaFefr maDénPaKsMNak]sμ ½nrIkmaDeBlRtUv kMedA nigrYmmaDeBlRtUvRtCak; ¬rUbPaBTI 4.7¦. TMnak;TMngbrimaN KWTak;TgnwgbMErbMrYlsItuNðPaB]sμ ½n ehIy maDkøayeTACaCak;lak;KYreGaykt;sMKal;. ]TahrN_ eyIgtamdan)atuPUtmYyEdlKYreGaycab;GarmμN_ enAeBl eyIgsikSaBITMnak;TMngsItuNðPaB-maDenAlkç½NÐsMBaFepSg²Kña. enAlkç½NÐsMBaFnimYy² ExSekagénmaDeFobnwg sItuNðPaB KWeGayplCabnÞat;Rtg;. edaybnøaybnÞat;Rtg;enHeGaydl;cMnucmaDesμ IsUnü eyIgrkeXIj cMnucEdl kat;CamYyGkSsItuNðPaBenARtg; -273,150 C.

enARtg;cMnucénsMBaFepSgeTot eyIgTTYl)anbnÞat;Rtg;epSg²Kña cMeBaHExSekagmaD-sItuNðPaB b:uEnþeyIg enAEtTTYl)anmaD-sItuNðPaBsUnüdUcKñakat;KñaenARtg;cMnuc -273,150 C Edr ¬rUbPaBTI 4.8¦. ¬kñúgkar Gnuvtþ eyIgGacvas;maD]sμ ½n)anEtkñúgcenøaHsItuNðPaBkMNt;NamYyEtb:ueNÑaH BIeRBaH]s μ ½nkMNCaejIsenAsItuNðPaBTab

rUbPaBTI 4.7 bMErbMrYlmaDénPaKsMNak]s½ μn eTAtamsItuNðPaB enAeBlEdlsMBaFefr. sMBaF)aneRbIelI]sμ ½n KWCa plbUksMBaFbriyakas nigsMBaFEdlbNþalmk BITMgn;én)art.

214

ehIykøayCaGgÁFaturav.

enAqñaM 1848 elak Lord Kelvin )anyl;eXIjBIsar³sMxan;én)atuPUtenH. Kat;)anrkeXIjfa -273,150 C Ca sItuNðPaBsUnüdac;xat (absolute zero) CasItuNðPaBTabbMputEdlTTYl)antamRTwsþI. bnÞab;mkKat;)anerobcM maRtadæansItuNðPaBdac;xat Edl\LÚvenHeKehAfa maRtdæansItuNðPaB Kelvin edaymancMnucsItuNðPaBsUnü dac;xatCacMnucrYm. enAelImaRtadæan KelvinmYy Kelvin KWes μ InwgTMhMmYyGgSa Celsius (C). cMnucxusKñarvag maRtadæan sItuNðPaBdac;xat nigmaRtadæanGgSa C KWfaTItaMgcMnucsUnüRtUv)anrMkilEtb:ueNÑaH. cMnucsMxan;enAelI maRtadæanTaMgBIr KWRtUvKñanwgcMnucdUcxageRkam³ sItuNðPaBsUnüdac;xat³ 0 K = -273,150 C

sItuNðPaBkMNkénTwk³ 273,15 K = 00 C

sItuNðPaBrMBuHénTwk³ 373,15 K = 1000 C kñúgkarKNnaCaeRcIn eyIgnwgeRbIcMnYn 273 CakarCMnYseGaycMnYn 273,15 EdlCalkçxNÐTMnak;TMng K nig 0C. edayGnuelamtamkarÉkPaBKña eyIgeRbI T edIm,ItageGaysItuNðPaBdac;xat Kelvin nig t tageGay sItuNðPaBelImaRtadæan Celsius. maDén]sμ ½nEdlGaRs½yelIsItuNðPaB KWGacKNnatam V ∝ T V = k2T

b¤ TV

= k2 (4.3)

Edl k2CaefrsmamaRt. smIkar (4.3) RtUv)aneKsÁal;faCac,ab; Charles nig Gay-Lussac b¤GacehA)an y:agxøIfac,ab; Charles. c,ab; Charles eBalfamaDén]sμ ½nmYyEdlmanbrimaNkMNt; enAxN³EdlsMBaFefr KWsmamaRtedaypÞal;nwgsItuNðPaBdac;xatén]s μ ½nenH. dUcEdleyIg)anGnuvtþn_cMeBaHTMnak;TMngsMBaF-maDenAlkçxNÐsItuNðPaBefr eyIgGaceRbobeFobTMnak; TMnglkçxNÐmaD-sMBaFcMeBaHPaKsMNak]sμ½nmYyenAeBlEdlsMBaFefr. BIsmIkar (4.3) eyIgGacsresr

2

22

1

1

TV

kTV

== b¤ 2

2

1

1

TV

TV

= (4.4)

rUbPaBTI 4.8 bMErbMrYlmaDPaKsMNak]sμ ½ntambMErbMrYlsItuNðPaB eBlEdlsMBaFefr. ExSekagnImYy²tageGaybMErbMrYl sMBaFmYycMnYn. sMBaFekInBI P1eTA P4. enATIbBa©b; ]sμ ½nTaMgGs;rYmmaD¬køayCarav¦ RbsinebI vacuHRtCak;dl; kMritsItuNðPaBTab. EpñkénExSekagKUsdit² tageGay sItuNðPaB enAelIcMNuckMNk. eBlEdlExSekagTaMgenH RtUv)aneKKUsbnøay ¬EpñkKUsdac;²¦ mkkat;Rtg;cMnucman

maDesμ I 0 nigsItuNðPaBesμ Inwg -273,15oC.

215

Edl V1nig V2 CamaD]sμ ½nenAsItuNðPaB T1nig T2 ¬KitCa Kelvin¦tamerogKña. kúñgkarKNnaCabnþbnÞab; enH eyIgsn μtfasItuNðPaBEdleGayKitCa 0C KWCacMnYnBit dUcenHvaminman\T§iBlelIcMnYnkMritelxCak;lak; (significant figures). ]TahrN_xageRkamBnül;bkRsayBIkareRbIc,ab; Charles.

]TahrN_ 4.4 PaKsMNak]s μ ½nPøúyGr 452-mL RtUv)andutkMedABIsItuNðPaB 220C rhUtdl; 1870C enAlkçxNÐsMBaF efr. etI]sμ ½nPøúyGrmanmaDb:unμaneRkayBIdutkMedA? cMelIy eyIgeRbIsmIkar (4.4)

2

2

1

1

TV

TV

=

Edl lkçxNÐmundutkMedA lkçxNÐeRkaydutkMedA V1 = 452 mL V2 = ? T1 = (22 + 273) K = 295 K T2 = (187 + 273) K = 460 K

dUcenH V2 = V1 x 1

2

TT

= 452 mL x KK

295460

= 705 mL karbkRsayBnül; dUcEdlGñk)andwgehIyfa eBl]sμ ½nRtUv)aneKdutkMedAenAeBlsMBaFefr varIkmaD. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ PaKsMNakén]sμ½nkabUnm:UNUGuksuItmanmaD 3,20 L enAsItuNðPaB 1250C. KNnasItuNðPaBén]sμ ½nenA eBlEdlvamanmaD 1,54 L kñúglkçxNÐsMBaFefr?

TMnak;TMngmaD-brimaN c,ab;Gav:UkaRdU (AVOGADRO) kargarrbs;GñkviTüasRsþCnCatiGuItalIeQμaH Gav:UkaRdU )anbMeBjbEnßmelIkarsikSarbs;elak Boyle

Charles nig Gay-Lussac. enAqñaM 1811 Kat;)anRbkaspSaynUvsm μtikmμmYyEdlEcgfa enAlkçxNÐsItuNðPaB nigsMBaFdUcKña ]sμ½nepSgKñaEdlmanmaDes μ IKñamancMnYnm:UelKuldUcKña ¬b¤cMnYnGatUmdUcKñaRbsinebI]sμ ½nenHCam:UNU GatUm¦. vaGnuelamtamGVIEdlfa maDén]s μ ½nmYyRtUvEtsmamaRteTAnwgcMnYnm:UlénmU:elKulEdlmanvtþman KWmann½yfa³ V ∝ n V = k3n (4.5)

Edl n tageGaycMnYnm:Ul nig k3 KWCaefrsmamaRt. smIkar (4.5) KWCakenSamBiCKNitén c,ab; GavU:kaRdU Edl)anEcgfa enAlkçxNÐsMBaF nigsItuNðPaBefr

216

maDén]sμ ½n KWsmamaRtnwgcMnYnm:Ulén]s μ ½nenaHEdlmanvtþman. BIc,ab;GavU:kaRdUeyIgdwgfa eBlEdl]sμ ½nBIrman RbtikmμCamYyKña maDrbs;vaEdlcUlrYmRbtikmμmanpleFobgayrvagKña. RbsinebIplitplCa]sμ ½n maDrbs;va KWTak;TgnwgmaDénGgÁFatuRbtikrtampleFobgaymYy ¬karBitRtUv)anBnül;bk Rsayedayelak Gay-Lussac BIxagedIm¦. ]TahrN_ sikSaelIkrNIsMeyaKénGam:Uj:ak;BIm:UelKulGuIRdUEsn nigGasUt³ 3H2(g) + N2(g) → 2NH3(g) 3 mol 1 mol 2 mol edayehtufa enAlkçxNÐsItuNðPaB nigsMBaFdUcKña maDén]sμ½nKWsmamaRtnwgcMnYnm:Ulén]sμ ½n enaHeyIg Gacsresr³ 3H2(g) + N2(g) → 2NH3(g) 3 volumes 1 volume 2 volumes

pleFobmaDénm:UelKulGIuRdUEsnnwgm:UelKulGasUtKW 3:1 ehIypleFobm:UelKulGam:Uj:ak;¬GgÁFatukekIt¦ nwgm:UelKulGuIRdUEsn nigm:UelKulGasUt ¬GgÁFatuRbtiikr¦KW 2 : 4 b¤ 1 : 2 ¬rUbPaBTI 4.9¦.

rUbPaBTI 4.9 TMnak;TMngmaD]sμ ½nkñúgRbtikmμKImI. pleFobmaDénm:UelKulGuIRdUEsnnwgm:UelKulGasUtKW 3:1 ehIypleFob m:UelKUlGam:Ujak; ¬GgÁFatukekIt¦ m:UelKulGuIRdUEsn nigGasUtrYmKña ¬GgÁFatuRbtikr¦ KW 2:4 b¤ 1:2.

4>4 smIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§ \LÚveyIgsegçbc,ab;]sμ½nEdleyIg)anBiPakSaknøgmkdUcxageRkam³ c,ab; Boyle : V

P1

∝ ¬enAlkçxNÐ n nig T efr¦ c,ab; Charles : V ∝ T ¬enAlkçxNÐ n nig P efr¦ c,ab;Gav:UkaRdU Avogadro : V ∝ n ¬enAlkçxNÐ P nig T efr¦ eyIgGacbBa©ÚlkenSamTaMgbIrYmKñaedIm,IbegáItCasmIkarEtmYysMrab;lkçN³én]s μ½n³ V∝

PnT

V = RP

nT

b¤ PV = nRT (4.6)

Edl R CaefrsmamaRt KWRtUv)anehAfa efr]sμ ½n. smIkar (4.6) KWRtUv)anehAfa smIkar]s μ ½nbrisuT§

217

EdlBiBN’naGMBITMnak;TMngrvag):ar:aEm:RtTaMgbYn P V T nig n. ]sμ ½nbrisuT§ KWCasmμtikm μén]sμ½nEdllkçN³ sMBaF-maD-sItuNðPaB GacRtUv)anBnül;rYcehIyedaysmIkar]s μ ½nbrisuT§. m:UelKulén]sμ ½nbrisuT§minrgnUvTMnaj b¤cMranrvagKñaeT ehIymaDrbs;vaGacecal)anebIeFobnwgmaDénvtßúEdlpÞúkva. eTaHbICay:agNak¾edayenAkñúg FmμCati KWKμanGVIEdlCa]sμ ½nbrisuT§enaHeT ehIyPaBedayELkBIKñakñúglkçN³én]sμ ½nBitelIehtupllMdab; sItuNðPaB nigsMBaFminman\T§iBlGVIelIkarKNnaeLIy. dUcenHeyIgGaceRbIsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§edIm,IedaHRsay lMhat;CaeRcInsþIBI]sμ ½n. muneBlEdleyIgGacGnuvtþsmIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§eTAelIRbB½n§BitmYy)an eyIgRtUveGaytMélefr]sμ ½n R sin. enAsItuNðPaB 0oC (273,15 K) nigsMBaF l atm ]sμ ½nBitCaeRcInmanlkçN³dUc]sμ ½nbrisuT§. BiesaFn_bgðajfa enAeRkamlkçxNÐTaMgenH lm:Ulén]sμ½nbrisuT§manmaD 22,414L EdlmanmaDFMCagmaDrbs; )al;)asáit dUc)anbgðaj kñúgrUbPaBTI 4.10.

rUbPaBTI 4.10 kareRbobeFobmaDm:UlenAlkçxNÐ STP ¬EdlmanmaDRbEhl 22,4 L¦CamYynwg)al;)asáitmYy.

lkçxNÐsItuNðPaB 0oC nigsMBaF l atm KWehAfalkç½NÐsþg;daénsItuNðPaB nigsMBaF EdlsresrCaGkSr kat; STP. BIsmIkar (4.6) eyIgGacsresr³ R =

nTPV

= )15,273()1()414,22()1(

KxmolLxatm

= 0,082057 mol .K atm . L

= 0,082057 L.atm/K.mol

kñúgkarKNnaPaKeRcIn eyIgsMrYlelxeRkayek,ósrbs; R eTACa (0,0821 L.atm/K.mol) nigeRbI 22,41L CamaDm:Ulén]sμ ½nenAlkçxNÐ STP. ]TahrN_xageRkambgðajfa RbsinebIeyIgdwgbrimaN maD nigsItuNðPaBén]sμ ½nmYy eyIgGacKNna sMBaFrbs;vaedayeRbIsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§.

]TahrN_ 4.5

218

s<an;F½rGicsaPøúyGrY (SF6) KWCa]s μ ½nK μanBN’ Kμankøin nigGskmμ μ. KNnasMBaF ¬KitCa atm¦ EdlRtUv )aneKbBa©Úl l,82m:Ulén]sμ ½nkñúgepIgelah³mYyEdlmanmaD 5,43 L enAsItuNðPaB 69,50C. cMelIy tamsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§ eyIg)an P =

VnRT

= L 5,43

K 273) mol)(69,5 .atm/K . L 1mol)(0,082 (1,82 +

= 9,42 atm

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ KNnamaD ¬KitCaL¦ én]s μ ½nGasUtm:UNUGuksuIt NO cMnYn 2,12m:UlenAlkç½NÐsMBaF 6,54 atm nig 760 C. edaymaDm:Ulén]sμ ½nenAlkçxNÐ STP manmaD 22,41L . eyIgGacKNnamaD]sμ ½nenAlkçxNÐ STP eday mincaM)ac;eRbIsmIkar]s μ½nbrisuT§. ]TahrN_ 4.6 KNnamaD ¬KitCa L¦én]sμ ½n CO2Edlmanm:as 7,40 genAlkç½NÐ STP. cMelIy eday lm:Ulén]sμ ½nbrisuT§manmaD 22,41 LenAlkçxNÐ STP eyIg)an V = 7,40 gCO2 x

22

2

CO mol 141,22

CO g 44,01CO mol 1 L

×

= 3,77 L

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ etI]sμ ½nGIuRdUEsnkørYmanmaD ¬KitCa L¦b:unμan ebIvamanm:as 49,8 genAlkçxNÐ STP? smIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§ KWmansar³sMxan;cMeBaHlMhat;GMBIPaKsMNak]sμ ½nCaeRcIn EdlminTak;TgnwgbMErbMrYl P

V T nig n. b:uEnþeBlxøHeyIgRtUvkaredaHRsaylMhat;EdlTak;TgnwgbMErbMrYl P V nig T b¤brimaNén]s μ ½n. enAeBllkçxNÐERbRbYl eyIgRtUvEteRbIR)as;TMrg;smIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§EdlTak;TgnwgbMErbMrYllkçxNÐedIm nig lkçxNÐsMerc. BIsmIkar (4.6) eyIgGacTaj)an R =

11

11

TnVP

¬enAlkçxNÐedIm¦

nig R = 22

22

TnVP

¬enAlkçxNÐsMerc¦

dUcenHeyIg)an

22

22

11

11

TnVP

TnVP

=

RbsinebI n1 = n2 ¬EdlCaFmμtavaes μIKñaBIeRBaHcMnYnm:Ulén]sμ ½nminERbRbYleT¦ smIkarenHGacsresr

219

2

22

1

11

TVP

TVP

= (4.7)

karGnuvtþelIsmIkar (4.7) KWmanenAkñúg]TahrN_BIrxageRkam. ]TahrN_ 4.7

BBuH]sμ ½ntUcmYyelcecjBI)atRtBaMgenAsItuNðPaB 80C nigsMBaF 6,4 atm eTAelIépÞTwkEdlmansItuNð- PaB 250C nigsMBaF 1 atm. KNnamaDsMerc ¬KitCa mL¦énBBuH]sμ ½nenH ebImaDedImrbs;va 2,1 mL. cMelIy eyIgcab;epþImsresr)an lkçxNÐedIm lkçxNÐsMerc P1 = 6,4 atm P2 = 1,0 atm V1 = 2,1 mL V2 = ? T1 = (8 + 273) K = 281 K T2 = (25 + 273) K = 298 K

brimaN]sμ½nenAkñúgBBuH]sμ ½n KWenAefr dUcenH n1 = n2. edIm,IKNnamaDsMerc V2eyIgGacsresrsmIkar (4.7) dUcxageRkam³ V2 = V1 x

1

2

2

1

TT

PP

×

= 2,1 mL x K 281K 298

atm 1,0atm 6,4

×

= 14 mL

dUcenH maDBBuH]sμ ½nekInBI 2,1 mL eTA l4 mL KWedaysarsMBaFTwkfycuH nigsItuNðPaBekIneLIg. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ ]sμ ½nmYymanmaDedIm 4,0 L enA l,2 atm nig 660C rgnUvlkçxNÐbMElgrhUtdl;)anmaD l,7 L enA sItuNðPaB 420C. etIsMBaFsMercrbs;vab:un μan? sn μtfacMnYnm:Ulrbs;vaminERbRbYl. ]TahrN_ 4.8

f cMelIy edaymaD nigbrimaNrbs;]sμ ½nminERbRbYl KW V1 = V2 nig n1 = n2. dUcenHsmIkar (4.7)Gacsresr

2

2

1

1

TP

TP

=

GakugCa]sμ ½nniclEdleRbIkñúgGMBUlePøIgedIm,IbWtykcMhay énsréser:suIsþg;. GMBUlePøIgmYycMnYnman GakugenAsMBaF 1,20 atm

nigsItuNðPaB 180C RtUv)andutkMedArhUtdl; 850CenAxN³EdlmaD rbs;vaefr. KNnasMBaFsMerc ¬KitCa atm¦.

GMBUlePøIgGKÁisnICaFm μtabMeBj eday]sμ ½nGakug.

220

lkçxNÐedIm lkçxNÐsMerc P1 = 1,20 atm P2 = ? T1 = (18 + 273) K = 291 K T2 = (85 + 273) K = 358 K

sMBaFsMercKW P2 = P1 x

1

2

TT

= 1,20 atm x K 291K 358

= 1,48 atm

karbkRsayBnül; enAlkçxNÐmaDefr sMBaFén]s½μn KWsmamaRtnwgsItuNðPaBdac;xat K. dUcenHkñúg]TahrN_enH sMBaFekIn KWsmehtupl. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ PaKsMNak]s μ ½nGuksuIEsnenA 0,97 atmRtUv)anbBa©úHRtCak;BIsItuNðPaB 210CeTA -680C EdlmanmaDefr. etIsMBaFsMerc¬KitCa atm¦rbs;vamanb:un μan?

karKNnarkdg;suIet RbsinebIeyIgsresrsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§eLIgvij eyIgGacKNnadg;suIetrbs;]sμ ½ntam³

RTP

Vn

=

cMnYnm:Ulén]s μ ½n n GacKNnatam n = Mm

Edl m Cam:as]sμ ½n KitCa g ehIyµ Cam:asmU:l. dUcenH RTP

MVm

= edaysardg;suIet d KWCam:askñúgmYyxñatmaD eyIgGacsresr d =

RTPM

Vm

= (4.8)

mindUcmU:elKulkñúgGgÁFaturwg nigraveT m:UelKul]sμ ½nKWenAdac;BIKñaedaycMgaymYyEdlFM ebIeFobnwgTMhM rbs;va. dUcenHehIy)anCadg;suIet]s μ ½n KWTabxøaMgNas;enAeRkamlkçxNÐbriyakas. edaymUlehtuenH dg;suIet]sμ ½nRtUveKKitCa g kñúg 1 L (g/L) CaCagKitvaCa g kñúg l mL (g/mL) dUcbgðajkñúg]TahrN_xageRkam. ]TahrN_ 4.9 KNnadg;suIeténGam:Uj:k; (NH3)KitCa g/ LenAsMBaF 752 mmHg nigsItuNðPaB 550C. cMelIy edIm,IbMElgsMBaFxagelIenHeTACasMBaFbriyakas eyIgsresr P = 752 mmHg x

mmHg 760atm 1

221

= (752/760) atm

edayeRbIsmIkar (4.8) nig T = 273 + 55 = 328 K eyIg)an d =

RTPM

= K) mol)(328 .atm/K . L (0,0821

g/mol) (17,03 x atm (752/760)

= 0,626 g/L

karbkRsayBnül; kúñgxñat g/ mL dg;suIet]sμ ½nKW 6,26 x 10-4 g/mL EdlCacMnYnd¾tUcbMput. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ etIdg;suIet¬KitCa g/ L¦rbs;G‘uyr:aj:ÚmGuicsaPøúyGrYmanb:unμanenA 779 mmHg nig620C?

m:asm:UlénsarFatu]s μ½n BIGVIEdleyIg)anelIkeLIgknøgmk Gñkmankarcab;GarmμN_BIm:asm:Ulrbs;sarFatumYyRtUv)ankMNt;eday karBinitüelIrUbmnþrbs;va nigbUkm:asm:UlénGatUmFatubgárbs;va. b:uEnþviFIenHeRbI)ancMeBaHrUbmnþBitEdlsarFatu mYyRtUv)aneKsÁal;Etb:ueNÑaH. kñúgkarGnuvtþCak;Esþg KImIviTUrEtgEtelIkykkrNIsarFatuEdlminsÁal; b¤sarFatu EdlsÁal;FatubgáxøH. RbsinebIsarFatuEdlminsÁal;Ca]sμ½n m:asm:Ulrbs;vaGacRtUv)ankMNt;edaysmIkar]sμ½n brisuT§. GVIEdlcaM)ac;enaHKWtMéldg;suIetEdlkMNt;edayBiesaFn_ ¬b¤Tinñn½ym:as nigmaD¦cMeBaH]sμ ½nenA lkçxNÐ sÁal;sItuNðPaB nigsMBaF. tamsmIkar (4.8) eyIg)an ³ M =

PdRT

(4.9)

kñúgBiesaFn_Cak;Esþg GMBUlmYyEdlsÁal;maDRtUv)anbMeBjedaysarFatu]s μ ½n EdlsßiteRkamkarsikSa RsavRCav. sItuNðPaB nigsMBaFrbs;PaKsMNak]s μ ½nRtUv)aneKkt;Rta ehIym:assrubrbs;GMBUlbUknwgPaKsMNak ]sμ ½nRtUv)aneKKNna ¬rUbPaBTI 4.11¦. bnÞab;mkGMBUlenHRtUv)aneKbWtykxül;ecjGs; ehIyføwgsarCafμ I. pldk m:asrvagm:asGMBUlnigPaKsMNak]sμ½nCamYym:asGMBUl KWCam:asrbs;]sμ ½n. dg;suIetén]s μ ½n KWes μ Inwg m:asrbs;va EckeGaymaDrbs;GMBUl. Caf μImþgeTot ebIeyIgsÁal;dg;suIet]sμ ½nmYy eyIgGacKNnam:asm:Ul énsarFatuenH)an edayeRbIsmIkar (4.9). ]TahrN_ 4.10 bgðajBIkarKNnaenH.

222

]TahrN_ 4.10

KImIviTUmñak;)ansMeyaKsmasFatu]sμ ½nBN’ébtg-elOgén]sμ ½nkør nigGuksuIEsn ehIyrkeXIjfadg;suIet rbs;vaKW 7,71 g/L enAsItuNðPaB 360C nig 2,88 atm. KNnam:asm:Ulrbs;smasFatuenH nigkMNt;rUbmnþm:UelKul rbs;va. cMelIy eyIgCMnYskñúgsmIkar (4.9))an³ M =

PdRT

= atm 2,88

K 273) mol)(36 .atm/K . L 1g/L)(0,082 (7,71 + = 67,9 g/mol

eyIgGackMNt;rUbmnþm:UelKulénsmasFatuenHtamBiesaFn_ nigPaBlMeGog edayeRbIEtcMeNHdwgGMBIm:as m:Ulrbs;kø (35,45 g) nigGuksuIEsn (16,00 g). eyIgdwgfasmasFatuEdlmanGatUm ClmYy nigGatUm OmYy manm:asm:Ul 51,45 g EdlmantMélTabxøaMg b:uEnþebIm:asm:UlénsmasFatuenH bgáeLIgBIGatUm ClBIr nigGatUm O mYyenaHKW 86,90 g EdltMélenHx<s;eBk. dUcenHsmasFatuenHRtUvEtmanGatUm ClmYy nigGatUm OBIr nigman rUbmnþm:UelKul ClO2 EdlRtUvnwgm:as 67,45 g. lMhat;Gnuvtþn__ dg;suIeténsmasFatusrIragÁ]sμ ½nmYyKW 3,38 g/L enAsItuNðPaB 400C nig 1,97 atm. etIm:asm:Ulrbs;va manb:unμan? smIkar (4.9) CasmIkarkøaymkBIsmIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§ eyIgGacKNna)anEdrnUvm:asm:UlsarFatu]sμ ½n edayeRbIsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§ dUc)anbgðajxageRkam. ]TahrN_ 4.11

karviPaKFatuKImIénsmasFatu]sμ ½nmYy)anbgðajeGayeXIjfa smasFatuenHman 33,0% Si nig 67,0% F KitCam:as. enAsItuNðPaB 350C maD 0,210 L énsmasFatuenHmansMBaF 1,70 atm. ebIm:asénmaD 0,210 L

rUbPaBTI 4.11 ]bkrN_sMrab;vas;dg;suIetén]sμ ½n. GMBUlEdlsÁal;maD RtUv)anbMeBjeday]sμ ½n eRkamlkçxNÐsikSaenAsItuNðPaB nig sMBaFCak;lak;mYy. dMbUgGMBUlRtUv)anføwg rYcRtUv)anbWtxül; ecj ehIyføwgmþgeTot. plsgm:asKWCam:asén]sμ ½n. eday dwgmaDén]sμ ½n eyIgGacKNnadg;suIet]sμ ½n)an.

223

rbs;smasFatuenHmanm:as 2,38 g. KNnarUbmnþm:UelKulénsmasFatuenH. cMelIy dMbUgeyIgkMNt;rkrUbmnþgayrbs;smasFatuenHmunsin nSi = 33,0 g Si x

Si g 28,09Si mol 1

= 1,17 mol Si

nF = 67,0 g F x F g 19,00

F mol 1 = 3,53 mol F

dUcenH rUbmnþgayénsmasFatuenHKW Si1,17F3,53 b¤ SiF3. bnÞab;mkeyIgKNnarkcMnYnm:Ul Edlman kñúgm:assmasFatu 2,38 g. BIsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§ eyIg)an n =

RTPV

= K) mol)(308 .atm/K . L (0,0821

L) atm)(0,210 (1,70 = 0,0141 mol

dUcenH m:asm:Ulrbs;smasFatuenHKW M =

mol 0,0141g 2,38

= 169 g/mol

m:asm:UlrUbmnþgayrbs; SiF3 KW 85,09 g. dUcenH rUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;smasFatuenHRtUvEtCa Si2F6

BIeRBaHfa 2 x 85,09 b¤ 170,2 g KWmantMélRbhak;RbEhlnwg 169 g. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ smasFatu]s μ ½nmYyman 78,14% B nig 21,86% H. enAsItuNðPaB 270C maD 74,3 mL én]sμ½nman sMBaF 1,12 atm. RbsinebI]sμ ½nenHmanm:as 0,0934 g etIvamanrUbmnþm:UelKuly:agdUcemþc?

4>5 esÞIsüÚemRTI]s μ½n eyIg)aneRbITMnak;TMngrvagbrimaN¬KitCam:Ul¦ nigm:as¬KitCaRkam¦ énGgÁFatuRbtikr nigGgÁFatukekIt edIm,IedaHRsaylMhat;esÞIsüÚemRTI. enAeBlEdlGgÁFatuRbtikr nigGgÁFatukekItCa]s μ ½n eyIgGaceRbITMnak;TMng rvagbrimaN ¬KitCam:Ul n¦ nigmaD (V) kñúgkaredaHRsaylMhat;TaMgenH ¬rUbPaBTI 4>12¦. ]TahrN_ xageRkamenH bgðajBIviFIEdlc,ab;]sμ ½nRtUv)aneRbIkñúgkarKNnaTaMgenH.

rUbTI 4.12 karKNnaesÞIsüÚemRTIEdlTak;Tgnwg]s μ ½n

]TahrN_ 4.12

brimaNGgÁFatuRbtikr ¬CaRkamb¤maD¦

m:UlGgÁFatuRbtikr m:UlGgÁFatu kekIt brimaNGgÁFatukekIt ¬CaRkamb¤maD¦

224

KNnamaDGuksuIEsn ¬KitCa L¦ enA STP EdlRtUvkarsMrab;cMehHsBVén 2,64 L GaesTIELnenA STP: 2C2H2 + 5O2 → 4CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

cMelIy edayehtufa C2H2 nig O2 KWCa]sμ ½nEdlRtUv)anvas;enAsItuNðPaB nigsMBaFdUcKña. dUcenH tamc,ab; Gav:UkaRdÚmaDEdlcUlrYmRbtikmμrbs;va KWTak;TgnwgelxemKuNkñúgtulüsmIkar mann½yfa 2Lén C2H2 manRbtikmμ CamYy 5L én O2 . tampleFobelxemKuNenH eyIgGacKNnamaD¬KitCa L¦énO2 EdlnwgcUlrYmRbtikmμCamYy 2,64 L énC2H2. maDO2 = 2,64 L C2H2 x

22

2

5

Η 2Ο

LCL

= 6,60 L O2

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ edaysn μtfasItuNðPaB nigsMBaFminERbRbYl KNnamaDO2 ¬KitCaL¦EdlRtUvkarsMrab;cMehHsBVmaD 14,9 L ]sμ ½n C4H10: 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(l)

]TahrN_ 4.13 sUdüÚmnIRTY (NaN3) RtUv)aneRbIkñúgeBagrfynþmYycMnYn. dMenIrTgÁicKñaeFVIeGaypÞúHeLIgnUvRbtikm μbMEbk NaN3 dUcxageRkam³ 2NaN3(s) → 2Na(s) + 3N2(g)

]sμ ½nGasUt)anbegáIteLIgy:agqab;rh½s eFVIeGayeBageLIge):agenAcenøaHGñkebIkbr nigkBa©k;rfynþ. KNnamaDN2 )anekIteLIgenAsItuNðPaB 21

0C nig 823 mmHg tamRbtikmμbMEbkén 60,0 g NaN3.

cMelIy BIsmIkarlMnwg eyIgeXIjfaman 2m:Ul NaN3 nig 3m:Ul N2. cMnYnm:Ulén N2 EdlkekItBI 60,0g NaN3 KW m:Ul N2 = 60,0 g NaN3 x

3

2

3

3

23

NaN 65,02g 1mol

molNaNmolNa

×ΝΝ

= 1,38 mol N2

maDén 1,38m:Ul N2 GacRtUv)anKNnatamsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§³ V =

PnRT

= atm (823/760)

K) mol)(294 .atm/K . L 1mol)(0,082 (1,38 = 30,85 L

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ smIkarsMrab;emtabUlIsbMEbkKøúykUs (C6H12O6) KWdUcKñanwgsmIkarcMehHKøúykUskñúgxül;Edr³ C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

KNnamaD CO2 EdlkekItenAsItuNðPaB 370C nigsMBaF 1 atm enAeBlEdl 5,60 g KøúykUsRtUv)ancUl

225

rYmRbtikmμGs;. ]TahrN_ 4.14 sUluysüúgravénlIcUmGuIRduksuItRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IbnSúT§xül;kñúgyanGvkas nignavamuCTwkBIeRBaHvaRsUbyk kabUnDIGuksuIttamsmIkarRbtikmμ³ 2LiOH(aq) + CO2(g) → Li2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

sMBaFrbs; CO2 enAkñúgbnÞb;GvkasmanmaD 2,4 x 105 L KW 7,9 x 10-3 atm enA 312 K. sUluysüúg LiOH

EdlmaDrbs;vaGacecal)an RtUv)AneKbBa©ÚleTAkñúgbnÞb;enH. PøamenaH sMBaF CO2 fycuHmkenARtwmEt 1,2 x 10-4

atm. etI Li2CO3 kekIt)anb:unμanRkamBIRbtikmμenH? cMelIy dMbUgeyIgKNnacMnYnm:Ul CO2 Edl)aneRbIkñúgRbtikm μ. karfycuHénsMBaFBI (7,9 x 10-3 mk 1,2 x 10-4) b¤ 7,8 x 10-3 atm KWRtUvKñanwgbrimaN CO2 EdleRbIedIm,IcUlrYmkñúgRbtikm μ. tamsmIkar]s μ½nbrisuT§ eyIg)an n =

RTPV

= K) mol)(312 .atm/K . L (0,0821

L) 10 x atm)(2,4 01 x (7,8 53−

= 73 mol

tamsmIkareyIgeXIjfa 1 mol CO2 eyIgTTYl)an 1 mol Li2CO3. dUcenH brimaN Li2CO3 EdlkekItKW 73

mol Edr. eday Li2CO3 manm:asm:Ul 73,89 g enaHeyIgGacKNnam:asrbs;va³ m:as Li2CO3 kekIt = 73 mol Li2CO3 x

32

32

COLi mol 1COLi g 73,89

= 5,4 x 103 g Li2CO3

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ _ PaKsMNak]s μ ½nGuIRdUEsnkørY 2,14 L enAsMBaF 2,61atm nigsItuNðPaB 280C KWrlayTaMgRsugkñúg 668 mL TwkedIm,IbegáIt)anCasUluysüúgGasuItkørIRDic. KNnakMhab;Cam:Ul(molarity) énsUluysüúgGasuItenH.

4>6 c,ab;sMBaFedayEpñkrbs;dal;tun Dalton mkTl;RtwmenH eyIg)ansikSaBIlkçN³rbs;sarFatu]sμ ½nsuT§ bu:EnþkarsikSatamBiesaFn_Cajwkjab;EtgEt Tak;Tgnwgl,ay]sμ ½n. ]TahrN_ karsikSaBIxül;kxVk; eyIgmancMNab;Garm μN_elITMnak;TMngsMBaF-maD-sItuNð PaBénPaKsMNakxül;Edlman]sμ½neRcInRbePT. kñúgkrNIEbbenH nigral;krNITaMgLayEdlTak;Tgnwgl,ay ]sμ ½n sMBaF]sμ ½nsrubKWTak;Tgnwg sMBaFedayEpñk mann½yfaCasMBaFén]sμ ½nnImYy²kñúgl,ay. enAqñaM1801elak Dalton)anbegáItc,ab;mYy Edlbc©úb,nñRtUv)aneKsÁal;faCac,ab;sMBaFedayEpñkrbs; Dalton EdlEcgfa sMBaF srubénl,ay]sμ ½nKWCaplbUkénsMBaFedayEpñknImYy². cUreFVIkarsikSaelIkrNIEdll,aymYyman]s μ ½nBIrKW A nigBsßitenAkñúgvtßúpÞúkmYymanmaD V. sMBaFrbs;

226

]sμ ½nA EdleyagtamsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§KW PA = An

VRT

EdlnAKWCacMnYnm:Ul]sμ ½nA. dUcKñaenHEdr sMBaF]sμ ½nBKW PB = Bn

VRT

kñúgl,ay]sμ ½n AnigB sMBaFsrub PT KWCalT§plénkarTgÁicrbs;mU:elKul]sμ½n A nigBCamYyépÞvtßúpÞúkva. dUcenH tamc,ab; Dalton PT = PA + PB

= ( AnVRT ) + ( Bn

VRT )

= VRT

( BA nn + )

= V

nRT

nCacMnYnm:Ulsrubén]sμ ½n Edl n = nA + nB ehIy PA nigPBCasMBaFedayEpñkén]sμ½n AnigB tamerogKña. dUcenH cMeBaHl,ay]sμ ½n sMBaFsrub PTKWGaRs½yEtnwgcMnYnmU:lsrubén]s μ ½n minGaRs½yelIFmμCatiénm:UelKul ]sμ ½neT. CaTUeTA sMBaFsrubénl,ay]sμ ½nRtUv)ankMNt;eday PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + …

Edl P1 P2 P3 … CasMBaFedayEpñkén]s μ½n 1 2 3 …. ediMm,IbgðajeGayeXIjfasMBaFedayEpñkTak;Tg nwgsMBaFsrub eyIgsikSaelIkrNIl,aymYyman]sμ ½nBIrA nigB. edayEck PAnwgPT eyIg)an³

T

A

PP

= VRTnn

VRTn

BA

A

/)(/

+

= BA

A

nnn+

= XA

Edl XA ehAfaRbPaKm:Ulén]s μ ½nA. RbPaKm:Ul KWCacMnYnEdlbBa¢ak;BIpleFobéncMnYnm:Ul]sμ ½nmYyeFob nwgcMnYnm:Ulén]sμ½nTaMgGs;kñúgl,ay. RbPaKm:UlCanic©kaltUcCag 1 elIkElgEtkñúgl,ay]sμ ½n manEt]sμ ½n A mYyKt;. kñúgkrNIenH nB = 0 ehIy XA = nA/nA = 1. eyIgGacsresrsMBaFedayEpñkén]sμ ½n A nigBeday PA = XAPT nig PB = XBPT

KYrkt;sMKal;fa plbUkénRbPaKm:Ulrbs;l,ay]sμ ½nmYyKWRtUvEtes μ Inwg 1. RbsinebI l,aymYyman]s μ ½n EtBIr eyIg)an XA + XB = [nA/(nA + nB)] + [nB/(nA + nB)] = 1

RbsinebIRbB½n§mYyman]sμ ½neRcInCagBIr enaHsMBaFedayEpñkén]sμ ½nTI i KWTak;TgnwgsMBaFsrubtamry³ Pi = XiPT (4.10) Edl Xi CaRbPaKm:Ulrbs;sarFatu i.

227

etIsMBaFedayEpñkRtUv)anKNnatamviFINa? ]bkrN_m:aNUEm:tGacvas;)anEtsMBaFsrubénl,ay]sμ ½nEt bu:eNÑaH. edIm,IrksMBaFedayEpñk eyIgRtUvdwgRbPaKm:Ulrbs;smasPaBbgá EdlTak;TgCamYykarviPaKKImIy:ag l¥itl¥n;. viFIvas;sMBaFedayEpñkPaKeRcIn KWeRbIm:ass,icRtUEm:t. TMnak;TMngGaMgtg;suIeténkMBUl (peak) enAkñúg m:ass,ic KWsmamaRtnwgbrimaN nigRbPaKm:Ulrbs;]s μ ½nEdlmanvtþman. BIRbPaKm:Ul nigsMBaFsrub eyIgGacKNnasMBaFedayEpñkrbs;smasPaBbgáedayELk² dUcbgðajkñúg ]TahrN_ 4.15. kareRbIc,ab;sMBaFedayEpñkrbs; Dalton cMeBaHkarBak;]bkrN_muCTwk KWRtUv)anBiPakSakñúgGtßbT mYysþIGMBIKImIkñúgkarGnuvtþ (Chemistry in Action). ]TahrN_ 4.15

l,ay]sμ ½nmYyman 4,46m:UlenGug (Ne) 0,74m:UlGakug (Ar) nig 2,15m:UlesNug (Xe). KNnasMBaF edayEpñkrbs;]sμ½n ebIsMBaFsrubKW 2,00 atm enAsItuNðPaBkMNt;mYy. cMelIy RbPaKm:Ulrbs; NeKW XNe =

XeArNe

Ne

nnnn

++ =

molmol 2,15 + 0,74 + mol 4,46mol 4,46

= 0,607

BIsmIkar (4.10) PNe = XNePT = 0,607 x 2,00 atm = 1,21 atm

dUcKñaenHEdr PAr = 0,10 x 2,00 atm = 0,20 atm

nig PXe = 0,293 x 2,00 atm = 0,586 atm

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ PaKsMNak]s μ ½nFmμCatimYyman 8,24m:Ulemtan (CH4) 0,421m:UleGtan (C2H6) nig 0,116m:UlRbU):an (C3H8). ebIsMBaFsrubrbs;]sμ½nKW 1,37 atm cUrKNnasMBaFedayEpñkrbs;]sμ ½n? c,ab;sMBaFedayEpñkrbs; Dalton mansar³sMxan;sMrab;KNnamaD]s μ ½nEdlRtg)anenABIelITwk. ]TahrN_ eBlb:UtasüÚmkør:atRtUv)andutkMedA vabMEbkeTACa KCl nigO2³ 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

]sμ ½nGuksuIEsnGacRtg)anenABIelITwkdUcbgðajkñúgrUbTI 4.13. dMbUg dbEdlpáab;bMeBjedayTwkeBj. eBlEdl]sμ ½nGuksuIEsnkekIteLIg BBuH]sμ ½neTACMnYsTwkkñúgdbenAEpñkxagelI. viFIRtgyk]sμ ½nenH KWsn μtfa ]sμ ½nenHminmanRbtikmμCamYyTwk nigminrlaykñúgTwk. karsnμtenH KWmanRbsiT§iPaBcMeBaH]sμ ½nGuksuIEsn b:uEnþ minEmnsMrab;]sμ ½nTaMgGs;eTdUcCa NH3 rlaykñúgTwk. ]sμ½nGuksuIEsnEdlRtg)antamviFIenHminsuT§eT BIeRBaH cMhayTwk k¾manvtþmanenAkñúgdbenHEdr. sMBaFsrubrbs;]s μ½n KWes μ InwgplbUkénsMBaFedayEpñkén]s μ ½n GuksuIEsn nigcMhayTWk³

228

PT = OHO PP22

+

ehtudUcenH eyIgRtUvKitBIsMBaFEdlbNþalmkBIvtþmancMhayTwk eBleyIgKNnabrimaN O2 kekIt . taragTI4.3bgðajBIsMBaFcMhayTwkenAsItuNðPaBepSg²Kña.Tinñn½yTaMgenH RtUv)anKUsCaExSekagkñúgrUbPaBTI 4.14.

rUbPaBTI 4.13 ]bkrN_sMrab;Rtgyk]s μ ½nelIépÞTwk. ]sμ ½nGuksuIEsnEdlekItBIkardutkMedAb:UtasüÚmkør:at (KClO3) enAeBl manvtþmanbrimaNm:g;kaENsDIGuksuIt (MnO2) tictYc EdlCYybegáInel,ÓnRbtikmμRtUv)an begáItCaBBuH tamry³Twk ehIyRtUv)anRtgykkñúgdbdUc)anbgðajkñúgrUb. TwkEdledImeLIymanenAkñúgdbRtUv)anrujcUl eTAkñúgepIgTwkeday]sμ ½nGuksuIEsn.

taragTI 4.3 sMBaFcMhayTwkenAsItuNðPaBepSg²Kña sItuNðPaB (0C) sMBaFcMhayTwk (mmHg) 0 4,58 5 6,54 10 9,21 15 12,79 20 17,54 25 23,76 30 31,82 35 42,18 40 55,32 45 71,88 50 92,51 55 118,04 60 149,38 65 187,54 70 233,7 75 289,1 80 355,1 85 433,6 90 525,76 95 633,90 100 760,00

]TahrN_ 4.16 bgðajBIrebobeRbIR)as;c,ab; Dalton edIm,IKNnabrimaN]sμ ½nEdlRtg)anenABIelITwk. ]TahrN_ 4.16

]sμ ½nGuksuIEsnkekItBIRbtikmμbMEbkénb:UtasüÚmkør:at RtUv)aneKRtgykdUcbgðajkñúgrUbPaBTI 4.13. maD GuksuIEsn 128 mLRtUv)aneKRtgenAsItuNðPaB 240C nigsMBaFbriyakas 762 mmHg. KNnam:as¬KitCaRkam¦

229

]sμ ½nGuksuIEsnEdlTTYl)an. sMBaFcMhayTwkenA 240C KW 22,4 mmHg. cMelIy CMhandMbUg eyIgKNnasMBaFedayEpñkrbs; O2. eyIgdwgfa PT = OHO PP

22+

dUcenH OHTO PPP22

−= = 762 mmHg – 22,4 mmHg = 740 mmHg

= 740 mmHg x mmHg 760 atm) (1

= 0,974 atm

tamsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§ eyIgGacsresr³ PV = nRT =

Mm

x RT

Edl m nig M KWCam:asO2 EdlRtg)an nigm:asm:UlO2tamerogKña. eyIg)an m =

RTPVM

=K 24) mol)(273 .atm/K . L (0,0821

g/mol) L)(32,00 atm)(0,128 (0,974+

= 0,164 g

rUbPaBTI 4.14 sMBaFcMhayTwkCaGnuKmn_nwgsItuNðPaB. kt;sMKal;fa enAcMnucrMBuHrbs;Twk (100oC) mansMBaF 760 mmHg

Edlmanesμ Inwg 1 atm.

lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ ]sμ ½nGuIRdUEsnEdlkekIteLIgBIRbtikm μrvagelah³kal;süÚmCamYyTwk RtUv)aneKRtgykdUckñúgrUbPaBTI 4.13. maD]sμ ½nRtg)anKW 641 mLenAsItuNðPaB 300C nigsMBaF 988 mmHg. etI]sμ ½nGuIRdUEsn EdlRtg)an manm:as ¬KitCaRkam¦b:unμan? ebIsMBaFcMhayTwkenAsItuNðPaB 300C KW 31,82 mmHg. 4>7 RTwsþIsuIenTicm:UelKulén]s μ½n c,ab;]sμ ½nCYyeyIgkñúgkarTsSTayBIlkçN³rbs;]s μ ½n bu:EnþeKminBnül;BIGVIekIteLIg bBa¢ak;BIkMritm:UelKul

230

bNþaleGaymanbMlas;bþÚr EdleyIgsegáteXIjkñúgBiPBm:aRkUsáúb. ]TahrN_ ehtuGVI)anCa]sμ ½nrIkmaDenAeBl RtUvkMedA?

KImIkñúgEpñkGnuvtþn¾³ karmuCTwk Scuba (Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) nigc,ab;]sμ ½n ³ karmuCTwkKWCakILamYyEdlsb,ayrIkray nigsUmEføgGMNrKuNdl;c,ab;]sμ ½n. vaKWCaskm μPaB

mYyEdlmansuvtßiPaBedIm,Ibgðat;dl;buKÁlTaMgLayEdlmansuxPaBl¥. karGnuvtþn_Cak;Esþgénc,ab;]s μ ½n BIry:ag EdlmanRbCaRbiyenAGtItkal KWCakarGPivDÆénesckþIENnaMdl;karRtLb;mkelIépÞTwkvij)an edaysuvtßiPaBeRkayeBlmuCeTAkñúgCMerATwkenaH nigkarkMNt;énkarlayl,ay]sμ ½n EdlsmRsbedIm,I bgáanUvlkçxNÐEdlGacbNþaleGaysøab; edayskþanuBlkñúgGMLúgeBlénkarmuCTwk.

karmuCTwkGacmanCMerAdl;eTA 40eTA 65 ft (hVÚt) b:uEnþkarmuCTwkdl;CMerA 90 ft vaminEmnCaerOg xusEbøkBIFm μtaenaHeT. BIeRBaHfaTwksmuRTmandg;suIetx<s;Cagdg;suIetrbs;Twksabbnþic KWRbEhl 1,03

g/mL ebIeRbobeFobCamYyTwkEdlmanEt 1,00 g/mL sMBaFEdleRbIR)as;edaybMBg;mYyenACMerATwksmuRT 33 ft KWes μInwg sMBaF 1 atm. sMBaFekIneLIgtamkMeNInénCMerATwk dUcenH enACMerATwk 66 ft sMBaFTwk KWRtUvnwg 2 atm. l.

A scuba diver

etImanGVIekIteLIg RbsinebIGñkmuCTwkeLIgmkelIIépÞTwkBICMerA 20 ft manlkçN³elOnedaymin dkdegðIm? cMhaysMBaFsrubcMeBaHbMlas;bþÚrenHBICMerATwkKW (20 ft/33 ft)x 1 atm b¤esμ Inwg 0,6 atm. enAeBlGñkmuCTwkeLIgdl;elIépÞTwk eBlenaHmaD]sμ ½nkñúgsYtekInRtUvnwg (1 + 0,6) atm = 1,6dg. karrIk maDén]sμ ½nPøam²enHGacbNþaleGaysøab;edayeFVIeGayFøúHFøayPñassYt. eRKaHfñak;F¶n;F¶rmYyeTot KWfa karbBa©Úlxül;eTAkñúg sYtGacekIneLIg. enAeBlxül;kñúgsYtrIkeLIg KWva)aj;cUlkñúgsrésQam tUc². vtþmanénBBuHxül;enAkñúgsrésQamGaceFVIeGaysÞ³dl;clnaQameTAkñúgxYrk,al. CalT§pl GñkmuCTwk Gac)at;bg;sμartImuneBleLIgmkdl;elIépÞTwk. viFIseRgÁaHEtmYyKt;cMeBaHkarcUlxül;kñúgsYt KWkarsgát;

231

eGayelIedImRTUgeGayENn. cMeBaHdMeNIrkarQWcab;enAbnþ CnrgeRKaHRtUv)andak;enAkñúgbnÞb;mYyEdl bMENnedayxül;. eBlenHBBuHxül;RtUv)anRc)ac;eGayrYmtUcEdlminbgáeRKaHfñak;EdlRtUveRbIeBlGs; CaeRcInem:ag. edIm,IeCosvagnUvehtukarN_EbbenHGñkmuCTwkRtUvdwgfaeKRtUveLIgmkelIvijyWt² edayQb; sMkaMgenACMerANamYyedIm,Ipþl;eGayxøÜneKpSúaMeTAnwgkarfycuHénsMBaF.

]TahrN_TI2rbs;eyIg KWkarGnuvtþn_elIc,ab; Dalton. ]sμ½nGuksuIEsn KWCa]sμ ½nEdlsMxan;sMrab; RTRTg;CIvit dUcenH vaBi)akeGayeCONas;fa GuksuIEsnEdlmanbrimaNelIsGacbNþaleGaymaneRKaH fñak;. eTaHCay:agNa PaBBulEdlbNþalmkBIbrimaNGuksuIEsneRcIneBk KWRtUv)anbegáItCaerOy². ]TahrN_ TarkEdleTIbnwgekItdak;kñúgtg; (tent) GuksuIEsnCaerOy²eFVIeGaymaneRKaHfñak;dl;Calikaén RsTab;xagkñúgEPñkEdlGacbNþaleGayggwt b¤xVak;EPñk. xøÜnmnusSeyIgdMeNIrkar)anl¥ enAeBlEdl]sμ ½n GuksuIEsnmansMBaFedayEpñkRbEhl 0,20atm dUcEdlmankñúgxül;EdleyIgdkdegðIm. sMBaFeday Epñkén]sμ ½nGuksuIEsn RtUv)ankMNt;eday T

NO

OTOO P

nnn

PXP ×+

==22

2

22 EdlPTCasMBaFsrub.

b:uEnþedaysarmaD smamaRtnwgcMnYnm:Ul]s μ ½n ¬enAlkçxNÐsItuNñðPaB nigsMBaFefr¦ eyIgGacsresr T

NO

OO P

VVV

P ×+

=22

2

2

dUcenH smasPaKénxül; KWmanGuksuIEsn 20% nigGasUt 80% KitCamaD. eBlEdlGñkmuCTwk muCcuHeTAkñúgTwk sMBaFTwkeTAelIGñkmuCTwkKWFMCagsMBaFbriyakas. sMBaFxül;enAkñúgxøÜn ¬]TahrN_ sYt rn§q¥wgkñúgxYrk,al¦ RtUvEtdUcKñanwgsMBaFTwkenACMuvij ebImindUcenHeTeKGacCYbkarlM)ak. snÞ³biTebIk BiessmYy sMrbeTAtamsMBaFénxül;Edl)andkdegðImBIbMBg;]sμ ½nedaysV½yRbvtþiedIm,IeFVIeGaysMBaFxül; nigsMBaFTwkesμ IKñaCanic©. ]TahrN_ enACMerATwkEdlmansMBaFsrub 2,0 atm enaHGuksuIEsnEdlman kñúgxül;RtUv)anfycuH 10% KitCamaD edIm,IrkSasMBaFedayEpñk 0,20 atm eGaydUcKñaKW

PO2 = 0,20 atm = atmVV

V

NO

O 0,222

2 ×+

atm 2,0atm 0,20

V VV

22

2

NO

O =+

= 0,10 = 10%

eTaHCay:agNak¾eday ]sμ½nGasUthak;bIdUcCaRtUveKeRCIserIsedIm,IlayCamYy]sμ ½nGuksuIEsn KWva bNþaleGaymanbBaðaF¶n;F¶redaykarlayenH. eBlEdlsMBaFedayEpñkén]sμ½nGasUtmandl;eTA 1

atm KWvamanbrimaN]sμ ½nRKb;RKan;GacrlaykñúgQam CaehtubNþaleGaymanCMgWmü:agEdleKehAfa CMgWsNþMGasUt (nitrogen bend narcosis). RbsiT§iPaBcMeBaHGñkmuCTwkdUcnwgkarbBa©ÚlKñaedaykarBul eRKOgRsvwgEdr. GñkmuCTwkTTYlkarQWcab;BICMgWsNþMnIRtUEsn RtUv)aneKdwgfa manbMNgcg;eFVIGVIEdlEpøk² dUcCa raMenAmat;smuRT nigkarRbedjstVRtIqøam. ehtuenHehIy)anCaeKeRbI]s μ ½neGlüÚmkñúgkarBRgav]sμ ½n

232

GuksuIEsn. ]sμ ½nnicleGlüÚmKWrlaykñúgQamticCag]sμ ½nGasUteRcInNas; nigminbNþaleGayekItman CMgWsNþMeT.

enAstvtSTI 19 rUbviTUmYycMnYndUcCaelak Ludwig Boltzmann nigelak James Clerk Maxwell

)anrkeXIjfalkçN³rUbrbs;]sμ½nGacRtUv)aneKbkRsayBnül;eTAtamclnaénm:UelKuledayELk²BIKña. clna m:UelKulenH KWCaTMrg;énfamBlEdleyIgkMNt;n½yfaCasmtßPaBeFVIkmμnþ b¤begáIteGaymanbMlas;bþÚr. enAkñúg Epñkemkanic kmμnþKWes μInwgkMlaMgKuNnwgcMgaybMlas;TI. edaysarEt famBlGacRtUveKvas;)andUcCakm μnþEdr eyIgGacsresr famBl = km μnþ = kMlaMg x cMgaybMlas;TI xñat s‘Ul (J) KWCaxñat SIrbs;famBl Edl 1 J = 1 kg m2/s2 = 1 N.m

famBlGacKitCaKILÚs‘Ul (kJ) pgEdr eday 1 kJ = 1000 J

manRbePTfamBlCaeRcInRbePT. famBlsuIenTic (KE) KWCaRbePTfamBlEdlekItBIclnarbs;vtßú b¤CaclnafamBl. lT§plrbs;elak Maxwell elak Boltzmann nigGñkdéTeTot )anpþl;nUvlkçN³TUeTAmYycMnYnBIlkçN³ rbs;]sμ ½n EdlBIeBlenaHmkeKsÁal;faCaRTwsþIm:UelKulsuIenTicén]sμ ½n b¤ehAfaRTwsþIsuIenTicén]sμ ½n. RTwsþIsuIenTic sMxan;²RtUv)ansn μtdUcxageRkam³ 1. ]sμ½n KWbgáeLIgBIm:UelKulEdlenAXøatBIKñaedaycMgaymYyFMCagvimaRtrbs;va. m:UelKulGacRtUv)an eKcat;TukfaCacMnuc². ]sμ½nmanm:as b:uEnþmaDrbs;vaGacecal)an. 2. m:UelKul]s μ ½n KWmanclna\tQb;Qr \tsNþab;Fñab; ehIym:UelKulvaTgÁicKñaCaerOy². karTgÁicKña kñúgcMeNamm:UelKul]s μ ½n KWmanlkçN³Tn;Pøn;. pÞúyeTAvij famBlGacepÞrBIm::UelKulmYyeTAm:UelKulmYyeTot EdlCalT§plénkarTgÁicKña. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday famBlsrubénm:UelKulTaMgGs; enAkñúgRbB½n§mYymanlkçN³ dUcKña. 3. m:UelKul]sμ ½nK μankMlaMgTMnaj EfmTaMgK μankMlaMgcMranKñaeTotpg. 4. famBlsuIenTicmFüménm:UelKulTaMgLay KWsmamaRtnwgsItuNðPaBEdlKitCaEkvvin (kelvins). ]sμ ½nBIrenAmansItuNðPaBdUcKña nwgmanfamBlsuIenTicmFümes μ IKña. famBlsuIenTicmFüménm:UelKulmYyRtUv)an KNnatam umKE

21

= 2 Edl m Cam:asm:UelKul nig u Cael,Ónrbs;va. KMnUsr)aedk KWbBa¢ak;BItMélmFüm. brimaN u 2 ehAfa el,ÓnmFümkaer: EdlCatMélmFümkaer:énel,Ónrbs;m:UelKulTaMgGs;Edl³

233

u 2 = N

uuuu N22

32

22

1 ..... ++++ Edl N KWCacMnYnm:UelKul

tamkarsn μtTI 4GaceGayeyIgsresr)an KE ∝ T

um21 2 ∝ T

um21 2 = CT (4.11)

Edl C KWCaefrsmamaRt ehIy T KWCasItuNðPaBdac;xatKitCa (K). eyagtamRTwsþIm:UelKulsuIenTic sMBaF]sμ½nekItBIlT§plénkarTgÁicrvagm:UelKulnwgépÞén]bkrN_EdlpÞúk va. vaGaRs½ynwgPaBénkarTgÁickñúgmYyÉktaépÞ nigkMlaMgTgÁicEdlm:UelKulTgÁicelIépÞenaH. RTwsþIenH)anpþl; pgEdr dl;bMNkRsayclnam:UelKultamsItuNðPaB. tamsmIkar (4.11) sItuNðPaBdac;xatrbs;]sμ ½nmYy KWCa rgVas;énfamBlsuIenTicmFümrbs;m:UelKul. mü:agvijeTot sItuNðPaBdac;xat KWCakarbgðajBIPaB\tsNþab; Fñab;énm:UelKul mann½yfakalNasItuNðPaBkan;Etx<s; famBlm:UelKulkan;EtxøaMg. BIeRBaHvamanTMnak;TMngnwg sItuNðPaBénPaKsMNak]sμ ½n clna\tsNþab;Fñab;énm:UelKulCYnkaleKsMedAelIclnakMedA.

bMerIbMras;c,ab;]s μ½n eTaHbICaRTwsþIsuIenTicén]s μ ½nmanTMrg;KMrUgayRsYl EtebIviPaKtamKNitviTüaKWvamanlkçN³sμ úRKsμaj. b:uEnþEp¥kelIlkçN³mUldæan vaGaceRbIRTwsþIenH)anedIm,IBnül;BIlkçN³TUeTAénsarFatukñúgPaBCa]sμ½n. ]TahrN_ xageRkambgðajBIGtßRbeyaCn_rbs;va. - PaBGacbENÑn)anén]sμ ½n. edaysarm:UelKulkñúgPaBCa]sμ ½n sßitenAXøatBIKñaedaycenøaH ¬tamkar sn μtTI1¦ ]s μ ½nGacRtUveKbENÑneGaymanmaDkan;EttUc)any:aggay. - c,ab;b‘y³ sMBaFEdleRbIeday]s μ ½nTTYl)anlT§plBI\T§iBlénkarTgÁicm:UelKulrbs;vaCamYyépÞénvtßú EdlpÞúkva. kMriténPaBTgÁic b¤cMnYnénkarTgÁicrbs;m:UelKulvaCamYyépÞkñúgmYyvinaTI KWsmamaRtnwgcMnYndg;suIet ¬mann½yfaCacMnYnm:UelKulkñúgmYyxñatmaD¦ én]sμ ½n. bnßykalNabrimaNmaDén]sμ ½nfycuH cMnYndg;suIetrbs; vaekIneLIg nigkMriténkarTgÁicrbs;vak¾dUcenHEdr. cMeBaHehtuplenH sMBaFén]s μ ½nKWRcasmamaRtnwgmaDEdlva sßitenA KWfakalNamaDfycuH sMBaFekIneLIg nigRcasmkvij. - c,ab;qal³ edayfamBlsuIenTicmFüménm:UelKul]sμ½nsmamaRtnwgsItuNðPaBrbs;PaKsMNak ¬kar sn μtTI 4¦ kMenInsItuNðPaB kMenInfamBlsuIenTicmFüm. dUcenH m:UelKulnwgTgÁicCamYyépÞénvtßúEdlpÞúkvakan; EtxøaMgeLIg nigman\T§iBlxøaMgeLIgEfmeTotkalNa]s½μnenHRtUv)aneKdutkMedA CaehtueFVIeGaysMBaFekIneLIg. ]sμ ½nnwgrIkmaDrhUtdl;sMBaFrbs;]sμ ½nenH mantulüPaBCamYynwgefrsMBaFxageRkA ¬emIlrUbPaBTI 4.7¦. - c,ab;Gav:UkaRdU³ eyIg)anGFib,ayfa sMBaF]sμ ½nKWsmamaRtnwgdg;suIet nigsItuNðPaBén]sμ ½nenaH. BIeRBaHm:asrbs;]sμ ½nKWsmamaRtnwgcMnYnm:Ulrbs;va eyIgGactagdg;suIet]sμ ½neday n/V.

234

dUcenHeyIg)an P ∝ TVn

krNI]s μ ½nBIr ]sμ ½nTI1 nigTI2 eyIgGacsresr

P1 ∝ 1

11

1

11

VTnC

VTn

= P2 ∝2

22

2

22

VTnC

VTn

=

EdlC CaefrsmamaRt. dUcenH krNI]s μ ½nBIrEdlsßitenAeRkamlkçNÐsMBaF maD nigsItuNðPaBdUcKña ¬KWenAeBlEdl P1 = P2 T1 = T2 V1 = V2¦ vanaMeGay)an n1 = n2 EdlenaHCakenSamBiCKNiténc,ab; Gav:UkaRdU. - c,ab;daltunénsMBaFsMedayEpñk³ RbsinebIm:UelKulminrgnUvTMnaj b¤cMranKñaeT ¬karsnμtTI3 ¦ enaH sMBaFEdleRbIedaym:UelKulmYyKWminman\T§iBledayvtþman]sμ ½nepSgeToteT. ehtudUcenH sMBaFsrubRtUvesμ I nwg plbUksMBaFedayEpñkén]sμ ½nnImYy².

r)ayénel,Ónm:UelKul RTwsþIsuIenTicén]sμ½nGaceGayeyIgsegátelIclnam:UelKuleGaykan;EtlMGitEfmeTot. ]bmafaeyIgman m:UelKul]sμ½nmYycMnYnFMKW 1m:UlénepIg. enAxN³EdleyIgrkSasItuNðPaBeGayenAefr enaHfamBlsIuenTicmFüm nigel,ÓnmFümnwgminmankarERbRbYltamry³eBlknøgeTAeT. dUcEdlGñkGacrMBwgTuk clnam:UelKulKWmanPaB \tsNþab;Fñab; nigminGacKitTuk)aneT. enAxN³mYy etImanm:UelKulb:unμanEdlpøas;TIenAkñúgel,ÓnmYykMNt;? edIm,IeqøIynwgsMnYrenH m:ak;Ev:l (Maxwell) )anviPaKelIlkçN³énm:UelKul]sμ½nenAsItuNðPaBxus²Kña. rUbTI 4.15 bgðajBIRbePTExSekagr)ayel,Ónm:ak;Ev:lcMeBaH]s μ ½nbrisuT§enAsItuNðPaBBIrepSgKña. enA sItuNðPaBmYy ExSekagr)ayR)ab;eyIgBIcMnYnm:UelKulEdleFVIclnaenAel,ÓnkMNt;mYy. BicénExSekagnImYy² tageGayel,ÓnEdlsmRsbbMput KWfael,OnéncMnYnm:UelKulEdlFMbMput. KYrkt;sMKal;fa enAsItuNðPaBkan;Et x<s; ¬rUbTI 4.15(b)¦el,ÓnEdlsmRsbbMput KWFMCagkrNIEdlvamansItuNðPaBTabCag ¬rUbTI 4.15(a)¦. eday eFVIkareRbobeFobEpñk (a) nig(b) eyIgeXIjfa enAeBlsItuNðPaBekIneLIg vaminRKan;EtBiceTEdlrMkileTA xagsþaMb:ueNÑaHeT EfmTaMgeFVIeGayBicExSekagrIkrabeTotpg KWbBa¢ak;eGayeXIjfacMnYnm:UelKuleRcInCagmuneFVI clnaedayel,ÓnelOnCag.

235

rUbPaBTI 4.15 r)ayel,Ónrbs; m:ak;Ev:lcMeBaH]sμ ½nmYyenA (a) sItuNPaB T1 nig (b) sItuNðPaBx<s; T2. KYrsMKal; farIkTabenAsItuNðPaBx<s;. tMbn;EdlCaRsemaltageGaycMnYnm:UelKul EdleFVIclnaenAel,ÓnmYy EdlFMCagb¤es μ Iel,ÓnBit u1. kalNasItuNðPaBkan;Etx<s; cMnYnm:UelKulkan;EteRcIneFVIclnaeday el,ÓnelOn.

r)ayel,Ónm:UelKulGacRtUv)anbkRsayeday]bkrN_mü:agdUcbgðajkñúgrUbPaBTI 4.16. )ac;GatUm ¬b¤ m:UelKul¦ ekIteLIgBILmYyEdlsÁal;sItuNðPaB ehIyqøgkat;rn§m¢úl ¬edIm,ItMrg;)ac;va¦. bnÞHrgVg;BIrEdldak;fit enAelIdgrgVildUcKña RtUv)anviledaym:UT½rmYy. bnÞHTImYyehAfaEpñtMrwm chopper nigbnÞHTIBIrehAfaEpñkkt;Rta detector. eKalbMNgrbs;EpñktMrwm chopper KWGnuBaØateGaybMEnkGatUm ¬b¤m:UelKul¦tUc²qøgkat;va eBlEdl rgVHrt;Rtg;CYrCamYy)ac;GatUm b¤m:UelKul. rYmCamYybMEnknImYy² m:UelKulEdlbMlas;TIrh½seTAdl;Epñkkt;Rta munm:UelKulEdlmanbMlas;TIywt. CalT§pl RsTab;EdlbnSl;Tuk nwgRbmUl)anenAelIEpñkkt;Rta. edaysar EtbnÞHTaMgBIrKWkMBugviledayel,ÓndUcKña m:UelKulkñúgbMEnkbnÞab;nwgeTAb:HbnÞHkt;Rta RbEhlCamanTItaMgdUcKña dUcm:UelKul)an BIbMEnkmunEdlmanel,ÓndUcKña. enAeBlmYykMNkRsTab;m:UelKul nwgkøayeTACaemIleXIj. dg;suIeténkMNkRsTab; bgðajBIr)ayel,Ónm:UelKulenAsItuNðPaBCak;lak;mYy.

rUbPaBTI 4.16(a) ]bkrN_sMrab;sikSaBIr)ayel,Ónm:UelKulenAsItuNðPaBCak;lak;mYy.Rbdab;bUmsuBaØkaseFVIeGay m:UelKulpøas;TIBIeqVgeTAsþaMdUckñúgrUb(b). karBRgaykMNkelIEpñkkMNt;Rtapþl;eGaynUvlMdab;el,Ón m:UelKul nigdg;suIetkMNk KWsmamaRtnwgRbPaKénm:UelKuleFVIclnaedaymanel,Ónxus²Kña.

el,Onb¤skaer:mFüm (Root-Mean-Square Speed)

etIm:UelKulmYypøas;TIkñúgel,Óny:agdUcemþc KitCamFüm enAsItuNðPaB T? viFImYyedIm,IkMNt;el,Ón m:UelKulKWRtUvKNnael,Ónb¤skaer:mFüm (urms) EdlCael,ÓnmFümrbs;m:UelKul. lT§plmYykñúgcMeNamlT§pl

236

énRTwsþIsuIenTic]sμ½nKWCafamBlsuIenTicsrubénmYym:Ul]sμ½nmYyes μ Inwg 23

RT . eyIg)aneXIjrUcmkehIyfa famBlsuIenTicmFümrbs;m:UelKulmYyKW um

21 2 enaHeyIgGacsresr³

NA( um21 2) =

23

RT Edl NA KWCacMnYnGav:UkaRdU. eday NAm = µ eyIg)an u 2 = MRT3

bMBak;b¤skaer:elIGgÁTaMgBIrénsmIkar eyIg)an u 2 = urms = MRT3

(4.12)

smIkar (4.12) bgðajfael,Onb¤skaer:mFümén]s μ ½nekIneLIgCamYyb¤skaer:énsItuNðPaBrbs;va ¬KitCa Eklvin¦. BIeRBaH M enAkñúgPaKEbg vabgðajeGayeXIjfa kalNa]sμ ½nkan;EtF¶n; m:UelKulvapøas;TIkan;EtyWt. RbsinebIeyIgCMnYs R eday 8,314J/K.mol ehIybþÚrxñatm:asm:UleTACa kg/mol enaH urms nwgRtUv)anKNnaKitCa Em:RtkñúgmYyvinaTI (m/s) . ]TahrN_ 4.17 bgðajBIkarKNnaedayeRbIrUbmnþxagelI. ]TahrN_ 4.17

KNnael,Ónb¤skaer:mFüménGatUmeGlüÚm nigm:UelKulGasUtKitCa m/senAsItuNðPaB 25oC. cMelIy eyIgRtUvkarsmIkar (4.12)sMrab;karKNnaenH. cMeBaH Hemanm:asm:Ul 4,003 g/mol = 4,003 x 10-3 kg/mol³ urms =

MRT3

= kgJmolkg

KmolJ /1086,1/10003,4

) 63 ×=

× )(298.Κ/ 3(8.314

−

edayeRbIplKuNbMElgxñat (conversion factor) 1 J = 1 kg m2/s2

eyIg)an urms = 226 ./1086,1 skgkgm× = 226 /sm 10 x 1,86 = 1,36 x 103 m/s

lMnaMenHmanlkçN³dUcKñaEdr cMeBaH N2 Edlvamanm:asm:Ul 28,02 g/mol = 2,802 x 10-2 kg/mol³ urms =

/ 10 × 2,802)Κ )(298 . Κ/ 3(8,314

− molkgmolJ2 = /sm 10 x 2,65 225 = 515 m/s

karbkRsayBnül; BIeRBaHEtGatUmeGlüÚmmanm:astUcCagGasUt enaHvapøas;TI)an 2,6 (1360 ÷ 515 = 2,64) dgelOnCag m:UelKulGasUtenAsItuNðPaBdUcKña. lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ KNnael,Ónb¤skaer:mFümrbs;m:UelKulkørKitCa m/senAsItuNðPaB 20oC. karKNnakñúg]TahrN_ 4.17 manTMnak;TMngKYreGaycab;GarmμN_nwgsmasPaKénbriyakasEpndI. EpndI mindUcCapáayRBhs,t× K μanbrimaNGuIRdUEsn b¤eGlüÚmeRcInKYrsmenAkñúgbriyakasrbs;vaeT. ehtuGVI)anCaman krNIEbbenH? PBEdltUcCagpáayRBhs,t× EpndImankMlaMgTMnajexSayCag cMeBaHm:UelKulRsal²TaMgenH. karKNnaedaygay²bgðajfa edIm,IeKcputBIEdnTMnaj m:UelKulmYyRtUvEtmanel,ÓnFMCagb¤esμ I 1,1 x 104 m/s.

237

BIeRBaHEtel,ÓnmFümrbs;eGlüÚmKWFMCagel,Ónm:UelKulGasUt b¤GuksuIEsnenaHmanGatUmeGlüÚmeRcIneKcecjBI briyakasEpndIcUlkñúglMhGakas. ehtudUcenHehIy)anCamanbrimaNeGlüÚmtictYcenA kñúgbriyakaseyIg. pÞúyeTAvij páayRBhs,t×Edlmanm:asFMCagm:asEpndIRbmaN 320dg bgçaMg)anTaMg]sμ ½nF¶n; nigRsal enAkñúg briyakasrbs;va. sMNayPay]s μ½n karBnül;edayRtg;²BIclna\tsNþab;Fñab;KWRtUv)anbgðajedaysMNayPay EdlCalMdab;énkarlay m:UelKulrbs;]sμ ½nmYyCamYy]sμ ½nmYyeTottamlkçN³rbs;va. sMNayPayCanic©kalbNþalmkBItMbn;Edlman kMhab;x<s;eTAtMbn;EdlmankMhab;Tab. eTaHbICakarBitel,Ónm:UelKulKWmanPaBFMeFgk¾eday lMnaMénsMNay PaymanTMnak;TMngnwgry³eBlmYyEvgedIm,IeGay)aneBjelj. ]TahrN_ enAeBldbsUluysüúgGam:UBaJak;cas; mYyRtUv)anebIkKMrbenAÉcugmçagéntuBiesaFn_mYy vaRtUvkareBlevlamYyedIm,IeGayGñkEdlenAcugtumçageTotGac TTYlkøinva)an. mUlehtuenHKWfam:UelKulrgnUvlMnaMTgÁicmYycMnYn enAxN³eBlEdlpøas;TIBIcugmçagéntueTAcugmçag eTotdUckñúgrUbPaBTI 4.17. dUcenH sMNayPay]s μ ½nEtgEtekItmantamlMdab; ehIyminekItmanPøam²dUcel,Ón m:UelKuleT. elIsBIenHeTot edaysarEtel,Ónb¤skaer:mFümén]s μ ½nRsalFMCagel,Ón]sμ½nEdlF¶n;Cag ¬emIl ]TahrN_ 4.17¦ enaH]sμ ½nRsalCagnwgmansMNayPaykñúglMhmYyelOnCag]sμ ½nEdlF¶n;Cag. rUbPaBTI 4.18

bkRsaybgðajBIsMNayPay]sμ ½n.

rUbTI 4.17 KnøgclnabMlas;TIedaym:UelKul]sμ ½nEtmYy. bMErbMrYlTisedAnImYy² tageGaykarTgÁicKñaCamYynwg m:UelKulmUyeTot.

238

rUbTI 4.18 karbkRsaybMPøWBIsMNayPay]sμ ½n. ]sμ ½n NH3 ¬BIdbmYyEdlmanGam:Uj:ak;rav¦ cUlpSMKñaCamYy]s μ ½n HCl ¬BIdbmYymanGasuItkørIRDic¦ begáIt)anCaGgÁFaturwg NH4Cl. BIeRBaHEt NH3RsalCag vasay PayelOnCag GgÁFaturwg NH4Cl elceLIgenAEk,rdb HCl ¬enAxagsþaM¦.

4>8 KMlatBIlkçN³brisuT§ c,ab;]sμ ½n nigRTwsþIsuIenTicm:UelKulsn μtfam:UelKulsßitenAkñúgPaBCa]sμ½nmineRbIkMlaMgNamYyeT KWminman kMlaMgTMnaj b¤cMrajrvagKña. karsn μtmYyeTotKWmaDrbs;mU:elKulmantMéltUcGacecal)anebIeFobnwgmaDrbs; vtßúEdlpÞúkva. ]sμ ½nmYyEdlbMeBjlkçxNÐTaMgBIrenHRtUveKniyayfa)anbgðajBIlkçN³brisuT§. eTaHCaeyIgGacsnμtlkçN³]sμ ½nBitdUcCa]sμ ½nbrisuT§k¾eday eyIgminGacrMBwgfavamanlkçN³dUcKñaenA RKb;lkçxNÐenaHEdr. ]TahrN_ ebIK μankMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul ]sμ ½nminGacBRgaveGayeTAGgÁFaturav)aneT. sMnYrEdl sMxan;KW etIenAeRkamlkçxNÐNaEdl]sμ½nnwgsMEdgecjnUvlkçN³minbrisuT§? rUbPaBTI 4.19 bgðajfa

RTPV )ansg;ExSekagCamYynwg P sMrab;]sμ ½nBitbI nig]s μ ½nbrisuT§mYyenA

sItuNðPaBkMNt;mYy. ExSekagenHbgðajBIkarsakl,génlkçN³]s μ ½nbrisuT§. eyagtamsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§ ¬cMeBaHmYym:Ulén]sμ½n¦

RTPV esμ Inwg 1 edayminKitBIsMBaF]sμ½nCak;Esþg. ¬eBl n = 1 enaH PV = nRT køayeTACa

PV = RT b¤ RTPV

= 1¦. cMeBaH]sμ ½nBit vaBitEtenAsMBaFTab¬≤ 5 atm¦ KMlatEdlsMxan;ekIteLIg enAeBlsMBaFekIneLIg. kMlaMgTMnajRbtibtþikñúgcMeNamm:UelKuledaycMgayeFobxøI. enAlkçxNÐsMBaFbriyakas m:UelKulkñúg]sμ ½nmYyKWenAXøatq¶ayBIKña ehIykMlaMgTMnajKWGacecal)an. enAsMBaFx<s; dg;suIet]sμ ½nekIneLIg m:UelKulKWsßitenAkan;EtCitKña. kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulGacmantYnaTIRKb;RKan;edIm,IeGayman\T§iBlelIclnam:UelKul ehIy]sμ ½nnwgminmanlkçN³brisuT§eT. viFImYyeTotedIm,IsegátBIlkçN³minbrisuT§rbs;]sμ ½nKWRtUvbBa©úHsItuNðPaB. kareFVIeGay]sμ ½nmYycuHRtCak; bnßynUvfamBlsuIenTicmFümrbs;m:UelKul mann½yfapþac;m:UelKuledayCMrujeGayvabMEbkecjBITMnajeTAvijeTA mkrbs;va. edIm,IsikSaeGay)anCak;lak;BI]sμ ½nBit eyIgRtUvEkERbsmIkar]s μ ½nbrisuT§ edayKitBIkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul nigkMnt;maDm:UelKul. karviPaKEbbenHKWRtUv)aneFVIeLIgCadMbUgedayrUbviTUCnCatihULg;eQ μaH v:an;dWv:lS (J. D. van

der Waals) enAqñaM1873. eRkABIlkçN³gayRsYlxagEpñkKNitviTüa karBiesaFrbs;elakv:an;dWv:lS)anpþl; eGayeyIgnUvkarbkRsayBnül;BIlkçN³]s μ ½nBittamkMritmU:elKul.

239

rUbPaBTI 4.19 ExSekagén RTPV

CamYynwg Pén 1 mol]sμ ½nenAsItuNðPaB 0oC. cMeBaH 1 molén]sμ ½nbrisuT§man

RTPV

= 1eTaHCasMBaF]sμ ½ny:agNak¾eday. cMeBaH]sμ ½nBit eyIgsegáteXIjmanKMlatERbRbYlBI PaBbrisuT§enAsMBaFx<s;. enAkrNIsMBaFTabxøaMg ]sμ ½nTaMgLaysMEdgnUvlkçN³brisuT§ mann½yfa

RTPV mantMélxiteTArk 1 kalNa P xiteTArk 0.

BinitüBIdMenIreq<aHeTAénm:UelKulCak;EsþgmYyeTArképÞvtßúEdlpÞúkva ¬rUbPaBTI 4.20¦. kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul )aneRbIedaym:UelKulCitxagva manTMenareFVIeGaycuHexSaykarTgÁicKñaEdlbegáIteLIgedaym:UelKulenHCamYynwgépÞ vtßúpÞúkva. plsrubKWsMBaF]sμ½nTabCagkarEdleyIgrMBwgTukcMeBaH]sμ ½nbrisuT§. elakv:an;dWv:lS)anpþl;CaKMnitfa sMBaFEdl)aneRbIeday]s μ ½nbrisuT§ Pideal KWTak;TgnwgsMBaFEdl)anvas;edayBiesaFn_ Preal tamsmIkar

Pideal = Preal + 2

2

Van

sMBaFtamkarsegát lkçxNÐkMENtMrUv Edl a efr ehIy n nig V KWCacMnYnm:Ul nigmaDrbs;]s μ ½ntamerogKña. lkçxNÐkMENtMrUvcMeBaHsMBaF 2

2

Van

GacRtUv)anyl;dUcxageRkam. Gnþrkm μrvagm:UelKulEdlbegáInlkçN³minbrisuT§GaRs½yelI faetIm:UelKulBIrxit CitrkKñajwkjab;y:agNa. cMnYnénkarTgÁicekIneLIgtamkaer:éncMnYnmU:elKulkñúgmYyxñatmaD

2

⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛Vn BIeRBaHvtþman

énm:UelKulBIr²kñúgtMbn;mYykMNt;KWsmamaRtnwg Vn . brimaN Pideal KWCasMBaFEdleyIgGacvas;)anRbsin

ebIK μanTMnajGnþrm:UelKul ehIy a KWCaefrsmamaRt.

240

kMENtMrUvepSgeTotTak;TgnwgmaDrbs;m:UelKul]sμ½n. enAkñúgsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§ V tageGaymaDvtßúEdl pÞúkva. b:uEnþm:UelKulnImYy² manenAkñúgmaDmYykMNt; eTaHbICatictYck¾eday. dUcenH lT§plmaD]sμ ½nkøayeTACa (V – nb) Edl n CacMnYnm:Ulén]sμ ½n nig b KWCacMnYnefr. cMnYn nbtageGaymaDEdlkan;kab;eday n m:Ulén]sμ½n. edayKittamkMENtMrUvcMeBaHsMBaF nigmaD eyIgGacsresreLIgvijsmIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§dUcxageRkam³

(P + 2

2

Van

) (V - nb) = nRT (4.13)

kMENtMrUvsMBaF kMENtMrUvmaD smIkar (4.13) begáItTMnak;TMng P V T nig n sMrab;]sμ ½nminbrisuT§KWRtUv)aneKsÁal;faCasmIkarv:an;dWv:lS. efrv:an;dWv:lS a nig b KWRtUv)aneRCIserIsedIm,Ipþl;nUvkartMerobRbesIrbMputrvagsmIkar (5.13) niglkçN³segátrbs; ]sμ ½nmYykMNt;. tarag 4.4 CataragbgðajBItMél a nig bcMeBaH]sμ½nmYycMnYn. tMél a bBa¢ak;BIPaBxøaMgrbs;m:UelKulén RbePT]sμ ½nmYyEdlmanTMnajeTAvijeTAmkCamYy]s μ ½nmYyeTot. eyIgeXIjfaGatUmeGlüÚmmanTMnajCamYy GatUmepSgeTotexSaybMput BIeRBaHeGlüÚmmantMél a tUcbMput. manTMnak;TMngKñapgEdr rvagTMhMénm:UelKulnig tMélb. CaTUeTA kalNamU:elKul ¬b¤GatUm¦ kan;EtFM tMél b k¾kan;EtFMEdr b:uEnþTMnak;TMngrvagtMél bnigTMhM m:UelKul b¤GatUmKWCaRbkarmYyEdlminEmnCakargayRsYlenaHeT. ]TahrN_xageRkameRbobeFobsMBaF]sμ ½nEdlKNnaedayeRbIsmIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§ nigsmIkarv:an;dWv:lS. ]TahrN_ 4.18

eKeGay NH3 3,5m:UlEdlsßitkñugmaD 5,20 L enA 47oC. KNnasMBaFén]sμ ½n¬KitCa atm¦edayeRbI (a)

smIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§ nig (b) smIkarv:an;dWv:lS. cMelIy (a) eyIgmanTinñ½yxageRkam³ V = 5,20 L T = (47 + 273) K = 320 K n = 3,50 mol

rUbTI 4.20 \T§iBlénkMlaMgGnþrm:UelKulelIsMBaFEdl)aneRbIweday]s μ ½nmYy. el,Ón m:UelKulEdleFVIclnaeq<aHeTArképÞvtßúEdlpÞúkva ¬EsV‘rBN’Rkhm¦ KWRtUv)ankat;bnßy edaykMlaMgTMnajEdleRbIedaym:UelKulenAEk,rCitxagva ¬EsV‘rBN’ébtg¦. ehtuenH ehIy)anCaplTgÁicKñarbs;m:UelKulenHbegáIteLIgCamYyépÞvtßúpÞúkva KWvaminxøaMgdUc krNIEdlvaK μanvtþmankMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul. CaTUeTAsMBaF]s μ ½nEdl)anvas; KWCanic© kalTabCagsMBaF]sμ ½nEdleRbI kñúgkrNIvamanlkçN³brisuT§.

241

R = 0,0821 L. atm/K. mol

eyIgCMnYstMélTaMgenHkñúgsmIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§³ P =

VnRT

= L 5,20

K) mol)(320 .atm/K . L 1mol)(0,082 (3,50

= 17,7 atm

(b) BItarag 4.4 eyIgman a = 4,17 atm.L2/mol2 b = 0,0371 L/mol

vamanPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarKNnalkçxNÐkMENtMrUvcMeBaHsmIkar (5.13) Camunsin. eyIg)an 2

2

Van

= L) (5,20

mol) )(3,50/molL . atm (4,172

222

= 1,89 atm

nb = (3,50 mol)(0,0371 L/mol) = 0,130 L

CaTIbBa©b; eyIgCMnYstMélxagelIkñúgsmIkarv:an;dWv:lS eyIgGacsresr)an (P + 1,89 atm)(5,20 L – 0,130 L) = (3,50 mol)(0,0821 L. atm/K. mol)(320 K) P = 16,2 atm karbkRsayBnül; sMBaFBit)anvas;enAeRkamlkçxNÐTaMgenHKW 16,0 atm. dUcenH sMBaFEdl)anKNnatamsmIkarv:an;dWv:lS (16,2 atm) KWmantMélRbhak;RbEhlnwgtMélBit CagtamkarKNnaedayeRbIsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§ (17,7 atm). lMhat;Gnuvtþn_ edayeRbITinñn½ykñúgtarag 4.4 KNnasMBaFEdleRbIeday 4,37 m:Ulénm:UelKulkør )anbgçaMgTukkñúgmaD 2,45

LenAsItuNðPaB 38oC. cUreFVIkareRbobeFobsMBaFEdlKNnaedayeRbIsmIkar]s μ ½nbrisuT§.

segçbsmIkarKnøwH PV = k1 (4.1) c,ab;b‘y, T nig n efr. P1V1 = P2V2 (4.2) c,ab;b‘y, sMrab;karKNnarkbMErbMrYlmaD nigsMBaF. 2k

TV

= (4.3) c,ab;qal, P nig n efr.

2

2

1

1

TV

TV

= (4.4) c,ab;qal, sMrab;karKNnarkbMErbMrYlsItuNðPaB nigmaD.

V = k3n (4.5) c,ab;Gav:UkaRdU, P nig T efr. PV = nRT (4.6) smIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§.

2

22

1

11

TVP

TVP

= (4.7) sMrab;karKNnarkbMErbMrYlsMBaF sItuNðPaB b¤maD eBlEdl n efr.

RTPMd = (4.8) sMrab;karKNnarkdg;suIet b¤m:asm:Ul.

Pi = Xi PT (4.10) c,ab;sMBaFedayEpñkrbs;dal;tun, sMrab;karKNnarksMBaFedayEpñk.

242

CTumKE == 2

21 (4.11) TMnak;TMngfamBlsuIenTicmFümén]s μ ½nnwgsItuNðPaBdac;xatrbs;va.

MRTurms

3= (4.12) sMrab;karKNnarkel,ÓnmFümb¤skaer:rbs;m:UelKul]s μ ½n.

nRTabVVanP =−+ ))(( 2

2

(4.13) smIkarv:an;dWvlS sMrab;karKNnarksMBaFén]sμ½nminbrisuT§.

3. TMnak;TMngrvagsItuNðPaB-maDrbs;]sμ ½nbrisuT§ RtUv)ankNt;edayc,ab;b‘yKW maDRcassmamaRtnwgsMBaF ¬enAeBl T nig n efr¦.

4. TMnak;TMngsItuNðPaB-maDén]sμ ½nbrisuTæRtUv)anBiBN’naedayc,ab;qal nigc,ab;éKluysak;KW maDsmamaRt nwgsItuNðPaB ¬eBl P nig n efr¦.

5. sItuNðPaBdac;xatsUnü (-273,15oC) KWCasItuNðPaBTabbMputEdlGacTTYl)antamRTwsþI. maRtdæan sItuNðPaB EklvinkMNt;yk 00K CasItuNðPaBdac;xatsUnü. kñúgkarKNnatamc,ab;]sμ ½n sItuNðPaB TaMgGs;RtUv)an KitCaEklvin.

6. TMnak;TMngbrimaN-maDén]sμ ½nbrisuT§RtUv)anBiBN’naedayc,ab;Gav:UkaRdUKW ]sμ ½nEdlmanmaDesμ IKña mancMnYn m:UelKulesμ IKña ¬eBl T nig P dUcKña¦.

7. smIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§ PV = nRT rYmpSMCamYyc,ab;b‘y c,ab;qal nigc,ab;Gav:UkaRdU. smIkarenHBiBN’naBI lkçN³én]s μ½nbrisuT§.

8. c,ab;dal;tunsþIsMBaFedayEpñkEcgfa]s μ ½nnImYy²kñúgl,ay]sμ ½neRbIR)as;sMBaFdUcKña eBl]s μ ½nenHenAEtÉg nigkan;kab;maDdUcKña.

9. RTwsþIsuIenTicm:UelKul tamviFIKNitviTüaBiBN’naBIlkçN³m:UelKul]s μ ½n KWGaRs½yelIkarsnμtxageRkam³ m:UelKul]sμ½nRtUv)anEjkBIKñaedaycMgaymYyEdlFMCagvimaRtrbs;va. vamanm:as EtmaDrbs;vaGacecal )an. vamanclnaefr nigTgÁicKñaCalMdab;CamYy]sμ ½nepSgeTot. m:UelKulvaminrgnUvTMnaj b¤cMranKñaeT.

10. ExSekagr)ayel,Ónm:akSvil (Maxwell) bgðajBIcMnYnm:UelKulkMBugpøas;TIedayel,ÓnepSg²KñaenAsItuNðPaB kMNt;mYy. eBlsItuNðPaBekIneLIg m:UelKulkan;EteRcInpøas;TIkan;EtelOn.

11. sMNayPay]sμ ½nbkRsaybMPøWBIclna\tsNþab;rbs;m:UelKul. 12. smIkarv:an;dWvlS KWCakarERbsMrYlmkBIsmIkar]s μ½nbrisuT§ EdlCab;Tak;TgnwglkçN³minbrisuT§én]s μ ½nBit.

vaeFVIkarEksMrYlsMrab;PaBBit Edlm:UelKul]sμ ½nBiteRbIkMlaMgelIKñaeTAvijeTAmk ehIyvamanmaDRtwmRtUv. efr v:an;dWvlS (van der Waals) RtUv)ankMNt;tamBiesaFn_cMeBaH]sμ ½nnImYy².

BaküKnøwH maRtadæansItuNðPaBdac;xat TMB½r12 (absolute temperature scale)

sItuNðPaBdac;xatsUnü TMB½r12 (absolute zero)

243

sMBaFbriyakas TMB½r5 (atmospheric pressure) c,ab;Gav:UkaRdU TMB½r14 (Avogadro’s law) )ar:UEmRt TMB½r5 (barometer) c,ab;b‘y TMB½r9 (Boyle’s law) c,ab;qal nigc,ab;éKluysak; TMB½r12 (Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s law) c,ab;qal TMB½r12 (Charles’ law) c,ab;dal;tunsþIBIsMBaFedayEpñk TMB½r24 (Dalton’s law of partial pressures) sMNayPay TMB½r36 (diffusion) efr]sμ ½n TMB½r15 (gas constant) ]sμ ½nbrisuT§ TMB½r15 (ideal gas) smIkar]sμ½nbrisuT§ TMB½r15 (ideal gas equation) s‘Ul TMB½r31 (Joule J) maRtadæansItuNðPaB Kelvin TMB½r12 (Kelvin temperature scale)

famBlsuIenTic TMB½r31 (kinetic energy KE) RTwsþIsuIenTicm:UelKulén]s μ ½n TMB½r31 (kinetic molecular theory of gasses) m:aNUEmRt TMB½r6 (manometer) RbPaKm:Ul TMB½r25 (mole fraction)

jÚ:tun TMB½r4 (Newton N) sMBaFedayEpñk TMB½r24 (partial pressures) ):asáal; TMB½r4 (Pascal Pa) sMBaF TMB½r4 (pressure) el,Ónb¤skaer:mFüm TMB½r35 (root-mean-square speed) sþg;dasMBaFbriyakas TMB½r5 (standard atmospheric pressure, 1 atm) sþg;dasItuNðPaB nigsMBaF TMB½r15 (standard temperature and pressure) smIkarv:an;dWv:lS TMB½r40 (Van der Waals equation)

sMnYr niglMhat; sarFatuEdlsßitenAPaBCa]s μ½n sMnYrrMlwk 4.1 eGayeQ μaHFatuR)aMnigsmasFatuR)aMEdlsßitenAPaBCa]sμ½nenAsItuNðPaBbnÞb;BiesaFn_. 4.2 cUreFVItaragbBa¢IlkçN³rUbrbs;]sμ ½n. sMBaF]s μ½n sMnYrrMlwk 4.3 cUreGayniymn½msMBaF nigxñatTUeTArbs;sMBaF. 4.4 cUrBiBN’naBIvIFIeRbI)ar:UEmRt nigm:aNUEmRtkñúgkarvas;sMBaF. 4.5 ehtuGVI)anCa)ar:tCasarFatuEdlsmRsbeRbIkñúg)ar:UEmRtCagTwk. 4.6 cUrBnül;faehtuGVI)anCakMBs;)ar:tenAkñúg)ar:UEmRtminGaRs½ynwgépÞmuxkatrbs;bMBg;.

etI)ar:UEmRtenAEtdMeNIrkarEdrb¤eT RbsinebIbMBg;RtUv)aneKdak;eTrmuM 15o ¬emIlrUbPaBTI 4.3¦.

250

4.7 etIvamanPaBgayRsYlCagkñúgkarpwkTwkedayeRbITueyabWtenAkMBUlPñMEverestb¤enAÉeCIg PñM? cUrBnül;. 4.8 etIsMBaFbriyakasenAkñúgGNþÚgEr:EdlmanCMerA 500 m enAeRkamnIv:UsmuRTFMCag

b¤tUcCag 1 atm? 4.9 etIvamanPaBxusKñay:agdUcemþcrvag]sμ ½n nigcMhay? enAsItuNðPaB 25oC etIsarFatu

NamYyxageRkamenHsßitenACapas]sμ ½nEdlRtUv)aneKehAfa]sμ ½nnigNamYyEdl RtUv)an ehAfacMhay m:UelKulGasUt (N2) nig)art?

4.10 RbsinebICMerAGtibrmaEdlTwkRtUv)anbUmeLIgBIGNþÚgmYyman 34 ft (10,3 m) etIvaman lT§PaBGVIedIm,ITTYl )anTwk nigeRbgBICMerArab;ryhVIt (ft) eRkamépÞdI?

4.11 ehtuGVI)anCaGMNan)ar:UEmRtFøak;cuHenAEpñkmYyénBiPBelakehIyvaekIneLIgenAtMbn; epSg? 4.12 etIehtuGVI)anCaGñkyanGvkasRtUvesøókBak;karBar eBleKenAelIépÞzanRBHcnÞ? lMhat; 4.13 cUrbMElg 562 mmHg eTACa kPa nig 2,0 kPa eTACa mmHg. 4.14 sMBaFbriyakasenAkMBUlPñMm:ak;XInlI(McKinley)KW 606 mmHgenAéf¶xøH. KNnasMBaF

KitCa atm nig kPa. c,ab;]sμ½n sMnYrrMlwk 4.15 cUreGayBMenalc,ab;]sμ ½nxageRkam nigsmIkarsMeBaHc,ab;b‘y c,ab;qal c,ab;

Gav:UkaRdU. kñúgkrNInImYy² bBa¢ak;BIlkçxNÐc,ab; nigxñatkñúgsmIkarpg. 4.16 cUrBnül;faetIehtuGVI)anCae)a:ge):agsMrab;sÞg;FatuGakas EdleRbIeGlüÚmrIkmaDeBl

vaehaHeTAkñúgxül;. ]bma fasItuNðPaBenAefr. lMhat; 4.17 ]sμ ½nmYykan;kab;maD 725 mLenAsMBaF 0,970 atm Rtuv)anTukeGayrIk maDedayman

sItuNðPaBefrrhUtdl; sMBaFrbs;vafycuHdl; 0,541 atm. etIvamanmaD sMercb:un μan? 4.18 enAsItuNðPaB 46oCPaKsMNak]s μ ½nGam:Uj:ak; mansMBaF 5,3 atm. etIvamansMBaF

b:unμaneBlmaD]sμ ½n fycuHmYyPaKdb; (0,01)énmaD]sμ ½nedImenAsItuNðPaBdUcKña?

250

4.19 maD]sμ ½nmYyKW 5,80 L vas;enA 1,00 atm. KNasMBaF]s μ ½nKitCa mmHg RbsinebI vamanmaD 9,65 L? ¬sItuNðPaBefr¦.

4.20 PaKsMNakxül;mYymanmaD 3,8 L enAsMBaF 1,2 atm. (a) etIxül;enHman maDb:unμan enAsMBaF 6,6 atm? (b) etIvaRtUvkarsMBaFb:un μanbENÑnvaeGaymanmaDRtwmEt 0,075 L? ¬sItuNðPaBRtUv)anrkSaeGayenAefr¦.

4.21 ]sμ ½nemtanmanmaD 36,4 L RtUv)andutkMedABI 25oCrhUtdl; 88oC enAxN³Edl sMBaFefr. etI]sμ ½nenH manmaDsMercb:un μan?

4.22 eRkamlkçxNÐsMBaFefr PaKsMNak]s μ ½nGuIRdUEsnmYymansItuNðPaBedIm 88oC nigmaD

9,6 L RtUv)anbBa©úH RtCak;rhUtdl;)anmaD 3,4 L. etIvamansItuNðPaBsMercb:un μan? 4.23 Gam:Uj:ak;eqHkñúg]sμ½nGuksuIEsn begáIt)anCanIRTicGuksuIt (NO) nigcMhayTwk. etI NO

manmaDb:unμan EdlTTYl)anBImYymaDénGam:Uj:ak;enAsItuNðPaB nigsMBaFdUcKña? 4.24 m:UelKulkørnigm:UelKulPøúyG‘rcUlpSMKñabegáIt)anCaplitpl]sμ ½nmYy. enAeRkam

lkçxNÐ sItuNðPaB nig sMBaFdUcKña 1 maD Cl2 manRbtikmμCamYy 3 maD F2 begáIt)an 2 maDplitpl ¬GgÁFatukekIt¦. etIGgÁFatu kekItmanrUbmnþy:agdUcemþc?

smIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§ sMnYrrMlwk 4.25 cUrerobrab;BIlkçN³]sμ ½nbrisuT§. 4.26 cUrsresrsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§nigBMenalc,ab;]sμ ½nbrisuT§.cUrbBa¢ak;xñatcMeBaHtYGkSr

tMNag (term) nImYy² kñúgsmIkar. 4.27 etIsþg;dasItuNðPaBnigsMBaF(STP)CaGVI?etIsar³sMxan;énSTP kñúgTMnak;TMngCa mYymaD

én 1 m:Ul]sμ ½n brisuT§KWCaGVI? 4.28 etIehtuGVI)anCadg;suIet]sμ ½nTabCagdg;suIetGgÁFaturav

b¤urwgenAeRkamlkçxNÐbriyakas?etIxñatGVIEdlRtUv )aneKeRbICaTUeTAedIm,IbBa¢ak;BI dg;suIetén]sμ ½n?

lMhat;; ³ 4.29 PaKsMNak]sμ ½nGasUtRtUv)anrkSaTukkñúgFugmYymanmaD 2,3 L enAsItuNðPaB 32oC

eRbI)as;sMBaF 4,7 atm. KNnacMnYnm:Ul]sμ½nEdlmanvtþman.

250

4.30 eKeGay]sμ ½nkabUnDIGuksuIt 6 m:UlkñúgFugmYymanmaD 30,4 L etI]sμ ½nenH mansMBaFb:un μan ¬KitCa atm¦ enAsItuNðPaB 62oC?

4.31 etIenAsItuNðPaB 128oC nigsMBaF 9,4 atm ]sμ ½ns<an;F½rGuicsaPøúyGrY (SF6) 5,6 m:Ul manmaDb:unμan?

4.32 brimaN]sμ½nkñúgepIgEkvmYy mansItuNðPaB 25oC nigsMBaF 0,800 atm. ]bmafaepIgEkvGacFn;)andl; sMBaF 2,00 atm. etIGñkGactMeLIgsItuNðPaB)anx<s; dl;kMritNaedIm,IkuMeGayepIgEkvenHpÞúHEbk?

4.33 ]sμ ½nEdl)anbMeBjkñúge):age):agmYymanmaD 2,50 L enAsItuNðPaB 25oC nigsMBaF 1,2

atm RtUv)aneKbegðaH eTAkñúgRsTab;briyakas ¬RbEhl 30 km BIépÞEpndI¦ (stratosphere) EdlmansItuNðPaB nigsMBaF -23oC nig 3,00 x 10-3 atmtamerogKña. KNnamaDsMerc ¬cugeRkay¦rbs;e):age):ag.

4.34 sItuNðPaBén]sμ ½nmYymanmaD 2,5 L enAlkçxNÐ STP RtUv)anekIneLIgrhUtdl; 250 oC EdlmanmaDmin ERbRbYl. KNnasMBaFsMerc¬cugeRkay¦rbs;]sμ ½nenHKitCa atm.

4.35 sMBaFén 6,0 L ]sμ ½nbrisuT§enAkñúgepIgEkvmYyEdlGacpøas;bþÚr)an RtUv)anfycuHGs; 1/3 énsMBaFedIm rbs;va nigsItuNðPaBdac;xatrbs;vaRtUvfycuH 1/2. etImaDsMerc rbs;]sμ ½nenHesμ Ib:unμan?

4.36 ]sμ ½nmYyekIteLIgkñúgeBlel,IúgKøúykUs ¬karplitRsa¦ manmaD 0,78 L enA 20,1oC nig 1,00 atm. etI]sμ ½nenHmanmaDb:unμanenAsItuNðPaBel,úIg 36,5oC nigsMBaF 1,00 atm.

4.37 ]sμ ½nbrisuT§mYyenAPaBedImmansMBaF 0,85 atm nig 66oC RtUv)anTukeGayrIkmaD rhUtdl;maDsMerc 94 mL sMBaFsMerc 0,60 atm nigsItuNðPaBsMerc 45oC.etI]sμ ½n enHmanmaDedImb:unμan?

4.38 maDén]sμ ½nmYyenAlkçxNÐ STP man 488 mL. KNnamaDrbs;vaenAsItuNðPaB 150oC nigsMBaF 22,5 atm.

4.39 ]s μ ½nmYyenAsItuNðPaB 35,0oC sMBaF 772 atm manmaD 6,85 L. KNnamaDrbs; vaenAlkçxNÐ STP.

250

4.40 Twkkks¶ÜtKWCakabUnDIGuksuItrwg.0,050g PaKsMNakTwkkks¶ÜtRtUv)andak; kñúúgepIgTeTr mYyEdlmancMNuH 4,6 L enAsItuNðPaB 30oC. KNnasMBaFxagkñúgepIgbnÞab;BITwk kks¶ÜtRtUv)anbMElgCa]s μ ½n CO2 Gs;.

4.41 enAlkçxNÐ STP 0,280 L én]s μ½nmYymanm:as 0,400 g. KNnam:asm:UelKul]s μ ½n. 4.42 enAsMBaF 741 torr nigsItuNðPaB 44oC m:as 7,10 g rbs;]sμ ½nmYykan;kab;maD 5,40 L.

etI]sμ ½nenHmanm:asm:UelKulb:unμan? 4.43>m:UelKulGUsUnenAkñúgRsTab;briyakasRsUbykkaMrsμ IEdlman\T§iBlGaRkk;BIRBHGaTitü

. Cak;EsþgsItuNðPaB nigsMBaFrbs;GUsUnenARsTab;briyakasKW 250 K nig 1,0 x 10-3

atm tamerogKña. etImanmU:elKulGUsUnb:unμan EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúg 1,0 L xül;enAeRkam lkçxNÐenH?

4.44 ]bmafaxül;man 78% N2 21% O2 nig 1% Ar KitCamaD. etI]s μ ½n nImYy²manb:un μan m:UelKulkñúgmaD 1,0 L xül; enAlkçxNÐ STP. 4.45 epIgmYymancMNuH 2,10 L man 4,65 g ]sμ ½nmYyenAsMBaF 1,00 atm nigsItuNðPaB

27,0oC. (a) KNnadg;suIet]sμ ½nKItCa g/L. (b) etI]sμ ½nenHmanm:asm:Ulb:un μan? ]bmafavamanlkçN³brisuT§.

4.46 KNnadg;suIet]s μ ½nGuIRdUEsnRbmY (HBr) KitCa g/L enAsMBaF 733 mmHg nigsItuNðPaB

46oC. 4.47 fñaMsnøb;mYyRbePTman 64,9% C 13,5% H nig 21,6% O KitCam:as. enAsItuNðPaB

120 o C nigsMBaF 750 mmHg maD 1 L énsmasFatu]s μ ½nmanTMgn; 2,30 g. etIsmasFatuenHmanrUbmnþm:UelKul y:agdUcemþc?

4.48 smasFatumYymanrUbmnþgay SF4. enAsItuNðPaB 20oC m:as 0,100 g

énsmasFatu]sμ ½nmanmaD 22,1 mL nigeRbIR)as;sMBaF 1,02 atm. etI]sμ ½nenHman rUbmnþm:UelKuly:agdUcemþc?

esÞIsüÚemRTI]sμ½n lMhat; 4.49 smasFatu P nig F RtUv)anviPaKdUcxageRkam³

250

dutkMedA 0,2324 g énsmasFatuenHkñúgepIgmYycMNuH 378 cm3 vabMElgeTACa]sμ ½n Gs;EdlmansMBaF 97,3oC enAsItuNðPaB 77oC. bnÞab;mk]s μ ½nenHRtUv)an layCa mYysUluysüúgkal;süÚmkørY EdlbMElg F TaMgGs;eTA Ca CaF2 manm:as 0,2631

g.cUrkMNt;rUbmnþm:UelKulénsmasFatuenH. 4.50 brimaN 0,225 g énelah³ M ¬m:asmU:l = 27,0 g/mol¦)anrMedaHm:UelKulGuIRdUEsn

0,303 L ¬vas;enAsItuNðPaB 17oC nigsMBaF 741 mmHg¦ ecjBIbrimaNGasuIkørIRDicelIs. tamry³Tinñn½yTaMgenH cUrsresrsmIkarRbtikmμnigrUbmnþGuksuItnigrUbmnþs‘ulpat rbs;elah³ M.

4.51 etIGgÁFaturwg NH4Cl EdlkekItmanm:asb:un μan enAeBlEdl 73,0 g NH3 RtUv)anlay CamYy HCl Edlmanm:asesμ IKña? etI]sμ ½nenHenAsl;maDb:un μanEdl)anvas;enAsItuNðPaB

14,0oC nigsMBaF 752 mmHg? etIvaCa]sμ ½nGVI? 4.52 PaKsMNakminsuT§kal;süÚmkabUNat 3,00 g )anrMlaykñúgGasuItkørIRDic begáIt)an

CakabUnDIGuksuIt 0,656 L ¬enAsItuNðPaB 20,0oC nigsMBaF 792 mmHg¦. KNnaPaK ryCam:asénkal;süÚmkabUNatkñúg PaK sMNak.

4.53 KNnam:asKitCaRkamén]s μ ½nGuIRdUEsnkørYEdlkekIt enAeBl 5,6 L m:UelKulGuIRdUEsn vas;enAlkçxNÐ STP manRbtikmμCamYym:UelKul]sμ½nkørEdlmanbrimaNelIs.

4.54 eGtaNul (C2H5OH) eqHkñúgxül;³ C2H5OH (l) + O2 (g) → CO2 + H2O (l)

cUrføwgsmIkar nigkMNt;rkmaDxül;KitCalIRtenAsItuNðPaB 35,0oC nigsMBaF 790

mmHg CatMrUvkar edIm,IcMehH 227 g éneGtaNul. ]bmafaxül;enaHman 21,0%

O2KitCamaD. c,ab;dal;tunsþIsMBaFedayEpñk sMnYrrMlwk 4.55 cUreGayBuMenalc,ab;dal;tunsþIBIsMBaFedayEpñk nigBnül;faetIGVICaRbPaKm:Ul.

etIRbPaKm:UlmanxñateT? 4.56 PaKsMNakxül;mYymanEt]s μ ½nGasUt nigGuksuIEsnEdlsMBaFedayEpñkrbs;vaKW 0,80

atm nig 0,20 atm tamerogKña. KNnasMBaFsrub nigRbPaKm:Ulrbs;]sμ ½n.

250

lMhat; 5.57 l,ay]sμ ½nmYyrUmman 0,31 m:Ulemtan (CH4) 0,25 m:Ul CH4 nig 0,29 m:Ul C3H8.

sMBaFsrubKW 1,50 atm. KNnasMBaFedayEpñkén]sμ ½n. 4.58 EkvmancMNuH 2,5 L mYyenAsItuNðPaB 15oC manl,ay N2 He nig Ne mansMBaFeday

Epñk 0,32 atm N2 0,15 atm He nig 0,42 atm Ne. (a) KNnasMBaFsrub énl,ay. (b) KNnamaDKitCa L enAlkçxNÐ STP )ankan;kab;maDeday He nig NeRbsinebIN2 RtUv)aneKpþac;ecj.

4.59 xül;s¶ÜtenACitnIv:UsmuRTmansmasPaKbgáCamaD³ N2 (78,08%) O2 (20,94%) Ar

(0,93%) CO2 (0,05%). sMBaFbriyakasKW 1,00 atm. KNna (a) sMBaFedayEpñkén]sμ ½n nImYy²KitCa atm nig (b) kMhab;]sμ ½nnImYy²KitCam:Ul/L enAsItuNðPaB 0oC. ¬KnøwH edaymaDsmamaRtnwgcMnYnm:UlEdlmanvtþman RbPaKm:Ulén]sμ ½nGacRtUv)ankMNt;eday

pleFobmaD enAsItuNðPaB nigsMBaFdUcKña¦. 4.60 l,ay]sμ ½neGlüÚm nigeNGugRtUv)anRtgelIépÞTwkenAsItuNðPaB 28oC nigsMBaF 745

mmHg. RbsinebI sMBaFedayEpñkéneGlüÚmKW 368 mmHg etIeNGugmansMBaF edayEpñkb:un μan? ¬sMBaFcMhayTwkenA 28oC = 28,3 mmHg¦.

4.61 elah³sUdüÚmmYydMumanRbtikm μTaMgRsugCamYyTwkdUcxageRkam³ 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

]sμ ½nGuIRdUEsnkekIteLIgRtUv)anRtgykelIépÞTwkenAsItuNðPaB 25,0oC. maD]sμ ½n 246

mL RtUv)anvas;enAsMBaF 1 atm. KNnacMnYnRkaménsUdüÚmEdl)aneRbIkñúgRbtikmμ. ¬sMBaFcMhayTwkenAsItuNðPaB 25oC = 0,0313 atm¦.

4.62 PaKsMNakelah³s½gásImanRbtikm μTaMgRsugCamYybrimaNGasuItkørIRDicelIs³ Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

]sμ ½nGuIRdUEsnEdlkekIteLigRtUv)anRtgykenAsItuNðPaB 25,0oCedayeRbIkarerobcMdUckñúgrUbPaBTI 4.13. maD]sμ ½nKW 7,80 L nigsMBaFKW 0,980

atm. KNnabrimaNelah³s½gásIKitCaRkamEdlRtUv)aneRbI kñúgRbtikmμ. ¬sMBaFcMhayTwkenAsItuNðPaB 25oC = 23,8 mmHg¦.

4.63>]sμ ½neGlüÚmRtUv)anlayCamYy]s μ ½nGuksuIEsnsMrab;GñkmuCTwkeTAkúñgCMerAsmuRTeRCA². KNnaPaKryKitCa maDén]sμ ½nGuksuIEsnkñúgl,ay RbsinebIGñkmuCTwk muCeTAdl;

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CMerATwkEdlman sMBaFsrub4,2 atm.sMBaFedayEpñkén GuksuIEsn RtUv)anrkSaeGayenA 0,20 atm enACMerATwkenH.

4.64 PaKsMNaK]s μ ½nGam:Uj:ak;(NH3)RtUv)anbMEbkTaMgRsugeTACa]sμ½nGasUt nigGuIRdUEsnelI sMlIEdkdutkMedA. RbsinebI sMBaFsrubman 866 mmHg KNnasMBaFedayEpñkén]sμ ½n N2 nig H2.

RTwsþIsuIenTicm:UelKulén]sμ½n sMnYrrMlwk 4.65 etIkarsn μtCamUldæanénRTwsþIsuIenTicm:UelKulén]sμ ½nmanGVIxøH? 4.66 etIRTwsþIsuIenTicm:UelKulBnül;GMBIc,ab;b‘y c,ab;qal c,ab;Gav:UkaRdU nigc,ab;dal;tunsþI

BIsMBaFedayEpñk y:agdUcemþc? 4.67 etIExSekagtagr)ayel,Ónm:akSvil (Maxwell) GaceGayeyIgdwgBIGVIxøH? etIRTwsþIm:akS

vilGacGnuvtþn¾)an cMeBaHPaKsMNakmYyEdlman 200 m:UelKul)anEdrb¤eT? cUrBnül;. 4.68 cUrsresrkenSamel,Ónb¤skaer:mFümrbs;]sμ½nmYyenAsItuNðPaBT. cUrkMNt;GkSr tMNagnImYy²kñúgsmIkar nigbBa¢ak;BIxñatEdleRbIkñúgkarKNnapg. 4.69 etIBMenalNmYyxageRkamenHRtwmRtUv? (a) kMedARtUv)anbegáIteLIgedaysarkarTgÁicénm:UelKul]sμ ½nCamYy]sμ½nepSgeTot.

(b) enAeBlEdl]sμ ½n mYyRtUv)andutkMedA m:UelKulvaTgÁicKñakan;EtxøaMgeLIg. 4.70 G‘uyr:aj:ÚmGiucsaPøúyGrY (UF6) KWCa]s μ ½nEdlF¶n;Cag]sμ½neGlüÚm b:uEnþenAsItuNðPaB

kMNt;mYy famBlsuIenTicmFüménPaKsMNak]s μ ½nTaMgBIresμIKña. cUrBnül;. lMhat; 4.71 cUreRbobeFobel,Ónb¤skaer:mFümén O2 nig UF6 enAsItuNðPaB 65oC. 4.72 sItuNðPaBenAkñúgRsTab;briyakas (stratosphere) KW -23oC. KNnael,Ónb¤s

kaer:mFüménm:UelKul N2 O2 nig O3 kñúgRsTab;]sμ ½nenH. 4.73.cMgaymFümEdl)anbMlas;TIedaym:UelKulmYyevagkarTgÁicRbsiT§RtUv)anehAfaKnøg

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mFümesrI. cMeBaH brimaNkMNt;én]sμ ½nmYy etImFümesrIrbs;]sμ½nmYyGaRs½yelI (a)

dg;suIet (b) sItuNðPaBenAeBlmaDefr (c) sMBaFenAeBlsItuNðPaBefr (d) maDenAeBl sItuNðPaBefr nig (e) TMhMénGatUm?

4.74 enAsItuNðPaBCak;lak;mYy el,Ónénm:UelKul]sμ½ncMnYn 6 kñúgepIgmYyKW 2,0 m/s 2,2

m/s 2,6 m/s 2,7 m/s 3,3 m/s nig 3,5 m/s. KNnael,Ónb¤skaer:mFüm nigel,Ón mFümrbs;mU:elKul. tMélmFümTaMgBIrenH KW mantMélRbhak;RbEhlKña b:uEnþtMélb¤s

kaer:mFümKWCanic©kalCatMélBIrFMCagKña. etIehtuGVI? KMlatBIlkçN³brisuT§ sMnYrrMlwk 4.75.cUrTajehtuplBIredIm,Ibgðajfa]s μ ½nTaMgLayminmanlkçN³brisuT§enAeRkamlkçxNÐ

TaMgGs;. 4.76 etIenAeRkamlkçxNÐGVIEdl]sμ½nmYyRtUv)aneKrMBwgfamanlkçN³brisuT§bMputenaH? (a)

enAsItuNðPaBx<s; nig sMBaFTab (b) enAsItuNðPaBx<s; nigsMBaFx<s; (c) enAsItuNðPaBTab nigsMBaFx<s; (d) enAsItuNðPaBTab nigsMBaFTab.

4.77 cUrsresrsmIkarv:an;dWvlS (van der Waals) cMeBaH]sμ ½nBit. cUrBnül;BIlkçxNÐ kMENtMrUvcMeBaHsMBaF nigmaD.

4.78 (a) ]sμ ½nBitmYyRtUv)anbBa©ÚlkñúgEkvmanmaD VmYy. etIkMENtMrUvmaD]sμ ½nFMb¤tUcCag

V? (b) Gam:Uj:ak;man tMél a FMCagtMélrbs;eNGug ¬emIltarag 4.4¦. etIGñkGacTaj esckþIsnñidæanBITMnak;TMngPaBxøaMgénkMlaMgTMnajrvagm:UelKulGam:Uj:ak;nigmU:elKul

Gam:Uj:ak; nigrvagGatUmeNGugnigGatUmeNGug. lMhat; 4.79 edayeRbITinñn½ykñúgtarag 4.4 KNnasMBaFEdleRbIeday 2,50 m:Ulén CO2 mankñúgepIg

maD 5,00 L enAsItuNðPaB 450 K. cUreRbobeFobsMBaFenHeTAnwg karTsSTayTuk edaysmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§. 4.80 enAsItuNðPaB 27oC 10,0 m:Ulén]sμ½nmYykñúgepIgcMNuH 1,50 L eRbIsMBaF 130 atm.

etI]sμ ½nenH Ca]s μ ½nbrisuT§b¤eT? cMelIylMhat;Gnuvtþn_

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4.1 0,986 atm. 4.2 39,3 kPa. 4.3 4,46 x 103 mmHg. 4.4 192 K b¤ -81oC. 4.5 9,29 L. 4.6 30,6 L. 4.7 2,6 atm. 4.8 0,68 atm. 4.9 13,1 g/L. 4.10 44,1 g/mol. 4.11 B2H6. 4.12 96,9 L. 4.13 4,75 L. 4.14 0,338 M. 4.15 CH4: 1,29 atm; C2H6: 0,0657 atm; C3H8: 0,0181 atm. 4.16

0,0653 g. 4.17 321 m/s. 4.18 30,0 atm; 45,5 atm edayeRbIsmIkar]sμ ½nbrisuT§.

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