Everyman’s Science Vol. XLVIII No. 5, Dec ’13 — EVERYMAN’S Jan … · 2016. 12. 2. · Everyman’s Science Vol. XLVIII No. 5, Dec ’13 — Jan ’14 320 applications of

Everyman’s Science Vol. XLVIII No. 5, Dec ’13 — Jan ’14

317

EVERYMAN’SSCIENCE

Vol. XLVIII No. 5 (Dec ’13 – Jan ’14)

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Prof. Swapan Kumar Datta (New Delhi)

Prof. Premendu Prakash Mathur(Bhubaneswar)

Dr. R. L. Bharadwaj (Agra)

Prof. Rajneesh Dutt Kaushik(Haridwar)

Prof. Amarendra Kumar Sinha (Jaipur)

Dr. Mohan Khedkar (Amravati)

Dr. Pitamber Prasad Dhyani (Almora)

Dr. Subhash Chandra Yadav (Varanasi)

Prof. Lalit Mohan Manocha(Vallabh Vidyanagar)

Prof. D. S. Hooda (Guna)

Dr. Surya Kant Tripathi (Lucknow)

Prof. Parimal C. Sen (Kolkata)

Dr. Sanjeev Ramachandra Inamdar(Dharwad)

Prof. Surinder Pal Khullar (Chandigarh)

COVER PHOTOGRAPHS

Past General Presidents of ISCA

1. Prof. A. K. Saha (1980)

2. Prof. A. K. Sharma (1981)

3. Prof. M. G. K. Menon (1982)

4. Prof. B. Ramachandra Rao (1983)

5. Prof. R. P. Bambah (1984)

6. Prof. A. S. Paintal (1985)

For permission to reprint orreproduce any portion of thejournal, please write to theEditor-in-Chief.

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor-in-Chief

Dr. Ashok Kumar Saxena

Area Editors

Dr. (Mrs.) Vijay Laxmi Saxena(Biological Sciences)

Dr. Pramod Kumar Verma(Earth Sciences, Engineering & Material Sciences)

Dr. Manoj Kumar Chakrabarti(Medical Sciences including Physiology)

Dr. Arvind Kumar Saxena(Physical Sciences)

Dr. (Mrs.) Vipin Sobti(Social Sciences)

General Secretary (Membership Affairs)Er. Dr. Nilangshu Bhushan Basu

General Secretary (Scientific Activities)Prof. Arun Kumar

Editorial SecretaryDr. Amit Krishna De

Printed and published by Dr. Ashok Kumar Saxenaon behalf of Indian Science Congress Associationand printed at Seva Mudran, 43, Kailash BoseStreet, Kolkata-700 006 and published at IndianScience Congress Association, 14, Dr. Biresh GuhaStreet, Kolkata-700 017, with Dr. Ashok KumarSaxena as Editor.

Annual Subscription : (6 issues)

Institutional 200/- ; Individual 50/-

Price : 10/- per issue


318

EDITORIAL :

Innovations in Science and Technology for Inclusive Development

Ashok Kumar Saxena 319

ARTICLES :

Presidential Address : Quality Science in India—Ends and Means

R. P. Bambah 322

The Use of Miracle Marine Mass of Algae in Agriculture

Biswajit Pramanick, Koushik Brahmachari, Arup Ghosh and S.T. Zodape 333

Nitromethane : An Emerging Alternative Fuel Additive with

Associated Challenges

Shivani Tyagi and Anil Kumar 338

Aspirations and Achievement of Human Genome Project After a Decade

Rekhamani Das and Jyotsna Devi 342

Yogic/Yogevic Environmentalism

M. Jaya Kumar Jacob 347

Strobilurins : A New Generation of Natural Fungicides

V. Venkataravanappa, S. Saha, B. Mahesh and A. B. Rai 352

Eutrophication : A Formidable Foe

Amit K. Ghosh and Suman Sarkar 358

Human Microbiomics-Decoding the Mysteries of our Permanent Guests

Latika Bhatia 364

Radio Frequency–A Blessing or A Curse

Anandarup Chatterjee and Shyam Sundar Kar 370

KNOW THY INSTITUTIONS 375

CONFERENCES / MEETINGS / SYMPOSIA / SEMINARS 378

S & T ACROSS THE WORLD 380

CONTENTS


319

EDITORIAL

India has used science and technology for socialdevelopment right from the beginning of planneddevelopment. The first time when televisionprogrammes were beamed through satellite, it wasfor education and not just entertainment. No othercountry perhaps began the satellite-basedtransmission in this manner. Likewise, green, whiteand blue revolution essentially happened throughapplication of science and technology along withappropriate policy and institutional interventions.Having said that, it must be acknowledged that avery large part of Indian population feels excludedfrom the benefits of S&T applications. This feelingof exclusion has to be overcome if the goal ofinclusive development in the Decade of Innovationhas to be met. Several strategies may includeinclusive health, biodiversity based knowledgesystems and grassroots innovations, mining theminds of masses for sourcing and sinking ideas,engagement with youth, handlooms and handicraftsinnovation and diffusion, indicators of sustainabilityscience, linking modern S&T with traditional artsand other artisanal goods, sustainable land use andclimate change, learning from centenarians,mobilizing employment programmes for mappingthe mind and resources and extending core supportto S&T institutions for social inclusion anddevelopment.

The welfare of modern society depends to alarge extent on the continuous advancement ofscientific understanding of genetics, syntheticbiology, neurosciences, material sciences, computersciences, space science and advances innanotechnologies. These have provided both adeeper understanding of the grammar of nature and

INNOVATIONS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FORINCLUSIVE DEVELOPMENT

new opportunities for industrial and economicdevelopment. Innovative engineering tools and newforms of manufacturing have also shown how tofoster better communication, to improve access toinformation and how to use many resources moreefficiently and with reduced environmental impact.These developments offer new opportunities totackle major societal challenges; enhance economicprosperity and a fair distribution of wealth for allmembers of society; address climate change, energyand resource scarcity; stimulating advances inhealthcare and reducing the impact of agingsocieties, and many other potential benefits.Knowledge, the development of technical andpractical knowhow and the fostering ofentrepreneurial spirit. Extraordinary advances havetaken place in science new technologies in the lastdecades.

And yet, if knowledge from scientific researchis to become the driver of a knowledge-basedeconomy, how do we ensure that its evolution anddevelopment reflect not only a step forward intosustainable development but also meet societalexpectations and concerns?

The term “inclusive” illustrates the need to gainpublic support for the necessary changes intechnologies, production processes and societaltransformations.

PUBLIC CONCERNS ABOUT SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY

In spite of the fact that India’s fate depends ona prudent utilization of knowledge, most Indiansocieties face a growing distance between knowledgeproducers, users and citizens. Many innovative


320

applications of science and technology lacksignificant public support, regardless of what thebalance of scientific evidence suggests about thelevel of risk associated with any specific application.In India people are still strongly in favour ofscience and its application (e.g. plant bio-technology).

Many people seem to be fixated on the risks andthe uncertainties of new developments whilecommonly underestimating their potential forpositive change and economic opportunities. Recentexamples of public concerns on innovative productsinclude, inter alia, the internet of things and smartcities (privacy); shale gas (risk assessment); GMfood (socio-cultural concerns); dual use andbiotechnology (biological threats); synthetic meatand animal cloning for food (safety and culturalconcerns); personalised medicine, gene testing andDNA banking (benefits for society and socio-economic inequalities). Other concerns includecarbon capture and storage (citizens raise safetyconcerns over storage facilities in theirneighbourhood despite the fact that this technologyis regarded as potentially beneficial to fightingclimate change); smart energy meters (privacyissues); electronic health records (privacy andautonomy concerns), etc.

At the same time, social change associated withthe advancement of knowledge has lost some of itsattractiveness for at least two reasons ; due to lackof awareness and gap between scientific innovationsand their applications in daily life.

This perception of a gap between those whoproduce and apply new knowledge and those whowill be affected by the positive and negativeconsequences of these applications is exacerbatedby new developments in knowledge generation andin the institutional settings where knowledgegeneration takes place. Due to the complexity,uncertainty and ambiguity of contemporaryknowledge construction, knowledge claims are oftencontested and leave ample room for different

interpretations. Knowledge often increases theexperience of uncertainty rather than reducing it.This has led to the problematic belief, allegedlysupported by post-modern thinking, that all truthclaims are more or less arbitrary and driven bypersonal or institutional interests rather than factualinsights.

CHALLENGES FOR IMPROVING PUBLICUNDERSTANDING OF NEW DEVELOP-MENTS IN KNOWLEDGE ANDTECHNOLOGY

A principal challenge in science and technologyinformation and education is therefore to convey amodern understanding of knowledge as a temporary,contested and multi-faceted body of truth claimsand, at the same time, provide the assurance that itis the “fuzziness” of contemporary knowledge thatleads to a successful and responsible application ofknowledge in different societal domains. Uncertainknowledge is by no means arbitrary. It portraysreality much better than traditional deterministicmodels of the world. Complex models of realityhave proven to be more successful than simple andunambiguous images of reality. Even with all theuncertainty and ambiguity associated with newknowledge, the implications of this knowledge havethe power to make human interventions more robust,efficient and even sustainable.

Taking risks and exploring uncertain areas isthereby connected to creating new opportunitiesand to providing economic and social benefits toall. To convey this message about the nature ofcontemporary knowledge to all parts of the Indianpopulation is first and foremost an educationaltask. In particular, the science curricula of schoolsneed to be revised to reflect this new understandingof knowledge and provide guidance on how tohandle complex questions in an appropriate -butstill knowledge-based- manner. These attempts atrevising school curricula need to be accompaniedby additional efforts to launch programs on publicengagement with science, knowledge and society.


321

To focus on scientific literacy only is not enough.We need to become familiar with the concept thatknowledge, technology, organizational structure andpatterns of behaviour are closely interwoven andconstitute the main fabric of our modern,knowledge-based culture.

Secondly, we need new and effective programsto help people understand the rationale forcomparing risks and benefits and for making prudenttrade-offs between the different values about whichwe care.

The empirical analysis of people’s attitudestowards changes in their environment, in particularnew technological infrastructure, has shown thatfour factors are crucial for a positive positiontowards proposed changes:

● Why do we need change? This cognitiveaspect includes the insight that the proposedchange is going to provide the service thatis associated with this change and that theconcomitant risks can be managed by thesocietal institutions mandated to deal withthese risks.

● What is in it for me? People need to beconvinced that the proposed changes willhave a benefit either for themselves or forothers for whom they care. If the commongood is invoked it needs to be articulated inthe form of concrete advantages to thosewho will need the services. Abstractpromises such as “it will improve thecompetitiveness of a country” areinsufficient to serve this objective.

● Does this limit my options? People tend toreject innovations or changes if they believethat their personal range of options or their

personal freedom is negatively affected.Loss of sovereignty or the perception ofbeing dominated by others is powerfulthreats to self-efficacy and autonomy.Innovations such as smart grids or self-learning computers may be good exampleswhere this feeling of being governed byothers may easily evolve.

● Do I feel personally engaged? Changesalways mean interventions into one’s wayof life. If these changes are seen assomething alien in people’s neighbourhoodsthey are likely to be rejected. A goodexample is the ownership of municipal windparks. If they are owned by a distantcompany people often feel that they do notfit into the landscape in which they live.However, if the people in the communityown the wind parks themselves, they mayfeel that these generators seem to matchthe community’s heritage.

Meeting these four conditions for a positiveattitude towards planned changes and innovationsare moderated by trust. None of the four conditionscan be met if there is insufficient trust in thedecision making process and in the institutions ororganisations that are involved in this process. Ifpeople do not trust the authorities even the besteducation or communication program will failbecause the truth claims therein will appear as notcredible. Since these claims are, as stated above,uncertain and ambiguous, it is easy to dismiss themas being interest-driven positions disguised as facts.In essence, building trust and confidence inknowledge-producing institutions is therefore crucialfor creating the appropriate conditions for a positivegeneral attitude towards knowledge implementationand planned changes.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Saxena

The highest possible stage in moral culture is when we recognizethat we ought to control our thoughts.

— Charles Darwin


322

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

QUALITY SCIENCE IN INDIA—ENDS AND MEANS

Prof. R. P. Bambah

I am very grateful to my fellow scientists forgiving me the honour of presiding over this

session. Since I am fully conscious of my limitations

and lack of achievements, and the greatness of many

stalwarts who presided over previous sessions, I

have continually wondered how the community

could have decided to give me this great honour.

However, I have never doubted your generosity and

grace. Thank you very much.

The Prime Minister gave the Science Congress

the singular honour of releasing the Technology

Policy of the Government of India at the 70th session

of the Congress at Tirupati last year. The Congress

is very conscious of the exceptional regard for the

Scientific Community and its Council is devoting

a full session to the discussion of the Policy and our

response to it.

INTRODUCTION

The focal theme, for this session, as you all

know, is “Quality Science in India—Ends and

Means”. During the discussions in the plenary

sessions as well as the sections, I feel, a great deal

of thought will be given to problems relevant to the

future of Science and Technology in the Country.

Although this focal theme was recommended by

me in May 1982, before the Tirupati Session, it is

a happy coincidence that many of the ideas and

suggestions emanating from our discussions could

form a suitable response to the Prime Minister’s

reliance on the Scientific Community for meeting

the national Goals for Science and Technology.

Before independence the country had a small

number of leading scientists and groups of people

working around them. However, one could not say

the country had an adequate base of Science and

Technology. As a result of the conscious decision

by the freedom movement and the first National

Government, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, that the

welfare of our people lay in creating in the country

a powerful base for Science and Technology, a few

years before and more vigorously soon after the

dawn of independence, various processes to achieve

this objective were set into motion. A network of

national Laboratories was set up, young people

were identified for training in the leading institutions

of the world, Institutes of Technology and Research

Institutes were created, and a great programme of

development of old and new universities was taken

up. After more than thirty years of these efforts

India has developed a respectable scientific base.

But a time has come when one has to take stock

and ask how we are going to use this base, to ask

whether this base is adequate for the goals of the

Society, which nourishes us, and to task what sort

of priorities do we opt for and what sort of inputs

and results do we plan for. All these, and other* General President, 71st Indian Science Congress held during

January, 1984 at Ranchi.


323

questions will, I hope, be discussed in varioussessions of the Congress.

As is clear from the title of the Focal Theme,the focus of our discussions will be quality Science.It is very hard to give a precise definition for aconcept like this. Perhaps the most viable waywould be to follow Bertrand Russell and say QualityScience is what Quality Scientists do, and QualityScientists are those whom the others accept assuch. One could alternately say : I cannot say whatQuality Science is, but I do know it when I see itHowever, when scarce resources are to be allocated.national priorities are to be fixed and long-termplans and commitments are to be made, one cannotget away with this. One will have to give moreprecise criteria for what is and what is not QualityScience.

FOUR CATEGORIES OF SCIENCE

It is obvious that the quality of every humanendeavour is closely related to the objectives ofsuch an effort. No work can be considered to havehigh quality if it fails badly to achieve the objectiveit set out to attain. On the other hand any effort,how-so-ever clumsy, that achieves its objectivescannot be dismissed as that of low quality.

Although it is diffcult to draw hard and fastlines between various types of Science, it will beconvenient for the purpose of defining theirobjectives to divide Science into four categories :

1. Basic Seience,

2. Science for Development,

3. Defence Science, and

4. Commercial Science.

I shall take up these categories for furtherdiscussion in reverse order.

COMMERCIAL SCIENCE

The objective of Commercial Science is tomaximize profits by finding cheaper methods ofproduction, more effective methods of marketingand distribution, or making it possible to

manufacture new products which have a highpotential for consumption. The appreciation of workin this direction is through patents, royalties,bonuses, or other fiscal rewards. However, in adeveloping country, where consumer products maybe scarce, huge profits can be made by usingborrowed or obsolete technology and the incentivefor innovative work may be lacking. It may in theshort run be quite profitable for an entrepreneur tobuy or borrow technology which may be on wayout elsewhere, and use it here. Also, the availableresources could be monopolised for use in themanufacture of products that meet the demands ofan affluent minority at the expense of the needs ofthe bulk of people, who are not that fortunate. Itmay, therefore, be imperative for the community inR&D effort meant for developing indigenouscapacity for the production at economic costs ofthe products needed for the welfare of the people.Also, it may be necessary to make commercialsector participate in the development of theinfrastructure and industrial climate needed forself-reliance. It may also be necessary to develop aPublic Sector for long range research and productiveefforts to create an appropriate Industrial Base. Theeffort in this direction is not to be measured interms of profits, but in terms of its achieving itsgoals of self-sufficiency and creation of high leveltechnology. The efforts of the Public Sector inIndia in India, therefore, should be assessed interms of its achievement or non-achievement ofproducing the right type of indigenous capacityrather than monetary profits.

DEFENCE SCIENCE

The objectives of Defence Science are againrelatively clear—they are to help produce or adaptweapons and to devise means of communication,management and strategy to achieve maximumdefence preparedness. The quality of such an effortis measured in terms of how it helps to equip theDefence forces to meet possible hostile action.Although for a country like India the prospects of


324

such a dilemma are rather remote, the DefenceScientists in more developed countries could face acrisis of conscience in that they may have to decidewhether or not they participate in the preparationof some weapons, whose potential for danger to thehuman, or other, species is very great. Perhaps it istime for the world community of Scientists to drawup a code under which Scientists of various nationscould underake not to take up work in certain areasof destructive Science. The whole world is living ingreat dread of a nuclear holocaust. It may bequixotic to hope for, but perhaps the scientistscould come to a consensus that they will not do anyfurther work on nuclear armaments.

DEVELOPMENT SCIENCE

When we come to Science for Development wecome in a sense to the most difficult area.Theoretically every advance in human knowledgehas potential for application to development.However, when one is asking for funds for Sciencefor Development needs, one has to fix well-definedshort-terms as well as long-term goals and everyeffort has to be evaluated in terms of those. HereQuality Science is a result-oriented one. Althoughoriginality is always admirable, in the Science forDevelopment emphasis has to be on the results.Here one can beg, borrow, buy, or imitate the workdone else where and adapt it to the solution ofone’s own problems. The work on Green revolution,that on Kalpakam reactor, the work that has goneinto the ISRO programmes and that on nuclearenergy are examples of Quality Science, althoughat the conceptual level at least one cannot claimmuch originality for it. In a country like ours, aslong as Basic Health services are not available toeach village, clean water has not been supplied,link roads not established, or education not providedto each child, scientists working or developmentcannot afford to be complacent. Work has to bedone on problems relevant to our needs. Ideas maybe borrowed, but applications have to be need-based. Also, one has to be careful to achieve self-

reliance. Otherwise one can find that one’sprogrammes get into jeopardy at very crucial stages.One has to be careful to distinguish betweenfashionable Science and meaningful Science.

If one borrows ideas or techniques they have tobe adapted to one’s own use. The development ofintegrated chips and efficient compact batterieshave made it possible to store and retrieveinformation in compact packages. These are usedin the more affluent countries for calculators,watches and video games, etc. Here we couldperhaps adapt the technology to evolve smallcomputers, which could store information aboutsymptoms, diagnosis and treatment of commonailments. With such instruments available personsfrom rural background and high school leveleducation could be trained to use these and act asmedical technicians in rural health centres. Thecomputers have, of course, to be programmed towarn the technician if a case gets beyond hiscapacity. If suitable communication can beestablished between the computer and moreadvanced health centres, perhaps proper treatmentcan be given even without the patient having to betransported to the more developed centre. In shortthe idea of barefoot doctors could become a viableone and basic health expertise could be provided torural centres without having to train a large numberof doctors who need long and specialised training.

Similarly the problem of the death of secondaryand high school teachers with competence to teachScience and other subjects could be solved byproducing compact programmes, which could giveinformation to an ordinary teacher on the contentand method of presentation of scientific facts andconcepts. I believe such programmes are worth theconsideration of scientists working in a countrylike ours, with problems relevant to the large massof people in rural areas.

BASIC SCIENCE

Just as man cannot live by bread alone; for abetter quality of life he needs art, literature, and


325

music, etc., which appeal to and develop hisaesthetic sense and yearning for beauty of form andsound, a society that cares for science only for itsutilitarian aspects misses the higher quality of life.Curiosity, love of beauty and urge to explore theuncharted demand aesthetically satisfying neatsolutions, attacks on problems that have defied thegreat, search for insights that unify the diverse, andaudacious new ideas that open up fresh vistas.They add lustre, beauty and a higher dimension tothe achievements of human mind. These are thecompulsions that make the great pursuit of Sciencefor its own sake. The Science is independent oftime and space. It has universal standards and hasto be judged by standards very different from thoseof utility or applicability. Here one cannot admirerepetitive or second rate work. Here one demandsaesthetic solutions, unifying concepts, based ondeep insight, and simplification of theories that cancome only from deep understanding. This is thearea in which old problems, unsolved forgenerations, stand as a challange to the humanmind. Pure Mathematics, Theoretical Physics,Astronomy and recent developments in life Sciencesare some of the areas where quality is to be judgedby these exacting standards alone.

When Gerd Faltings recently made a majorbreakthrough on a 300 year old problem byproviding the 60 years old Mordell conjecture, thereport of Newsweek said : “Other than applicationswithin Mathematics, the consequences of Falting’sproof are hard to envision. Such an achievement inanother Science could promise all sorts of spin-offs, as Einsten’s relativity spawned atomic powerand Crick and Waston’s double helix bred geneticengineering. Falting’s proof is an end in itself, anaccomplishment the mathematicians liken to thefour-minute mile. Falting showed it could be done,scoring a triumph for intellect”. Every success likethis is a tribute to the human spirit. When a problem,which had resisted the attempts by many greatminds in the past over decades or even centuries,

gets solved, the whole human race shares in theglory. One does not ask what applications it willhave. When physicians look for Grand Unification,they are not motivated by any spin-offs orapplications. The reason is a search for aestheticallysatisfying simple patterns to explain complicatedphenomena. When a Ramanujan appears in acountry one does not ask how utilitarians his workis. One feels proud of the human intellect and isgreatful to have some thing in common with him.

From an utilitarian point of view also no societycan go on living on borrowed knowledge and ideas.For self-reliance one needs a capacity to roll backthe Frontiers of knowledge, confidence to blazenew trails and audacity to put forth brave newconcepts. A compulsion to explore, to know and tounderstand is imperative. “Also, no one can predictwhat scientific developments will provide in theirtrain. It has been reported that President Rooseveltheld a meeting in 1983 with some of the bestscientists to help him envisage the possibilities. Heis reported to have said : ‘I want you to tell mewhat to expect’. After three days of intensivespeculation, the scientists failed to predict atomicPower, Radar, Rockets, Jet aircraft and Computers,all of which were to burst upon the world in thenext few years. They knew about exploratoryresearch, but could not believe it would producefunctional products so soon”.

Although Science of this type does not knownational boundaries, success in experimental side atleast depends on the infrastructure ofinstrumentation, skills in maintaining sophisticatedinstruments, and in general the industrial base fromwhich one can draw. In such an endeavour a countrylike ours has to take stock of its capacity andchoose problems for which resources could beprovided and for which one could have a natruralhabitat, in which such work could be carried on atsome advantage relative to better equipped Societies.The Kolar Gold Field experiment is a primaryexample of such an appropriate choice.

2


326

PHYSICAL RESOURCES

In the foregoing I have spelt out my ideas of theobjectives of Science of various types. One can usethese or other criteria to identify areas or problemsworth studying. However, there would not be muchhope for successful pursuit if one did not have thephysical and human resources needed for thepurpose. Therefore, we would have to make arealistic appraisal of the present and potentialresources that could be available. It is possible thatcertain resources are available in such a plenty thatmeaningful work can be done at a large number ofplaces. But it is more likely that we shall find theresources to be fairly limited. Hence one will haveto evolve strategies for their optimal use. This mayrequire the concentration of certain resources atcertain selected places where they can be used tothe greatest advantage. One may have to establisha culture of sharing in such a way that all scientistscapable of suing a scarce facility have reasonableaccess to it. Even in more developed economics,the establishment of institutions like ArgonneNational Laboratory or CERN have resulted from aneed to share rare and complicated equipment.Various groups of active workers will have to dosome hard thinking and evolve methods ofdeployment and sharing of precious resources.Experience of VEC or regional computer centrescould be useful.

It those cases where physical resources neededfor imperative solutions are not available, we willneed to work out plans for their development on anemergency basis in appropriate time intervals. Sincethe development of these vital resources may notbe commercially profitable, this development mayhave to be taken up on a priority basis by nationallaboratories or other public institutions.

HUMAN RESOURCES

Even when one has identified the goals, fixedthe priorities and made sure physical resources areavailable, real progress would be impossible unless

one has the most crucial resource, that is humantalent. For progress, it is necessary that the countryhas vital human resources consisting of great talenttrained properly and motivated to undertakechallenging tasks. In spite of the fact that ourmethods of training, employment and reward areleast suitable for attracting the young to a career inScience, and we have been able to reach only asmall segment of our population, it is a fact that agreat ideal of scientific competence is availableboth in the country and among Indians workingabroad. Even in a developed country like U. S. A.a sizable number of indian scientists andtechnologists are working at fairly high levels. Itmust be admitted, however, that the cases of winnersof award like the Nobel Prize or even a membershipof the National Academy of Sciences are rare.I would like to devote the rest of my address to thedevelopment of the vital human resources neededfor scientific work at the highest level.

A DIGRESSION : RESEARCH FELLOWS’PLIGHT

Before taking up this theme in a systematic wayI would like to make a degression to emphasise animmediate problem that is causing a great deal ofworry to all of us. In recent years there has been agreater awareness of the role of teachers andnecessity to give them better status and conditions.The so called U.G.C. pay scales have put theprofession in a much better financial position thanbefore. However, in all the calculation one hasconsidered a Lectureship as the entry point andmade the emoluments of a Lecturer comparable tothose of people joining various other professons.However, the fact of the matter is that for aUniversity teacher or scientist the point of entry isnot a Lectureship or equivalent, but a ResearchStudentship. The age at which most people areinducted into the higher class services in otherprofessions like Engineering, Medicine, BusinessAdministration, Banking and I.A.S., etc. correspondsto that of a person who has recently taken a


327

Master’s degree. This is the age at which a ResearchStudent joins his reseach career. He normally takesfour to five years before he becomes eligible for aUniversity Lectureship. At present the emolumentsof a Research Scholar are Rs. 600 to Rs. 700 permonth (even this amount became available onlyvery recently), while a person joining the otherprofession at that age gets at least twice that much.By the time the Research Student can take a Ph.D.and join the profession at the initial stage theemoluments of people in other professions havetaken another quantum jump. This fact has had itseffect in the recruitment of research students, and isbound to affect the quality of our scientists at laterstages. We find that the better students are undergreat pressure from their families, who in ourcontext, need economic support from their children,who at this stage have reached the age of twentytwo or more, to opt for jobs in other professions. AResearch student, who normally comes from alower or a lower middle income group, is in noposition to contribute to the family needs. Althoughsome dedicated persons take up research studentshipeven at this handicap, the number of such people issmall. Even among these the more enterprisingtake up Research / Teaching Assistantships in moreaffluent countries like U.S.A or Canada. The realbrain drain occurs at this stage. From their stipendsthese people are able to contribute a sizable amountin terms of rupees to their family needs. Suchscholars tend to stay on in the U.S.A. or Canadaand provide a substantial support to their academicor scientific structures. The total effect is that ourinstitutions are getting very few entrants of theright calibre. This is bound to badly affect thefuture of Science in our country and this is aproblem that needs immediate attention. Unless wemake the emoluments of a Research Scholarcomparable to those of entrants in other professonswith similar levels of achievement and age, andmake sure their conditions of service staycomparable, any steps taken to improve standards

of scientific endeavour will, I am afraid, turn out tobe largely futile.

For development and utilisation of talent forscientific work, the obvious areas of concern are

1. Identification,

2. Training and Motivation,

3. Induction into the Scientific Manpower, and

4. Maximal utilisation

TALENT : PATTERN FOR IDENTIFICATIONAND TRAINING

Because of the age group involved, immensityof the numbers and the vastness of the area overwhich they are distributed, one cannot envisage anyeffective methods of talent search at the primarystage. One can only hope more and more studentsfrom various sections will come into the schoolsystem. One can also hope the new technology forcommunication of information will make it possiblefor the ordinary teacher to use effective methods ofarousing the curiosity and power of observation ofthe students under his charge. At the end of theprimary stage those spotted by their teacher to haveunusual talents could be brought into contact withexperts at the District level, who would be lookingfor the gifted. As suggested by the U.G.C. EducationPolicy statement one could start pace setting schoolsat the District level. Those students who have beenidentified as gifted could be admitted to these pacesetting schools, where enough support will beavailable, according to the means of the student, tomake it possible for him to stay at the school as aresident scholar. Under the general principle thatevery gifted student has the right to a challengingeducation, which will not underestimate hispotential, the standards of work and expectation atthese institutions will be kept very high both forthe students and the teachers. As is well known, astudent reacts very strongly to the attitudes andcapacities of his peer group. One hopes that underthe influence of their peers, all equally gifted, thesestudents will be ready for training at its most


328

excellent. Although healthy competition is desirable,it is a sad fact that the more accomplished of ourIndian citizens find it difficult to work together. Itis perhaps a consequence of our India citizens findit difficult to work together. It is perhaps aconsequence of our examination system where toomuch emphasis is placed on relative rank andmarks. An essential feature of the high level pacesetting schools would be development of groupactivities and group endeavour, whereby one learnsto work as a member of a team to achieve thehighest potential of the group, as distinct from theindividual. Since excellence is the sole motivation,there is no room for any reservations in theseschools for the gifted. However, to compensate themore deprived sections for their handicaps resultingfrom historical injustice, members of the deprivedsections could be allowed to compete for entry tothese schools at higher age or after furtherpreparation. They would in no case be inducted ifthey cannot cope with the high level work expectedfrom all. This will not be fair to them and will alsolead to a sense of failure and frustration.

After three or four years in such schools thesestudents could compete for entry into the schoolsfor the gifted at the next stage. This competitionwill, of course, be open to others also and it will beexpected that not more than a third or fourth ofthese students will get into the second level pace-setting schools. Thus, although success in gettingentry to the next level school will be a matter ofprestige, failure will not necessarily mean lack ofnormal talent and these students, when they goback to regular schools, will probably be amongthe best there.

I would like to emphasise here that is notnecessary to construct new buildings andinfrastructure for these pace-setting schools.Buildings and equipment of some of the existingschools can be used for the purpose with the clearunderstanding that all staff of the school would betransferred to the general pool and great care will

be exercised in the selection of the staff for theseschools from the total cadre.

At the end of the Higher Secondary stage,through various processes of search and selection,an adequate number of gifted students in each statewill be identified for intensive and demandingtraining at the University level. Here, as also inother competitions for training for the gifted,children from deprived sections could be allowedto compete at higher age or after higher levelnormal training, the general principal being thatthey have to have the same capacity as otherstudents to meet the exacting demands of hightraining and peer group interaction they will beexposed to.

UNIVERSITY LEVEL

Having come to the stage of university educationfor the gifted we have naturally to ask what sort ofarrangements will be adequate for desirable forthem.

Our University system did a tremendous job inabsorbing the huge expansion that has taken placein the number of students coming to highereducation. Old institutions expanded and new onescame into existence to meet the demands andaspirations of the expanding population desirous ofcollege level education. However, inevitably thishas led to the induction of a great deal of mediocrityboth in the teaching and the administrative side.Also, the student body is generally not motivatedfor getting and excellent education. The structureevolved in colinal days to meet entirely differentneeds had become so soft that it is futile to exceptany hard and worth-while decision from it. I willsay more a little later about the University systemas a whole. At the moment I would only like topoint out that the type of education that the giftedare entitled to and the country needs will beextremely hard to provide in the existing institutions.Our experience of starting new universities forexcellence has also been not too happy. In order to


329

learn from our mistakes it would be useful to takestock of some of these.

The gifted have a right to interaction with bestscholars who are actively engaged in creative work.The faculty should be in the prime of theirproductive period. It is a sad fact that really creativelife of an individual has a limited span, and wehave to take account of this. I would like toemphasise again that there is no room for reservationin these institutions. As suggested earlier studentsfrom deprived sections could come to theseinstitutions for undergraduate work even after takinga degree elsewhere. Till very recently some of thebest undergraduate students who came to Oxfordand Cambridge had already taken their degrees inother universities in U.K. or outside. Even AbdusSalam joined Cambridge as an undergraduate aftertaking an M.A. from Lahore. To compensate forthe students from deprived sections coming to thesystem at a later age, the ages of employment andretirement for them could be suitably adjusted, sothat they are not denied the top positions simplybecause they are older than people senior to them.

In the past when new institutions have beenstarted huge finances have been spent on theconstruction of buildings, acquisition of basicequipment and library materials, as also on theadministrative setup. By the time these steps aretaken very meagre financial resources are availablefor the really important job of getting down to thebusiness of first rate training for first rate people.Also if mistakes are made in the choice of thefaculty, or if the people, productive at the time oftheir selection, cross their peak they stay on inthese institutions and generally bring down thelevel of performance there.

HIGHER INSTITUTIONS FOR THE GIFTED

To take care of the university level training forthe gifted I would like to suggest the followingsteps.

1. We should identify some of the existinginstitutions where adequate physical

facilities like buildings, laboratories, andlibraries, etc. are available. These should betaken over at the national level for use forfirst rate training for the gifted. All thestaff, teaching, administrative, class III, classIV should be transferred to a common pool.which I shall describe later.

2. The faculty should be drawn from the totaluniversity system on a tenure basis keepingthe following principles in view :

(a) The faculty should consist to creativepeople at the peak of their creativepowers, so that the bulk, say 70 percent at least, should be in the agegroup 30 to 45.

(b) No person will stay in an institution ofthis type for more than five years at atime; maximum number of times onecould come to such an institution beingtwo.

(c) Twenty percent of the faculty will leavethe institution every year to be replacedby fresh entrants. Those who havewould revert to the general cadre, and,in exceptional cases, be sent to anotherselected school.

(d) Adequate arrangements for housing,and compensation, in addition to theprestige and excitement of working insuch a university, will be providedbecause of the adjustments that haveto be made in one’s pattern of familylife and general living and working,especially for the experimentalscientist.

(e) People who win awards like Bhatnagarmedal, Younger Scientists awards ofINSA, ISCA, medals of the IndianNational Science Academy, and HariOm Trust etc. will be expected towork on the faculties of these institutes


330

for some time as a condition of theawards.

(It is clear that providing for tenureappointments in our present systemwill be full of many problems that willhave to be tackled. Perhaps we shallhave to think of an all India Universityservice with the pattern of the existingall India services adapted to take intoconsideration the peculiar nature ofthe profession, including a need toinsulate it from Government control orinfluence. The idea of a suitable IndianUniversity System may have advantagefor the general university set up alsoand could be helpful in strengtheningnational integration. I shall enlarge onthis later in the address).

3. For academic and administrative decisionscompact committees of experts, with 25percent retiring every year, should replacethe cumbersome machinery of Senates,Syndicates, etc. These committees shouldbe authorised to take final decision onmatters falling within their competence.

4. It should be desirable that no student takestwo consecutive degrees from a single suchinstitution.

I have given a bare sketch which could be filledin; the principal objective being a constantlyrenewing faculty at the peak of its creativeness andexacting standards of work from the faculty as wellas the students.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES

If the gifted are identified and trained properly,it is natural that all professions requiring leadershipwould like to have their proper share. For thescientific work, in order that we also have anadequate share, not only should be bring out theexcitement and challenge of Science during thetraining of our students, but the society, as a whole,

should also acknowledge its need for skilledscientific manpower by making the scientific careeras attractive in material terms as any other. Althoughsome highly dedicated and motivated people willcome to the profession, no matter what materialterms are offered, the bulk of the scientific endeavourof every society depends on a large number ofcompetent people, who could do equally well invariour professions, and it is important that suitableincentives are provided to attract them. As alreadypointed out, we should, of course, realise that theinitial stage of entry in Science is a Researchstudentship, and not a Lecturship or equivalent.

CONDITIONS OF WORK

After we have inducted the right type of people,we may still fail to make full use of their potentialunless and ethos of cooperative endeavour at highestlevel has been built up. One would, of course, needequipment, office space, housing, etc. But morethan that should be clear realisation that in aScientific community people of different age groups,experience, skills and capacity have to complementeach others’ efforts. If this is recognised one couldwork out suitable administrative mechanism andways of giving recognition to all the members of ateam — the old ones, who are perhaps best equippedto set goals, identify problems, suggest methods,get the necessary equipment and the younger ones,who can provide hard work and fresh ideas and arebetter able to learn new techniques and absorb newideas. When a breakthough occurs it should beclear that it could come through because of thetotal effort of all the individuals involved and notbecause of the eminence of one person or thebrilliance of another.

UNIVERSITIES

I have dwelt in detail on the identification,training, induction and use of the scientific talentwith an emphasis on the role of special institutionsfor the gifted. For the immediate future the creationof such universities appears to be imperative.


331

However, they will not survive as centres ofexcellence and will tend to regress to mediocrity ifthe general university system is allowed to drift.

“The first Indian universities were establishedmore than 100 years ago in imitation of the LondonUniversity, as it then was. They all began as purelyexamining bodies and continued to be so for quitesome time. Most of the present universities inheritedtheir structure and governance from thoseuniversities and have not been able to adapt to thepresent needs of ‘seeking and cultivating newknowledge, of engaging vigorously and fearlesslyin the pursuit of truth, of identifying gifted youthand helping them develop their potential to thefull””. The so-called autonomy of the Universitiesis no real autonomy. The object of autonomy in theuniversities is to make it possible for its membersto have a free flow of ideas and to engage in thepursuit of truth free from pressures from theestablishment to whom these ideas may appeardangerous. The object is to enable the universitiesto serve as the “conscience of the Nation”, “as aforum for the critical assessment of Society”. Inour system there is no such possibility. The onlyeffect of this sham autonomy is to give powers,without accountability, to the politicians, posing asteachers, and to executive officers without anyideals. Also, under immediate presures the freedomto take decisions by the University officers andexecutive bodies, who in the present set up rarelyreflect the best academic traditions, has led tomany wrong decisions on almost all aspects of theUniversity life—admissions, training, examinations,recruitment, promotions etc. I think it is time totake stock of the ethos in the University systemsand try to evolve a new set up free of the presentunwidely, expensive and useless structure.

It has been repeatedly pointed out that oursystem is examination dominated. If one analyses itcarefully one finds that the whole system is gearedto the determination that large segments of thestudent body are more mediocre than others. Instead

of going through the ritual of holding finalexaminations, for a student, leaving the educationalprocess, it is enough that the instituton, where hehas studied, gives a certificate indicating the courseshe has attended and his performance in theexamination conducted internally by his teachers.For a job outside or admission to a higher course,the employer or the new institution can give itsown test to determine a candidate’s suitability forthe job or the course he is applying for. In thosecases where numbers seeking admission are large,objective type papers, testing only the level ofinformation acquired by the candidates, can beused to sift a smaller number, who could then begiven a more comprehensive test. Since variousobjective type papers could be distributed to thecandidate at random and marked mechanically bycomputers, or even human agents, in a very shorttime interval, chances of cheating and othermalpractices can be reduced. Since the educationalprocess will not be involved in certifying a largenumber of candidates for degrees, the hugesuperstructure of Boards of Examinations,controllers of Examinations. Secrecy Sections andwhat not could be dispensed with and the energyreleased thereby could be used for more worthwhilepursuits.

Regarding the structure of the Universities, weshould seriously give consideration to an All IndiaUniversity Service, insulated from the governmentthrough a Commission like the U.G.C, or theU.P.S.C, forming a common pool of academics andacademic administrators of the national level. Thispool could be used to supply the system so thateach institution has both continuity and continuouschange, a certain proportion of people being changedevery year. This would avoid in breeding as well asour tendency to fall into a rut or divide intofactions. The actual academic and administrativedecisions would also be taken by compactcommittees of competent people, a fixed proportionof whose membership is changed every year. The


332

system will have academic autonomy so thatacademic decisions are taken by the people engagedin teaching and research themselves. It could havefinancial autonomy, if funds are allocated on along-term basis and released periodically, withoutthe Vice-Chancellors having to knock at the doorsof the Finance Ministries every few months.

A working group of Universities could fill invarious details and look at various alternatives. TheEducation Commission report is full of richsuggestions. The principal objective should be toevolve a system which would free our universitiesfrom mediocrity, parochialism, inbreeding,groupism, politicalisation in the worst sense of ourteachers, and tyrannies of small Caesers. Also thesystem should gather the strength to tell the studentsthat it is their right to get good education and it isthe responsibility of the system to provide it tothem. A federal system managed by the best of theacademics, with a mechanism for continuity andcontinual change is needed. The system could alsobe provided with a mechanism to get people fromdifferent regions, communities and backgrounds, towork together in the academic process withoutgiving them an opportunity to divide into factions.This would strongly support the goal of NationalIntegration. This may also help realise the objectivelaid down in the Education Commission report of“concentrating scarce human resources to bringtogether in face fo face intellectual communion ofgoodly number of persons of high potentialitieswho by their contact, dialogue and communication,stimulate each other to put forth their best creative

efforts”. It will also enable the excellence generatedin a selected number of universities to graduallyspread to others, both because Faculty memberswill be continuously moving from the selectedinstitutions to the general system and back, andbecause the students trained in the few universitiesfor the gifted will eventually become available forparticipation in the general system. Since thesepeople will have been selected by national processes,the ills resulting from narrow parochialism will bereduced.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

I hope the discussion in the plenary and othersessions will help clarify the direction in whichScience in the country should develop. I amparticularly looking forward to the session in whichsome younger scientists will be talking about theirperspectives and aspirations. After all the future ofScience in the country lies in the hands of theyoung. I hope it will be possible to set up varioustask forces with the help of the National Academiesand Subject Bodies, to work out specific blueprintsfor various steps that should be undertaken. Thereports of the Binational Conferences organisedabout ten years ago by the U.G.C. could be veryuseful.

DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this address to ProfessorsD.S. Kothari, S. Chowla, A. N. Ganguli, Hans RajGupta and A. E. Ross, who have in various waysinfluenced my attitude to my profession.


333

THE USE OF MIRACLE MARINE MASS OF ALGAE INAGRICULTURE

Biswajit Pramanick*, Koushik Brahmachari*, Arup Ghosh** and S.T. Zodape**

Any advance in agricultural system that results in higher production should reduce the negativeenvironmental impact and augment the sustainability of the system. One such approach is the useof bio-stimulants like seaweed extracts, the marine bioactive substances extracted from marinealgae in agricultural and horticultural crops for enhancing the effectiveness of conventionalmineral fertilizers.

* Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra KrishiViswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, 741252

** Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institution(C.S.I.R.), G. B. Marg, Bhavnagar, Gujarat, 364002, E-mail- [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

T he use of marine algal mass i.e. seaweed has olden times. These, especially the

large brown seaweeds were usually used by thecoastal people to fertilize the lands adjacent to thesea shore. As wet seaweed is heavy so it could notusually be carried to the distant locations; althoughonce, the Irish people of the West coast and thepeasants of Brittany, France and many othercountries felt so keen interest that the seaweedswere transported a few to several kilometres awayfrom the sea beach. Commonly, drift vis-à-vis beach-washed seaweeds were accumulated, although theScottish farmers sometimes cut Ascophyllumexposed at low tide. Someplace (Cornwall, UnitedKingdom), it was dug into the soil after mixingwith sand and subsequent rotting. Again, somewhere(tropical place like Philippines) it had dual use-large quantity of Sargassum after gathering appliedwet locally; otherwise, sun dried and transported toother places. Anyway, whatever may be the originvis-à-vis procedures of application nobody could

guess the future of seaweeds as miracle marinemass at that time.

The term ‘Seaweed’ is used incorrectly ormisleadingly. So it is practically a perfect misnomer.In reality as these macroscopic, multicellular algaeare of benthic marine origin, so from the point ofview of their habitat the word ‘sea’ is correctlyincorporated. But the term ‘weed’ is not at allcoined perfectly. We know that weed is a plantentity that proliferates so profusely that it caneconomically harm its entire habitat like agriculturalfields through competitive advantage for light, water,space and plant nutrients over agricultural crops.Even sometimes when a plant grows out of its ownplace it is called as weed e.g. a rice plant growingin a wheat field is of course weed to the wheatcrop. So from the point of view of their nature andhabitat they can not at all be called as ‘weed’. Thefixed and free-floating ‘weeds’ of the sea are utterlyessential to innumerable marine creatures, both asfood and habitat, they also provide many benefitsto land-dwellers, notably those of human beings.Thus the term ‘seaweed’ can successfully besubstituted to its other names like ‘marine algae’ or‘sea tangle’. Seaweed or marine algae include somemembers of red, brown and green algae. As thesegroups are not thought to have a common ancestor,

3


334

Table-1

Chemical composition of Kappaphycus sap7

Nutrient Amount Present Nutrient Amount Present

Moisture 94.38 g/100 ml Iron 8.58 mg/100 ml

Protein 0.085 g/100 ml Manganese 0.22 mg/100 ml

Fat 0.0024 g/100 ml Nickel 0.35 mg/100 ml

Crude Fibre 0.01 g/100 ml Copper 0.077 mg/100 ml

Carbohydrate 1.800 g/100 ml Zinc 0.474 mg/100 ml

Energy 7.54 Kcal/100ml Chromium 3.50 mg/100 ml

Sodium 18.10 mg/100 ml Lead 0.51 mg/100ml

Potassium 358.35 mg/100 ml Thiamine 0.023 mg/100 ml

Magnesium 116.79 mg/100 ml Riboflavin 0.010 mg/100 ml

Phosphorous 2.96 mg/100 ml Iodine 160mg/100ml

Calcium 32.49 mg/100 ml Kinetin + Zeatin 31.91 mg/L

Indole Acetic Acid 23.36 mg/L Gibberelin GA3 27.87 mg/L

the seaweeds are a polyphyletic group. Theappearance of seaweeds somewhat resembles non-arboreal terrestrial plants. Some of such marinealgal members are Kappaphycus, Laminaria, Ulvalactuca, Haliotis tuberculata, Porphyra, Macrocystispyrifera, Alaria esculenta , Lithothamnioncorallioides, Phymatolithon calcareum, Ecklonia,Fucus, Andaria, Bryopsis, Sargrassum,Aschophyllum, Macrosystis, Palmaria, Gracilaria,Manostama, Enteromorpha etc. The versatileutilities of these marine algae are making thempopular day by day. Without mining into detailabout the uses of these algae this article will beconfined into their importance in the agrarian sector.

SEAWEEDS- WHAT ARE THERE IN IT

Seaweed is amply rich in carbohydrates; thevital building block of plant body and a good foodsource of many beneficial micro-organisms. Unlikeconventional forms of fertilizers, being a wealthysource of natural plant hormones viz. auxins, atleast two gibberellins, endogenous cytokinins etc;betaines; various vitamins like B1 (thiamine), B2

(riboflavin), B12 (cyanocobalamin), vitamin E(tocopherol), vitamin K and other growth-promotingsubstances vitamin C (ascorbic acid) as well aspantothenic acid, folic acid and folinic acid etc;

alginic acids; antibiotics1; many macronutrients andalmost all micronutrients in fully chelated formseaweed fertilizers are especially useful in organicfarming. Chelating- a combination of mineral atomwith organic molecules, makes microelementsavailable to the crops. Such chelating properties arepossessed by the starches, sugars and carbohydratesin seaweed and seaweed products. For this reason,these components naturally combine with iron,cobalt, copper, manganese, zinc and othermicroelements present in seaweed. Thus these traceelements in seaweed and seaweed products do notsettle out even in alkaline soils, but remain availableto the crops which need them. Alginic acid is a soilconditioner and the remainders are plant conditioner.All these are found in fresh seaweed or driedseaweed meal as well as liquid seaweed extracts.

SEAWEEDS IN SOIL MANAGEMENT

Soil application of seaweed makes moisturemore available to the plant roots and enriches thesoil by feeding myriad beneficial microorganismssuch as bacteria and tiny fungi necessary forcomposting. As alginic acid is a soil conditioner,therefore, its presence in seaweed and seaweedproducts improves the water holding capacity ofsoil and facilitates formation of crumb structure.


335

Alginic acid in the seaweed combines with metallicradicals in the soil to form a cross-linked polymerwith immensely increased molecular weight.Virtually, the salts formed by alginic acids with soilmetals swell when wet and retain moisturepersistently. Alginates, the sponge-like starchesfound in seaweeds hold water droplets near theplant roots, making moisture available to the plants.The application of seaweed meal in sloppy landcan check washing away of seedlings and nutrientsinto the ditch by improving the soil structure. It hasbeen found that in exceedingly dry period,cultivation of second crop is possible only with thefield application of seaweed fertilizer, other fieldsdry out completely2. This incidence validates thewater-retaining capability of seaweed. This in turnleads to better aeration and capillary activityresulting in stimulation of the root systems ofplants for further growth and thus stimulates thesoil bacteria towards better activity. Accelerationin bacterial activity through the soil application ofseaweed meal results in the secretion of organicchemical substances like polyuronides by them thatultimately condition the soil thoroughly. Practically,polyuronides are chemically similar to the soilconditioner like alginic acid having soil-stabilizingproperties. Thus seaweed fertilizer providesconditioning agents to the soil in both the ways:alginic acid from the undecomposed seaweed inone hand and polyuronides from the soil bacterialsecretion in another hand. As the bacteria involvedin the decomposition of any undecomposedseaweeds or organic matter in the soil requiresnitrogen to carry out such decomposition, theyacquire nitrogen from the available source of thesoil. Thus initial scarcity of the available nitrogenin the soil occurs2. For this reason, application ofseaweed in the field initially diminishes the availablenitrogen of the soil and then a noteworthy escalationof it occurs. So it should be kept in mind thatduring this period seed germination, absorption ofnutrients and growth of the plant may be inhibited

for one of fifteen weeks of total crop producingperiod2.

SEAWEEDS IN CROP PRODUCTION ANDITS HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Soil or foliar application of marine algal productshave been discovered to be the effective tools inmaintaining proper plant health and escalating theproductivity of agricultural crops without creatingturmoil to the ecological balance. It has been noticedthat pre-sowing or pre-planting treated seeds orseed pieces (propagating plant parts like sugarcanesetts, potato cut tubers etc.) will germinateeffectively and rapidly resulting in robust rootgrowth and vigorous seedling at early stage.Simultaneously, higher survival rate of seedlingscan also be achieved. Cuttings immersed in liquidseaweed solution produce profuse roots. Soakingplant roots in seaweed extract reduces transplantshock and expedites root growth. It prevents budforming or opening at the wrong times, whereasencourages emergence of additional buds whenapplied at the very budding stage of plants. Frostand stress resistance, enhanced uptake of inorganicconstituents from soil, reduction in storage lossesof fruits, expansion of shelf life of fruits vis-à-visvegetables and elongation of life of cut flowers arealso some of the exclusive beneficial effects. Letthe scientific causes behind these effects bediscussed in a nutshell. It has already been discussedthat seaweed fertilizers hold various phyto-hormonesviz. auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins etc. and betaines.They have both growth stimulating as well asretarding functions. Seaweed can play an importantrole in the production of the plant’s own auxins,because the enzymes formed with the help of traceelements from the liquid seaweed fertilizer play animportant role in the formation of these auxins3.The gibberellins play the pivot role in stimulatingof roots, growth, flower initiation, fruit setting,fruit growth, fruit ripening, abscission andsenescence when applied exogenously. Thecytokinins available in liquid seaweed extract initiate


336

and activate basic plant growth processes, enhancesgrowth with better vigour through mobilisingnutrients in the leaves. They also provide protectionfrom marginal frost and retard the senescence inthe plant. The betaines help the plants to fightagainst osmotic stress. They play vital role in theosmotic processes by helping the plants in increasedwater uptake even in dry condition. The antioxidantspresent in seaweed products effectively minimizerather prevent lipid oxidation in agriculturalproduces, retarding the development of toxicoxidation products, maintaining nutritional qualityand prolonging the shelf life of such commodities.The seaweed sprays stimulate metabolic processesin the leaf and so help the plant to exploit leaflocked plant nutrients2. Spraying with seaweedextracts may feed and stimulate the bacteriaperforming photosynthesis at the leaf surface to aconsiderable proportion. Moreover, plants treatedwith seaweed products develop a resistance to pestsand diseases4,5. Owing to the presence of ampleamount of soil fungi and bacteria increasedproduction of natural antibiotics occurs in the soilrich in organic matter. These antibiotics takingentry to the plants improve their disease resistance.Seaweed encourages this process and thus holdsdown the population of plant pathogens2.

SOME CASE STUDIES

Several on station vis-à-vis on farm trials carriedout by several universities including Bidhan ChandraKrishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, WestBengal in association with Central Salt and MarineChemicals Research Institute, an institute of Councilof Scientific and Industrial Research revealed thatseaweed can produce spectacular results in plants.Application of liquid seaweed extracts increasedyield by 26%, 39%, 57%, 61% and 20% of rice6,greengram7, soyabean8, tomato9 and okra10

respectively. Superior yields after seaweedtreatments were measured in watermelon11, wheat12,Potato13 and grape14. Besides, quality characters of

different crops like cereals, pulses, oilseeds andtuber crops are largely enhanced. It has also beenfound that use of seaweed as soil treatmentsubstances results in strong and healthy growthvis-à-vis disease-resistance.

Thus seaweed extracts, the marine bioactivesubstances extracted from marine algae, withoutcausing any negative environmental impact escalatethe production of different agricultural and horticulturalcrops, improve crop quality and enhance the useefficiency of conventional chemical fertilizers. Nowit has been undoubtedly understood that marinealgal mass has sufficient potentiality in agriculturalsector and for that reason it is gradually gainingmarket throughout India and abroad.

REFERENCES

1. G. Karthikaidevi, K. Manivannan, G.Thirumaran, P. Anantharaman and T.Balasubaramanian, Global J. Pharmacol, 3(2), 107-112, 2009.

2. William Anthony Stephenson, Seaweed inAgriculture and Horticulture, 1968, pp 182,Faber & Faber, London.

3. http://mistyhorizon2003.hubpages.com/hub/The-Benefits-of-Using-Liquid-Seaweed-Fertilizer.

4. Viqar Sultana, Ghulam Nabi Baloch, JehanAra, Syed Ehteshamul-Haque, Rajput M.Tariq, Mohammad Athar, J. Appl. Bot. FoodQual, 84, 162 –168, 2011.

5. S. D. Hankins, H. P. Hockey, Hydrobiologia,204-205(1), 555-559, 1990.

6. M. P. Kavitha, V. Ganesaraja and V. K.Paulpandi, Agric. Sci. Digest, 28 (2), 127 –129, 2008.

7. Biswajit Pramanick, Koushik Brahmachariand Arup Ghosh, Afr. J. Agric. Res, 8(13),1180-1186, 2013.


337

8. S. S. Rathore, D. R. Chaudhary, G. N.Boricha, A. Ghosh, B. P. Bhatt, S. T. Zodapeand J. S. Patolia, S. Afr. J. Bot, 75, 351-355,2009.

9. S. T. Zodape, Abha Gupta, S. C. Bhandari,U. S. Rawat, D. R. Chaudhary, K. Eswaranand J. Chikara, J. Sci. Ind. Res, 70, 215-219,2011.

10. S. T. Zodape, V. J. Kawarkhe, J. S. Patoliaand A. D. Warade, J. Sci. Ind. Res, 67, 1115– 1117, 2008.

11. A. M. R. Abdel-Mawgoud, A. S. Tantawy,M. M. Hafez and A. M. Hoda, J. Agri. Biol.Sci, 6(2), 161–186, 2010.

12. S. T. Zodape, S. Mukherjee, M. P. Reddyand D. R. Chaudhary, Int. J. Plant Prod, 3,97-101, 2009.

13. M. E. Lopez-Mosquera and P. Pazos, Biol.Agric. Hort, 14, 199-206, 1997.

14. J. Norrie and J. P. Keathley, Acta. Horticul,727, 243-247, 2006.


338

NITROMETHANE : AN EMERGING ALTERNATIVE FUELADDITIVE WITH ASSOCIATED CHALLENGES

Shivani Tyagi and Anil Kumar*

Nitromethane is an organic nitro compound slightly viscous and polar in nature. It has wideapplications in pharmaceuticals, explosives, fibers, pesticides and as a potential fuel additivebecause of its high anti-knock property and high combustion rate. Besides, there areassociated risks in handling and storing nitromethane. The literature summarises the advantagesand challenges associated with nitromethane as an alternative fuel.

* School of Biotechnology, Devi Ahilya University, KhandwaRd., Indore-452001, Madhya Pradesh.Email : [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

E nvironmental concerns on fossil fuels, smog,volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide,

carbon monoxide, particulates, free radicals andtoxic chlorofluorocarbons have shifted the concernon the alternative fuel usage. The present reviewoffers a critical focus on emission reducing potential,cost effectiveness and combination fuel. Due toincreased usage and requirements of alternate fuel,search for new energy sources has become a matterof concern. Increased unregulated emission ofexhaust gases from automobile has taken us towardsglobal warming threat. As per reports, secondgeneration fuels play a key role in meeting dearthof conventional fuel resources. The technologyincludes gasification1, pyrolysis, torrefaction andother thermo chemical routes3. Methane and carbondioxide are the products of second generation fuel,which can range from 60-70% and 30%,respectively. For the process, biomass and municipalwaste can be used thereby making this process costeffective2. Nitration of methane can be done for theproduction of nitromethane. Gasification of coalconverts it into syngas which can directly be used

as fuel12. Although the production cost of biofuelis higher than the conventional fuels because of thelimitations of up scaling and optimization of thetechnology. But the most favourable feature of thetechnology is reduction in green house gasesultimately reducing global warming. To implementefficient biofuel generation technology it is essentialto upgrade thermo- chemical and enzymatic routesfor biomass conversion. Besides, suitableagricultural area for biomass production is alsorequired.

It is also unrealistic to use alternative fuel sourceswithout modifying conventional engine structure.Emission Factor (EF) should be taken intoconsideration while designing engine for themachines and automobiles. The most promisingpropulsion system in vehicles is internal combustionengines and fuel cells with electric engines. Thereare a number of fuel additives used these days likeoxygenates, ether, antioxidant stabilizers, antiknockagents and lead scavengers. It is basically used asfuel performance additives. Nearly four types offuel additives are present in the market these days’viz. diesel fuel additives, gasoline additives, heatingoil performance additives and biocids. Along withhigh performance and energy, these additives offervarious other qualities like clean-up, de-hazing,


339

anti-foaming, anti-corrosion, detergency, low costand pleasant smell etc. Nitromethane is one of thefuel additives which are slightly viscous and polar.This is best for open-wheel circuit racing vehiclesto maximize their acceleration and speed. It providesas much as 330 MPH speed limits in less than 3.8seconds. As compared to gasoline and methanol,nitromethane has low energy density. Because ofthe presence of oxygen atom attached to carbonchains, stoichiometry of methanol and nitromethaneis better than gasoline9.

PROPERTIES OF NITROMETHANE

Nitromethane is basically a simple organiccompound having the chemical formula, CH3NO2

and belongs to secondary explosives. It is slightlyviscous and highly polar solvent. It is liquid atroom temperature. Its crystal structure is used asprototype material to study energetic materialsbecause of its simplicity8. Nitromethane is alsocalled as ‘Nitro’ or just ‘Fuel’ and used in dragracing cars as top fuel. The top fuel is a mixture ofnearly 90% nitromethane and 10% methanol. Thepresence of oxygen in nitromethane makes it betterfuel because that does not need extra atmosphericoxygen for combustion. Only 1.7 kg of air isrequired to burn 1 kg of nitromethane. Ondecomposition, nitromethane releases carbonmonoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and water. Its laminarcombustion velocity lies in the range of 0.5 m/swhich is suitable for high speed engines. Its highheat of vaporisation of 0.56 MJ/kg provides coolingof incoming charge that is necessary for maintaininglow temperatures. In drag racing engines, thisproperty provides cooling without water jackets.Also the formation of hydrogen and carbonmonoxide after combustion comes in contact withatmospheric oxygen at the end of exhaust pipe andis prone to ignition which ultimately leads to flamesfrom exhaust pipe. Nitromethane also has explosiveproperty which can be dealt with the use ofammonium nitrate which would act as oxidizer. It

is atomic equivalent of uranium-238 and needshigh temperature to burn. C-N bonds are lowestbond breaking moiety in nitromethane which is 59kcal-mol/l making it reasonably energetic.

PRODUCTION OF NITROMETHANE

Industrial production of nitromethane involves

reaction between propane and nitric acid at high

temperatures4. It is exothermic reaction that

produces nitroethane, nitromethane, 1-nitropropane

and 2-nitropropane. Free radicals arise via homolysis

of nitrite ester. These radicals undergo C-C

fragmentation reactions and thereafter release

mixture of products3. There is another inexpensive

method to produce nitromethane which involves

reactions between sodium chloroacetate and sodium

nitrite in aqueous medium.

ClCH2COONa + NaNO2 + H2O → CH3NO2 +

NaCl + NaHCO3

Two patents for the nitration process of methane

by vapour phase technique have been granted to

Landon. He described the process at 1 and 0.005

sec exposure time under 1 to 50 atmospheric

pressure in ferrous and non ferrous reactor. It was

suggested that under favourable conditions, 9 moles

of methane and 1 mole of nitric acid at 475° C and

0.18 sec exposure time is most suitable for

nitromethane yield. This reaction has activation

energy of 52 calories5.

BIO-NITROMETHANE PRODUCTION

Gasification of biomass is one of the alternative

methods for the production of nitromethane. Firstly

Fischer–Tropsch process converts carbon monoxide

into liquid fuel like methanol, acetic acid and

mixed alcohols. Methane gas is diluted with mist

of nitric acid spray and then pre heated. The ratio

of methane, nitric acid and water vapor should be

maintained. Heating temperature should be kept

between 450 to 550° C in nitration process followed

by washing and distillation.


340

NITROMETHANE AS FUEL ANDCOMPARISON

Nitromethane has combustion velocity of nearly0.5 m/s .Typical air/fuel (A/F) ratio for nitromethaneis 1.7 : 1 and energy content of 5000 BTU/lb.Gasoline on the other hand has A/F ratio of 12.8 : 1and energy content of 18,500 BTU/lb. The highvaporization heat of nitromethane providessignificant cooling at low temperatures. It generatesnearly 2.3 times power in combination with oxygen9.Nitromethane decomposes into carbon monoxide,water, hydrogen and nitrogen without additionaloxygen. It is used as fuel mixture because of itshigh power even in the absence of atmosphericoxygen and cause lower combustion speed. Oncombustion, it produces blue flame and can be usedas rocket fuel.

Fuel Energy content of A/Ffuel (BTU/lb) Ratio

Gasoline 18,400 12.8:1

Methanol 9,500 7.11

Nitromethane 5,000 25.08

Gasoline or petrol is a hydrocarbon mixturewhich is used in internal combustion engines. It isobtained by fractional distillation of petroleum. Itis volatile and stable with Research Octane Number(RON) ranging from 86-95 RON. Specific gravityis between 0.71 to 0.77 Kg/l. Usage in highcompression internal engines makes them to autoignite and cause engine knocking.

Methanol is wood spirit, light, colorless, volatileand flammable liquid. It is polar and has antifreezeproperties. It is used in internal combustion engineseven in drag racers, supercharged engines and heavytractor pullers also. Biomethanol has been suggestedto be renewable source of fuel.

Dimethylether (DME) can be produced usingblack liquor gasification6 and is one of the emergingalternative fuels best suited for petrol engine, dieselengines and gas turbines. It has high cetane number

of 55. DME releases comparatively lesser particulatematter and toxic gases in the environment. It hasmaximum power of 245PS/2000rpm. It is alsoreported that DME with jatropha biodiesel canimprove the performance of engine and reduces theemission level6. Disadvantage of DME is that it isless viscous and lubricant property is also low anddue to which the engine is more prone for wear andtear.

ASSOCIATED CHALLENGES ANDRATIONALE

Nitromethane is one of the more energeticexplosive as compared to TNT. As low as 5 gallonquantity of nitromethane has hazardous range of 42feet11. It should be stored at the room temperatureat a place having resistance to shock as a result ofrough handling. Nitromethane can tolerate highpressures when in contact with nitrogen instead ofoxygen since nitrogen cannot support ignition. It isprone to detonation under adiabatic conditions andsevere shock11.

It is highly expensive and difficult to handle. Asper regulations issued by the U.S. Department ofTransportation (DoT), nitromethane has beenclassified as flammable liquid. Its exhaust releasesnitric acid in vapour form which if inhaled, cancause hypoxic conditions for the driver. Increasingthe nitro is directly proportional to increasing thecompression ratio which every engine has its own2.Therefore, increase in nitro beyond this limit wouldcause harm to engine. To provide high energy tofour stroke engines, three ways can be adopted viz.use of supercharges and turbochargers for more air,to increase displacement and lastly to use highenergy fuel.

CONCLUSION

Here, authors emphasized on growing concernon upgrading technology for the production ofbiofuel has emerged with the judicial use ofnitromethane as one of the alternative in top gearengines. Some of the conditions should be avoided


341

while using nitromethane like severe shockconditions, rapid compression and high heating.Nitro should not be distilled. During storage, reliefvalves with maximum bursting pressure of 100 psishould be maintained. It is recommended thatnitromethane should be handled and used by trainedpersonnel only. When compared with first generationfuel like gasoline and methanol, nitromethane isfound to be more energy producing and has lesserenvironmental threat. Nitromethane engine requiresupgraded valve and cooling system to tolerate highhorse power generated. Therefore, it isrecommended to mix 10% nitromethane, with 25%castor oil and 65% methanol- all by percentagevolume12. There is a need to integrate process,operation and design to improve by-products andeffectiveness of the system. Efforts must be done touse combination fuels for better performance.

REFERENCES

1. M. R. Beychok, American Chemical Society168th National Meeting, Atlantic City, 1974.

2. H. B. Hass, E. E. Hodge, and B. M.Vanderbilt, IX d.e ng, chem. 2, 8, 339-44,1936.

3. G. K. Landon, U. S. Patents, 2, 161,475,2,164, 774, 1939.

4. C. F. Melius, Journal de physique IV, 3, 5,1995.

5. E. J. Reed, J.D. Joannopoulos, E. Laurenc,Phys. Rev. B : Condens. Matter andMaterial Phys., 62, 16500-16509, 2000.

6. M. Loganathan, A. Anbarasu, A.Velmurugan, International journal ofscientific & technology research, 1, 8,2012.

7. M. Naqvi, J. Yan, M. Froling, BioresourTechnol., 101, 3, 937-44, 2010.

8. S. Appalakondaiah , G. Vaitheeswaran andS. Lebègue, J. Chem. Phys. 138, 184705,2013.

9. S. Zeman, T. Atalar , Z. Friedl , J. Xue-Hai, Central European Journal of EnergeticMaterials, 6, 1, 119-133, 2009.

10. T. Boyd and H. B. Hass, Industrial andengineering chemistry, 34, 3, 1942.

11. F. C. Whitmore, M.G. Whitmore, Org.Synth, Coll. 1, 401, 1941.

12. www.wikipedia.com opened on 25/05/13

13. http://www.racing-fuels.eu/nitromethane.html opened on 07/06/13.

4


342

A Human genome Project was started in 1990 to sequence the entire human genome. The final

draft of HGP was announced in 2003 representing about 90% of the human genome. The

project has aided in developing better research and technology, particularly in our ability to

sequence genes and better medical management.

ASPIRATIONS AND ACHIEVEMENT OF HUMAN GENOME PROJECTAFTER A DECADE

Rekhamani Das and Jyotsna Devi

* Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, AssamAgricultural University, Jorhat-785013, Assam.Email : [email protected]

W ith rapid growth of scientific knowledgeand experimental method, human began

to unravel another mystery, the discovery of theentire genetic make-up of the human body. Agenome is an organism’s complete set ofdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a chemical compoundthat contains the genetic instructions needed todevelop and direct the activities of every organism.The human (Homo sapiens) genome containsapproximately 20,000 – 25,000 genes, stored on 23chromosome pairs in the cell nucleus and in thesmall mitochondrial DNA. The haploid humangenome contains a total of just over three billionDNA base pairs, which carry the instructions formaking proteins. The functions of many genes inthe human genome are yet to be fully understood.Thus the Human Genome Project (HGP) wasdesigned to determine the entire sequence anddevelop the genetic and physical maps of the entirehuman genome.

A researcher named Renato Dulbecco firstsuggested the idea of such a project while the U.S.Department of Energy (DoE) was also consideringthe same project. Worldwide discussion about aHGP began in 1985 and the project was started in

19901. It was coordinated by the U.S. Departmentof Energy and the National Institutes of Health.During the early years of the HGP, the WellcomeTrust (U.K.) became a major partner. With anestimated cost of 3 billion dollars, sources of fundingalso came from the National Science Foundation(NSF) and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute(HHMI)2. Under the leadership of James Watson,the first director of HGP, it was decided to focusthe first 5 years of the HGP on the development ofgenetic and physical maps of the human genome,which would themselves be of great value toscientists hunting for disease genes. Watson wasreplaced by Francis Collins in April 1993, and thename of the Centre was changed to the NationalHuman Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) in1997. Although the United States made the largestinvestment, important contributions were also madeby many countries, including Britain, France,Germany, Japan, China, and Canada. Soon someprivate biotech companies also entered the race ofsequencing. In June 2000, both the private companyand the international public sequencing consortiumannounced the completion of “working drafts” ofthe human genome sequence3,4. Two different paperswere published in two different journals ‘Nature’and ‘Science’. HGP was expected to complete in15 years but technological advancements in DNA


343

sequencing method accelerated the expected dateof completion to the year 2003. The final paperwas published in ‘Nature’ in 2003.

The first and primary goal of the HGP was toidentify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genesin human DNA, and to determine the exactsequences of the 3 billion base pairs. Thisinformation was to be stored in databases andtransfer the related technologies to the private sector.This was thought to aid greatly in associating geneswith particular diseases. A second critical goal wasto map and sequence the genomes of severalimportant model organisms : specifically, thebacterium E. coli, yeast, the roundworm, fruit fly,and mouse. This information would be helpful,because each of these organisms have been usedfor laboratory studies for decades. Being able tocoordinate knowledge of their genomes with cellularand biological processes will certainly help ourstudy of the human genome and its variousfunctions. The third important objective of theHGP was to systemize and distribute the informationit gathered. The sequence and map data was to becontained in publicly accessible databases on theInternet. The fourth and the final primary goal ofthe HGP was to study the ethical, legal, and socialimplications surrounding the availability of geneticinformation. Although this information canpotentially and dramatically improve human health,it would raise a number of ethical, legal and socialissues (ELSI) such as how this information wouldbe interpreted and used, who would have access toit, and how can society prevent harm from improperuse of genetic information. To address these issues,the ELSI Program was established as a part of theHGP. A full 5% of all funds appropriated for theHGP were earmarked for these kinds ofconsiderations.

In the IHGSC international public-sector HumanGenome Project (HGP), researchers collected blood(female) or sperm (male) samples from a largenumber of donors. Candidates were recruited from

a diverse population. The donor identities wereprotected, so neither donors nor scientists couldknow whose DNA was sequenced. Mainly twoCompeting Strategies were followed to sequenceHuman Genome, i.e., hierarchical shotgun (Publichuman genome project) and whole-genome Shotgun(Celera project).

Major findings of the Human Genome Projectare :

● The draft represented about 90% of theentire human genome. The remaining 10%of the genome sequences are at the veryends of chromosomes and around thecentromeres.

● Human genome is composed of 3200 Mbthat is 3.2 billion base pair.

● Approximately 1.1 to 1.5% of genome codesfor proteins.

● Approximately 24% of the total genome iscomposed of introns that spit the codingregions, appear as repeating sequences withno specific function.

● The numbers of protein coding genes are inthe range of 30000-40000.

● An average gene consists of 3000 bases, thesizes however vary greatly.

● Repeated sequences constitute about 50% ofthe human genome.

● Chromosome 1 contains the highest numberof genes, while the Y chromosome has thelowest. Chromosomes also differ in theirGC content and number of transposableelements.

● Genes and DNA sequences associated withmany diseases such as breast cancer, musclediseases, deafness and blindness have beenidentified.

● About 100 coding regions appear to havebeen copied and moved by RNA – basedtransposition.


344

● A vast majority of genome (~97%) has noknown function.

● Between the human, the DNA differs onlyby 0.2% or one in 500 bases.

● More than 3 million single nucleotidepolymorphism were identified.

● Human DNA is about 98% identical tochimpanzees.

Technology and resources generated by theHuman Genome Project and other genomicsresearch are already having a major impact onresearch across the life sciences. The potential forcommercial development of genomics researchpresents U.S. industry with a wealth of opportunities,and sales of DNA-based products and technologiesin the biotechnology industry are projected toexceed. The HGP has stimulated significantinvestment by large corporations and promoted thedevelopment of new biotechnology companieshoping to capitalize on the implications of HGPresearch.

Achievement of the Human Genome Project arestarting to have profound impacts on biomedicalresearch and promise to revolutionize the widerspectrum of biological research and clinicalmedicine. Scientists have estimated thatchromosomes in the human population differ atabout 0.2%. Understanding these differences couldlead to the discovery of heritable diseases, as wellother traits that are common to man5. Increasinglydetailed genome maps have aided researchersseeking genes associated with dozens of geneticconditions, including Duchenne muscular dystrophy,retinoblastoma, cystic fibrosis, fragile X syndrome,neurofibromatosis types 1 and 2, inherited coloncancer, Alzheimer’s disease, and familial breastcancer. Since medical treatments have differenteffects on different people because of geneticvariations such as single-nucleotide polymorphisms(SNPs), the analysis of personal genomes may leadto personalized medical treatment based on

individual genotypes6. Most analyses estimate thatSNPs occur 1 in 1000 base pairs, on an average, inthe human genome.

On the horizon is a new era of molecularmedicine characterized by looking to the mostfundamental causes of disease rather thanconcentrating on treating symptoms. Rapid andmore specific diagnostic tests will make possibleearlier treatment of countless maladies. Medicalresearchers now try to avoid environmentalconditions that may trigger disease, and possibleaugmentation or even replacement of defective genesthrough gene therapy. DNA-based tests clarifydiagnosis quickly and enable geneticists to detectcarriers within families. Genomic information canindicate the future likelihood of some diseases7. Asan example, if the gene responsible for Huntington’sdisease is present, it may be certain that symptomswill eventually occur, although predicting the exacttime may not be possible. Other diseases wheresusceptibility may be determined include heartdisease, cancer, and diabetes.

Understanding the human genome will have anenormous impact on the ability to assess risksposed to individuals by environmental exposure totoxic agents. Scientists know that genetic differencescause some people to be more susceptible thanothers to such agents. More work must be done todetermine the genetic basis of such variability, butthis knowledge will directly address the DOE’slong-term mission to understand the effects of low-level exposures to radiation and other energy-relatedagents, especially in terms of cancer risk. Additionalpositive spin-offs from this research include a betterunderstanding of biology, increased taxonomicunderstanding, increased development of pest-resistant and productive crops and livestock, andother commercially useful microorganisms.

Scientific American recently reported on whathas transpired since the completion of the HumanGenome Project ten years ago. When the HGP wasfirst announced, many scientists said that it would


345

be the key to understanding disease and fordeveloping cures. Ten years later, however, this hasnot been the case. The human genome project hasaided in developing better research and technology,particularly in our abilities to sequence genes. Ithas also shown us that much of what we onceconsidered junk DNA isn’t really junk at all. Perhapsthe key to disease is not necessarily found in thecommon variants in the genetic code. New researchis demonstrating that the current view of diseasemay be too narrow. Data generated in this youngprogram have helped scientists identify the minimumnumber of genes necessary for life8. Additionally,the new genetic techniques now allow us to establishmore precisely the diversity of micro organismsand identify those critical to maintaining or restoringthe function and interiority of large and smallecosystem. This knowledge can also be useful inmonitoring and predicting environmental change.

Though the working draft of the human sequencerepresents a major milestone, a vast amount ofadditional work remains to be done to understandits function. It is necessary to complete the sequenceanalysis by closing the gaps and resolvingambiguities. The genomes of other organisms alsowill need to be sequenced. Consequences of theHGP for the practice of medicine are likely to beprofound. It is hoped that genetic prediction ofindividual risks of disease and responsiveness todrugs will reach the medical mainstream in thenext decade or so. The ethical, legal, and socialimplications of the research program have alreadyfostered awareness of needs for intervention. Thoughexpectation from HGP was very high, the resultafter a decade of completion of human genomesequencing is not as that was expected. It has beenrelatively straightforward, for example, to identifythe 20,000 or so protein-coding genes, which makeup around 1.5% of the genome. But knowing this,researchers note, does not necessarily explain whatthose genes do, given that many genes code for

multiple forms of a protein, each of which couldhave a different role in a variety of biologicalprocesses.

The biggest effects of the genome sequencehave been advances in the tools of the trade:sequencing technologies and computational biology.Technological innovation has sent the cost ofsequencing tumbling, and the daily output ofsequence has soared. However, cheaper and fastersequencing has brought its own problems. Manyresearchers feel ill-equipped to handle theexponentially increasing amounts of sequence data.There is also the lack of adequate software oralgorithms to analyse genomic data. Thus there isa need for more bioinformatics experts, bettersoftware and a clearer understanding of how thedifferences between genomes influence humanhealth.

After a decade questions arises, who shouldhave access to personal genetic information, andhow will it be used? Who owns and controlsgenetic information? How does personal geneticinformation affect an individual and society’sperceptions of that individual? How reliable anduseful is foetal genetic testing? How do we preparehealthcare professionals for the new genetics? Howdo we prepare the public to make informed choices?How do we as a society balance current scientificlimitations and social risk with long-term benefits?Are genetic tests reliable and interpretable by themedical community?

Ten years after completion of the HumanGenome Project (HGP), researchers from aroundthe world are still making countless discoveriesabout the human genome. Still much more remainsto be learned about life’s operating system in orderfor genomics to be used productively to improvehuman health. The new challenge will be to usethis vast reservoir of data to explore how DNA andprotein work with each other and the environment


346

to create complex, dynamic living system. Genetic

information should be used fairly by insurers,

employers, courts, schools, adoption agencies, and

the military, among others. Still, much more remains

to be learned about life’s operating system in order

for genomics to be used productively to improve

human health. There are still a number of

technological, ethical, legal and social obstacles

that must be addressed when advances of human

research are incorporated into routine practice.

REFERENCES

1. Human Genome Project Information

(Website : www.ornl.gov/hgmis/home.

shtml)

2. The Human Genome Project, Part I(Website : www. Knowledgene.com)

3. An overview of the Human Genome Project(Website : www. Genome.gov/12011238)

4. All About the Human Genome Project(HGP) (Website : www. Genome.gov/10001772)

5. The Human Genome Project (Website :www.sanger.ac.uk)

6. F. Collins. N. Engl. J.Med. 341 :28–36. 1999.

7. F. S. Collins,.; Patrinos, A.; Jordan, E.;Chakravarti, A.; Gesteland, R.; Walters, L.;and the members of the DoE and NIHplanning groups. Science. 282 : 682–689.1998.

8. J. Sulston. Foreword : why we do science.In: Frontiers 01: Science and Technology.Ed. Tim Radford. P. 11. 2001-02.


347

YOGIC/YOGEVIC ENVIRONMENTALISM

M. Jaya Kumar Jacob

An unprecedented, unconditional love of life and life-forms is the ultimate panacea of deathspresently at global and local levels particularly due to the natural and anthropogenic causes.In Indian scenario human deaths reached high and alarming number recently. With a viewto overcome this pathetic situation in India a new nationalistic and socialistic dimension of life-saver concept was identified namely Yogic/Yogevic Environmentalism, which is an uniquejourney of humans through their interior, exterior and ulterior spheres to reach a greenparadise on Earth. This article focuses a symbiotic and synergetic relationship in-between theconcepts of ancient yoga and recent environment.

NF ature is always our Best teacher forever!

Earth is our first Mother. Mother Earth isenveloped by the colorful garments of Environmentallayers i.e. air, water, soil and life. The planet Earth isdivine because it has enough to satisfy our daily needsand also meant for the goodness of all its living andnon-living creatures from the beginning. But todaythe same planet Earth seems to be very violentdancing burning ball of solar family and become anin a dequate issue due to the irregular naturalcalamities as well as anthropogenic causes ofpollution. The mass extinction of the species todaytells us that man and his mindless activities are themain causes of pollution. Breath of life (O2) andlifespan was shortened and the breath of death (CO2)is increasing daily (400 ppm). Chemically bothcarbons and oxygens are very good elements byorigin itself in the nature. But their combinations aremore dangerous today to the environment causingglobal warming and ice cap melting. Most of thesedangerous combinations are made by the super raceof human beings only rather than nature.

Hence the modern wise man out of his freewilland knowledge spoiling and polluting the lifeoperating and life supporting environment andecosystems. In the 21st century man is at high risk,becomes a victim and at last scapegoat to the wrathof nature and preparing for the self-extinction.

INDIAN PROBLEMS

Now India is facing critical problems likepollution, over population, poverty, rapes, illegalmining, over exploitation of natural resources,inequality, extremism and terrorism, acid attacks,scams, religious intolerance, caste conflicts, cybercrimes, corruption, farmer’s suicides and deadlynatural disasters than ever before1. These problemsare prone to demolish and demoralise our country’sdemocracy. In this pathetic situation, India’sprestigious position in the world is utterly damagedand lost its previous name and fame. Here ourancient cultural heritage and civilization are ingreater dilemma due to development in Scienceand Technology and its effects of modernization,industrialization, urbanization and psuedo politicalaspirations. Modern modifications in every fielddue to the technological advancement to cope upwith the competitive world led us to

* Department of Environmental Sciences, Acharya NagarjunaUniversity, Nagarjuna Nagar – 522510, Guntur District,A.P., Email : [email protected]


348

unconsciousness, mental agony and severe physicalstress. Now India never needs patriots or rebels butonly needs enthusiastic common citizens of thiscountry to enable us to overcome these problems tolead peaceful, secured, harmonious and sustainablelife2.

YOGIC LIFE

In this turmoil the Semitic Telugu people ofAndhra Pradesh State found a new, cognate andcohesive relationship in-between the Yoga andEnvironment concepts for the sake of delightfuland blissful yogic life. The transformation oftraditional yoga into modern conservativeenvironmental ethic is to combat the transgressionsof human conscience. Henceforth, freedom is takento give a reintroduction to the ancient yoga conceptwhich is free from all the previous ambiguities,sarcastic and pandemoniac meanings, mesmerisinginterpretations, delusions and misunderstandings3.

YOGA CONCEPT

Yoga concept is resurrected from the death anddecay postures of graveyard to regain the Nature’sbounty and Earth’s Green Glory by this newapproach. Its original cultural meaning was exposednow to the entire world for kind consideration andits practice deliberately. We are not required tobecome austere, ascetics while we are in yoga now.Yoga is the diameter of birth and death Bio-cycle.Scholars like Arabindo Ghosh admitted that thewhole life is Yoga when it is usefully spent. HenceYoga teaches us about living simple and ordinarywith extraordinary multi-talents. Yoga made us tolive closure to the nature and lead eco-friendlyenvironment with interconnected relationship withthe fellow species - i.e. web of life.

Bhavanam Venkatram, the former Chief Ministerof the Andhra Pradesh State once rightly said,‘According to the Yogic tradition, a religious teacherwho is devoted to his personal god, a tiller of thesoil who is wedded to his work and a researchscholar who is in pursuit of truth may all be Yogis

of the same order depending upon the level of theirselflessness and sincerity. The great values ofegalitarianism, eclecticism and humanitarianismwhich Hinduism had always cherished are nowslowly giving way to the corrosive influence ofauthoritarianism preached by the Nazi and Fascistforces, not so much outside the Hindu fold butmainly inside itself. The father of the Nation had tosacrifice his life on the altar of this authoritariantradition. We are yet to learn lessons from this andwe cannot afford to slacken our vigilance insafeguarding our ancient values of sympathy,tolerance and understanding4.

Henceforth, Yoga is not a lazy or crazy job butit is a divine dynamic duty of natural work divisionof fruitful, thoughtful and dignified labour of life.It is not a time waste or time pass occupation butit is a timely agenda of life. And it never needs oursixth sense or 3rd eye to open but need our commonsense only. Yoga is an eye opener to the worldwhich stimulates the body, mind and soul for divineaction5.

REINTRODUCTION TO YOGA

Yoga is a commonly known generic term for thephysical, mental, and spiritual practices ordisciplines which originated in ancient India witha view to attain a state of permanent peace of life.In the Semitic Hebrew language Yogev means farmeror cultivator that works in the land and causes it toflourish, yagav a husbandman, yaagev is field,yegia means toil, work, labour etc. After all, theword has etymologically nothing to do with thephysical bodily exercises or asanaas even in theoriginal Semitic Telugu yoga concept.

The word Yoga is a pure Semitic Telugu word,which was terribly plagiarized, hijacked from thenon-aryan cultures by the selfish cultures and hadacquired the most irrelevant and limited meaningas yoga – asanaalu meaning physical bodilyexercises or positions, gymnastics or photogenicimages. The scholars are slowly opening their eyes


349

and admitting that the yoga concept was pre-Dravidian and pre-Aryan.

The Telugu people use the word everyday withmultiple applications since it was their culturalword example Paryavarana-yogam, ud-yogam,santhana-yogam, upa-yogam, samsara-yogam, sam-yogam etc. Every type of sincere and systematiclabour, which eventually bears fruit, is yoga in theoriginal Semitic Telugu Yoga concept. That’s whythe Telugu people always say Yoga-abhyaasam intheir typical didactic way to tell the people thatYoga means practice or a systematic cultivation5.

Therefore it must be correctly understood thatany sincere labour that surely bears fruit in anyfield is Yoga. The ancient Semitic Telugu peoplegroups who had contributed such a rich and fruitfulconcept to the yoga world must be greatlyappreciated. In the ancient Semitic Telugu culturethere was no room for laziness or lethargy. Thattells us that Semitic Telugu people groups werevery hard working, intelligent and scientific. Allthese labours were called Yogas. All the industriouspeople were known as Yogis. The hard working andvigorous Semitic Telugu women were known asYogins. They work along with their husbands unlikethe Aryan women who were forced to stay homeand worship the husbands.

Any sincere practice in any field is Yoga. Letthe ones who misinterpret yoga as mere bodilyexercises explain the words like Gnana Yoga intheir terms. They even teach that great people likeBuddha got his enlightenment by merely sittingunder a tree and meditating. If that is the way toacquire knowledge, why do the governments spendbillions? Yoga is one thing and these meditationtechniques and bodily exercises are another thing.Yoga covers peaceful sustainable lifestyle from 360degrees.

The real yoga lesson surely gives 100% peacefullifestyle to anyone who follows its course naturallyand sustainably. All the great figures that inspired

the world in human history that never and evermentioned anything about any physical exercises intheir biographies had become such great figures byfollowing the natural course of Yoga. And on theother hand many so called mighty Goliaths thatdeveloped their physical bodies ended their liveswith no peace. When we draw a picture of aperson, we need to follow the natural proportionsof the parts of the body of a natural person. Wecannot draw a huge head to a tiny body and saythat he is more intelligent. Life covers all theaspects of natural life and we need to live our totallives in a very living way. Otherwise we miss themark.

To learn more about the original pre-AryanYoga traditions, one can refer to the book4 in whichSri S. Malayandi, Director, Institute of InternationalPalaeographical studies and historical research,Madras has quoted the eminent linguistic historianS.K. Chattterjee who said, “The North Indiacontributed ritualism without any profound spiritualand mystic approach, but the deeper and moreuniversal things like Yoga and Bhakti came fromthe Pre-Aryan background”. This is the time forTelugu scholars to speak up about their egalitarianYoga tradition.

THE ENVIRONMENT

The Environment is the sum of all externalconditions affecting the life, development andsurvival of an organism. In real world everythingthat affects an organism during its life time iscollectively known as its environment6.

The Environmental protection is a burningcommon problem today and an urgent social needthat we all know very well. Day to day Humanactivities are imbalancing nature and imposing moredanger to the environment than by the naturaldisasters ever before. In this juncture it is provedthat human intelligence and technologicaladvancement is under great dilemma and facing

5


350

critical threat. From the beginning Man is the mainpolluter and most dangerous pollutant destroyer ofthe nature and the healthy environment, who isswallowing fellow species and weak cultures of hisown species since from the inception andintroduction to this world. No one could be vaguein the awareness of his or her own existence.Everything else that hinders the scientificinvestigation is only good for the itching ears thatmeddle with the definitions.

More and more people are living in larger andlarger cities now-a-days. These high-densitycommunities pose a special challenge in theprovision of potable water, clean air, waste disposal,transportation and recreational space. Moderncommunication has made the world a global villageand has raised expectations in most of us for abetter life. It will take enormous ingenuity,diplomacy and determination for the world’s leadersand those who help them - scientists, engineers,lawyers, economists and managers - to guidedevelopment over the next century. To influencegovernmental policies on these matters, pressuregroups have emerged that often put their caseforward in a biased and exaggerated way. It is notsurprising that on particular environmental issuesreports appear that are diametrically opposed toeach other. Day to day we are witnessing this in thepopular press, radio, televisions, websites and inthe scientific field. It becomes difficult at times toknow what the truth is and whom we believe6.

YOGIC ALIAS YOGEVIC ENVIRONMENTA-LISM

At this juncture the oriental contribution ofYogic alias Yogevic Environmentalism by theSemitic pedigree is the only solution which givesself glory, self satisfaction and universal bliss to thepeasant and pedant Indians from their self madeproblems. This is the journey of unique union,divine destitute destination, utilitarian,unostentatious, unconditional love of life and

unprecedented natural ultimatum. The peace loving,life promoting people i.e. Semitic Telugu people ofAndhra Pradesh State are ready to share their viewsand show the path of light to hopeless and helplessinnocent farmers (Body) and intelligent Indians(Mind) to rethink and work together to make Indiaas a debt free with greater longivity nation by theevergreen supreme concept called the Yogic aliasYogevic Environmentalism - A password to theGreen Paradise7.

Yogic alias Yogevic Environmentalism is themost effective, simple and best adopted kibbutzmodel method to observe for the Environmentalprotection in cities. In this method every humanbeing must work whole-heartedly and wilfully actas Environmental Yogi for the sake of healthyenvironment. Yogic alias Yogevic Environmentalismis not a billion dollar question, needs any pen,printed or paper but gives peaceful, non-violent,simple act of struggle for healthy existence of life.For a true Environmental Yogi or YogicEnvironmentalist, his real human life starts whenhe starts a useful work and continues forever in thelives of others who enjoy the fruits of his labour.

EMPIRICAL ERGONOMICS

This nationalistic, socialistic way of Yogic lifeunites us and reminds us that we are all one and weare all belongs to one family, which leads us tooneness. A day is divided into three parts. All theseparts are equally shared and exercised by the humanBody, Mind and Spirit - Eight hours each. In thisdivine dignified division of labour every one mustdo eight hours bodily work (Agriculture), eighthours mind work (Education) and eight hoursspiritual work (Rest/Sleep). Likewise experimentallyby taking 50 weeks per year and 5 working days ina week as per daywise exercise will lead us toprosperity. Every citizen of this country if strictlyfollow this daywise and weekly natural nationalistic,socialistic cultural calendar concept proposed bythe Yogic/Yogevic Environmentalism definitely Indiais going to fulfil the natural and environmental


351

criteria and enjoy the fruits of the divine dignifiedlabour.

THE NATIONALISTIC WAY OF LIFE

There are thousands of agrarian laws developedby the Semitic Telugu sages in the field ofagriculture (Sedyam) from the stage of sowing(Natlu) to the stage of cutting or harvesting(Kothalu) which made Andhra Pradesh state asfertile land (Sedya Bhoomi) and food bowl(Annapurna) of India. The original teachings of thefirst and foremost Telugu luminary YogaDakshinamurthy belonging to the egalitarian andhumanitarian tradition were mostly in AncientTelugu language which leads us to the vasudaikakutumbam - Universal family. Thoughout the humanhistory, Yogic techniques have been practiced in theentire world, so it would be unwise to considerYoga an Indian import. In fact, Yoga with itspowerful living tradition for creating a sense ofinner peace, harmony, and clarity of mind andbody, is absolutely relevant to the modern world. Inone family, the husband can be a farmer, the wifecan be washer-women, the eldest son can be abarber, the second son can be a potter, the third soncan be a metal worker and the fourth son can be ateacher or preacher of religion.To be simpler, withall kinds of needful occupations, the Telugu peopleare self sufficient and multi talented with arts,music, drama and singing. Whether shepherds,farmers, potter, tailors, tanners, weavers, barbers,washer men, metal workers, all are treated withequal respect5.

CONCLUSION

In a view to avoid present human problems outof danger one has to think positively to save the lifeon earth. In this juncture our ancient Yogaphilosophy and infant Environment concept ifcombined and studied together may help us toovercome our present situation. Both thesedisciplines are having multidisciplinary nature. For

example Yoga is all about shaping inner beauty(Body, Mind, and Spirit) and environment is shapingouter beauty (Air, Water, Soil). Hence, if the lifeincidences coincide with the environmentalconditions human life will be more meaningful andreach its ecstasy. Both Yoga and Environment hadtheir own importance today to bring change inhuman life. Henceforth Yoga and Environment arehaving utilitarian and egalitarian aspects rather thanauthoritarian and religious monarchy. Yoga andEnvironment disciplines had their own layers andways to promote lifespan in human beings on thisearth. Two eyes give a very good sight as well asgood vision than one eye8.

REFERENCES

1. Wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Crime_Records_Bureau Report, 2013.

2. M. K. Gandhi, An Autobiography- The Story

of My Experiments with Truth, NavajivanPublishing House, Ahmedabad, Indian, 291-293, 2001.

3. De Michlis, Elizabeth A History of ModernYoga. London : Continuum. P. 60-90, 2004.

4. G.K. Reddy, Yoga or Yoga, seriesNo. 145, Tirumala Tirupati DevasthanamPublications, Tirupati, 1982.

5. Y. Shmuel, The Caltural Hermeunutics,

Hebrew Open University Press, India, 255-294, 2002.

6. R. Carson, Silent Spring, 1-30, MarinerBooks, USA : 2002.

7. E. Yulia & P. Shahid, The Jews of AndhraPradesh, Oxford University Press, NY, USA,1-30, 2013.

8. A.H. Barbara, Veda and Torah, StateUniversity of New York Press, Albany, 1996.


352

INTRODUCTION

F ungal diseases represent a major threat tovegetable cultivation in India. To tackle

this problem, fungicides are applied and strobilurinsare the recent generation fungicides with a globalpresence. They are natural substances producedmainly by basidiomycetous wood-rotting fungi suchas Strobilurus tenacellus (Pers. ex Fr.) Singer andOudemansiella mucida (Schrad. ex Fr.) Hohn, orby the gliding bacterium Myxococcus fulvus.Strobilurin A, The first QoI molecule, was isolatedfrom liquid cultures of S. tenacellus followed bystrobilurin B, C, D and so on. Structurally, thebasic common feature of all natural strobilurins isthe presence of a methyl (E)-3-methoxy-2-(5-phenylpenta-2,4-dienyl) acrylate moiety, linked tothe rest of the molecule at the α-position. Theyhave therefore been named β-methoxyacrylates orMOAs. These natural compounds break downrapidly in light and are therefore not reliable fordisease control. However, based on their structure

STROBILURINS : A NEW GENERATION OF NATURALFUNGICIDES

V. Venkataravanappa, S. Saha, B. Mahesh and A. B. Rai

Strobilurins are an important class of agricultural fungicides extracted mainly frombasidiomycetous wood-rotting fungi. These fungicides have novel mode of action. They inhibitmitochondrial respiration by binding at the Qo site as a target. They have a very goodredistribution property and they move translaminarly as well as systemically in the plantsvascular system and showed broad spectrum activity against a wide range of crop diseases.Besides controlling a range of crop diseases they also show different physiological effects suchas growth enhancement, nitrogen assimilation and induced systemic resistance against variousdiseases.

* Division of Crop protection, Indian Institute of VegetableResearch, P.O. Jakhini (Shahanshapur), Varanasi-221305,Uttar Pradesh, India.

knowledge and physical properties furthermodification was the replacement of the (E)-β-methoxyacrylate group with 2-methoxyimino-acetamide. This modification was marketed underthe name metominostrobin which ushered a newera of fungicidal control.

BIOCHEMICAL MODE OF ACTION OFSTROBILURIN FUNGICIDES

The fungicidal activity of strobilurin fungicidesrelies on their ability to inhibit mitochondrialrespiration by binding at the Qo site (the outer,quinol oxidation site) of the cytochrome bc1 enzymecomplex (complex III). This inhibition blocks thetransfer of electrons between cytochrome b andcytochrome c1, leading to an energy deficiency inthe fungal cells by halting the production of ATPand ultimately leading to fungal death. Thestrobilurin target, cytochrome bc1, is an integralmembrane protein complex essential for fungalrespiration. Cytochrome b, cytochrome cl and theRieske iron-sulfur protein (ISP) form the catalyticcore of the enzyme. The catalytic mechanism, calledthe Q-cycle, requires two distinct quinone-binding


353

sites: Qo, the quinol oxidation site, and Qi, thequinone reduction site (Fig 1).

Fig 1. Schematic representation of the mitochondrialelectron transport system. I, II, III and IV are thedifferent complexes of the transfer chain. V is the ATPsynthase complex. Q is the ubiquinone pool and C is theperipheral protein cytochrome c. The arrows inside themembrane indicate the direction of electron flow. TheQo and Qi binding sites of the cytochrome bc1 enzymecomplex (complex III) are delineated by a red circle anda square representing Qo- and Qi-inhibitor molecules,respectively. In some fungi, inhibitors of the respiratorypathway induce the synthesis of alternative oxidase(AOX), and enzyme that diverts electrons at the

ubiquinone pool (Q), but generates much less energy.

MOBILITY OF STROBILURINS

The Strobilurins have ‘‘greening effect’’, a

phenomenon that refers to delayed leaf senescence

and an increased grain-filling period which results

in an enhanced biomass and yield. The first

hypothesis is related to the effects of strobilurins

on non-disease-related physiological processes such

as chlorophyll and phytohormone biosynthesis,

stomatal aperture, water consumption in addition to

modulation of nitrate reductase, photosynthetic and

plant antioxidant enzyme activities. The second

theory is related to the strong preventive activity of

strobilurins, preventing the germination of

pathogenic, non-pathogenic and saprophytic fungi

and thereby preventing the initiation of energy

intensive host defence responses. However, neither

hypothesis has been unequivocally proven to be

responsible for this phenomenon. It is possible that

elements of both hypotheses contribute for this

phenomenon. It is possible that elements of both

hypotheses contribute to these ‘‘unexpectedly

positive’’ yield benefits resulting from the use of

strobilurins3.

All the Q0I fungicides exhibit translaminar

movement (which means ‘‘across the lamina’’, or

leaf blade). When these fungicides are applied on

the surface of the leaf, most of the active ingredient

is initially held on or within the waxy cuticle of

plant surfaces. Some of the active ingredient ‘‘leaks’’

all the way through the lamina and quickly rebinds

to the cuticle on the far side of the leaf blade. Thus,

the fungicide can be found on both leaf surfaces

even if only one leaf surface was treated.

Translaminar movement can take one to several

days to be fully effective.

Azoxystrobin belonging to the strobilurin groups,

moves translaminarly as well as systemically in the

plants vascular system. Fungicides such as kresoxim

methyl and trifloxystrobin which are not true

systemic in the plants but they are redistributed

through other mechanisms such as ‘‘mesostemics’’,

‘‘quasi-systemics’’, or ‘‘surface systemics’’

(fungicides move as a gas in the layer of still air

adjacent to the leaf surface called the boundary

layer and they readily re-bind to the cuticle).

In terms of practical significance strobilurin

fungicides are bound tightly to the cuticle, where

most of the active ingredient can be found. Even

though the active ingredient ‘‘leaks’’ into the leaf

blade, it has such a strong affinity for the cuticle

that it quickly re-binds with it when the chemical

reaches the other side of the leaf. Consequently, at

any one time, the dose of active ingredient actually

present inside the leaf blade may be low, or too low

to suppress the growth of fungi within the leaf.

Furthermore, for a number of fungal pathogens, the

germinating spore (which starts the infection process

on the outside of the plant) is more sensitive to

intermembrane space

mitochondrial matrix

NADH NAD+ O2 H2O O2 H2OATPADP+Pi


354

strobilurin fungicides than the mycelium (the fungallife stage found inside the plant). Thus, the best useof strobilurin fungicides is to apply them beforeinfection takes place.

SPECTRUM OF ACTIVITY

Strobilurins have broad-spectrum activity againstwide array of fungal diseases caused byascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Fungi Imperfecti, andOomycetes. They are used on a wide variety ofcrops are mentioned in the table 1.

Table 1. Different types of Strobilurins, their mode of action and disease controlled.

Azoxystrobin

Kresoxim-methyl

Trifloxystrobin

Pyraclostrobin

Metominostrobin

Orysastrobin

Picoxystrobin

Dimoxystobin

Fluoxastrobin

Crops

Cereals, field crops,fruits, tree nuts, Veg-etables, turf grasses, andornamentals

Paddy, Chillies

Grapes, Pome fruits,Vegetables and ornamen-tals

Cereal fungicide

Rice

Paddy

Wheat, Barley, Oats,Pulses, Oilseeds

Wheat, Oilseeds

Potatoes, Vegetables,Groundnut, Maize

Pathogenic fungi

Ascomcetes (eg powdery mildews), Basidi-omycetes (eg rusts), Deutoromycetes(eg rice blast) and Oomycetes (eg downymildew)

Ascomcetes (eg powdery mildews)

Ascomcetes (eg powdery mildews on cu-curbits, apple and rose, apple scab, pearsblack spot)

Ascomcetes (eg powdery mildews), Basidi-omycetes (eg rusts), mn Deutoromycetes (egrice blast) and Oomycetes (eg downy mil-dew)

Sheath blight and blast

Sheath blight and blast

Powdery mildews and rust

Fusarium spp., Sclerotinia sp, Rhizoctoniasp

Ascomcetes (eg powdery mildews), Basidi-omycetes (eg rusts), Deutoromycetes (egrice blast) and Oomycetes (eg downy mil-dew)

Mode of action (MOA)

Inhibition of mitochondrial respiration,spore germination and mycelial growth

Inhibition of mitochondrial respiration,spore germination, mycelial growth, andspore production.

Inhibition of mitochondrial respiration.

Inhibition of mitochondrial respiration.

Inhibited mycelial oxygen consumption

Inbibition of mitochondrial respiration

Respiratory inhibitor

Inhibits mitochondrial respiration

Deters fungal respiration

Table 2. Redistribution properties of different strobilurins

Activities Azoxystrobin Trifloxystrobin Kresonim-methyl Metominostrobin Pyraclostrobin Picoxystrobin

Uptake into leaf low very low low high very low mediumVapour active no yes yes no no yesMetabolic stability withinthe leaf yes low low no yes yesTranslaminar movement yes low low yes low yesXylem systemic yes no no yes no yesSystemic movement ofnew growth yes no no yes no yesPhloem mobile no no no no no no

PROPERTIES OF STROBILURINS :

1. Redistribution properties : The redistributionproperties of strobilurins play an important role indelivering its board spectrum activity againstdiseases. Typically aroung 40% is taken up intoleaves with in day after application, andapproximately half of which enters the leaf withintwo hours of spraying3. The different redistributionproperties of strobilurins are described in thetable 2 :

ND = No data is available


355

2. Growth enhancement/Bioregulatory action :Several strobilurin fungicides are known to causegrowth-promoting effects in certain plants. Forexample kresoxim methyl has a Auxin like activityas summarized in fig 2.

3. Phytotoxicity : Azoxystrobin are known to causephytotoxicity on apple and grapes and kresoximmethyl is phytotoxic to certain sweet cherry varietiesbut not others1. Tank-mixes of strobilurins withmaterials that solubilize he cuticle-oils, likesurfactants certain liquid formulations of insecticideswhich could increase phytotoxicity potential of thestrobilurins1.

4. Resistance : All strobilurin fungicides share acommon biochemical mode of action : they allinterfere with energy production is the fungal cell.To be precise, they block electron transfer at thesite of quinol oxidation (the Qo site) in thecytochrome bc1 complex, thus preventing ATPformation. The mode of action of the strobilurins ishighly sepcific. Of the millions of biochemicalreactions that occur in the fungal cell, thesefungicides interfere with very specific biochemicalsite. Thus, these we called site-specific fungicides.

Improve the yield formation(Harvest Index, Grain weight)

Increase plant growthPhotosynthetic activity Grainfilling

Promote and prolongedCO2 assimilation

Delay leaf senescence Greenhouse effect, Improve the Stressmanagement

Increase in Dihydrozeatinriboside

Reduction of CytokininCatabolism

Inhibition of ACCsynthase in ehtylene

biosynthesis

Transient inhibitionof respiration

Increase in CO2up take

Kresoxim methyl

Auxin-likeActivity

Fig 2. Bioregulatary action of kresoxim methyl in wheat, The arrows represent a direct or indirect effect of carbondioxide assimilation and the metabolism of phytohormones and possible relation to growth and yield formationprocess2.

This is important because, commonly, just onemutation at that biochemical site (the target site ofthe fungicide) can result in a fungicide-resistantstrain. If such a fungicide-resistant strain occurs,repeated application of strobilurin fungicides can

lead to buildup of a fungicide-resistant pathogensubpopulation.

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF STRO-BILURIN FUNGICIDES ON PLANTS

a. Increase in absorption, reduction andassimilation of nitrogen in the plants

The application strobilurin fungicides cancause a small change at cellular level therebyreducing carbon-di-oxide (CO2) emissionin the treated plants, as the mitochondrialrespiration is inhibition. Therefore thetreated plant will switch onto the alternativeoxidative (AOX) pathway, decreasingcellular levels of ATP and increasing [H+]in the cytosol therefore resulting in anactivation of NADH-nitrate reductase (NR).Activation of NR results, transitorily, inincrease in the nitrite levels and may enhance


356

plant growth when Nitrogen assimilation isa level limiter. There is also an increase inthe production of N via NR. In addition, forthe nitric oxide synthase (NOS) process,there is an alternative pathway of Nitricoxide production in plants, NR productwith NADH-nitrite as substrates.

b. Hormonal Changes

The application strobilurin kersoxim-methylproved to inhibit the biosynthesis of ethylenethrough reduction of the activity of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid(ACC)-synthase in plant tissue. This maylead less production of ethylene which maydelay in the senescence of leaves and, as aresult, to the prolonged photosyntheticactivity of green tissue and a bettermanagement of stress4.

c. Retarded senescence

The strobilurins decrease levels of formationof ACC and ethylene and increase the IAA(Indole acetic acid) in plants when they areexternally applied on the plants surface.They were breaking down endogenous IAAinto L-tryptophan in plants. Low levels ofauxin are known to retard leaf senescenceand also to favor production by stimulatingformation of vascular tissue, division ofassimilate formation of floral buds and fruitdevelopment4.

d. Alleviates oxidative stress in plants

Under unfavorable environment conditionsor stress conditions, strobilurins are capableof stimulating the formation of radicals,especially of reactive oxygen forms. Duringstress application, strobilurin will doublethe activity of antioxidative enzymes, suchas superoxide-dismutases, catalases andperoxidases4.

e. Induction of Resistance of Virus :

It is known plants involvement ofmitochondria in the defense response

induced by pathogens. The application

pyraclostrobin on the plant, the primary

mode of action fungicide in the plant is

partial and transitory inhibition of the

respiratory chain in mitochondria. This leads

of activation of the alternative oxidase

pathway (AOX), decrease in cellular levels

of ATP and increase in [H+] in the cytosol

there by resulting in an activation of NADH-

nitrate reductase (NR). The activation of

NR may increase the nitrite levels in the

plant. There is also an increase in the

production of N via NR. In addition, for the

nitric oxide synthase (NOS) process, there

is an alternative pathway of NO production

in plants (Fig 3a). This NO in turn will

stimulate the production of salicylic acid,

which induced expression of the PR-1 genes

and accumulation of PR-1 proteins will

activate a cellular defense response in

tobacco plants infected by TMV4 (Fig 3b).

CONCLUSION

Strobilurins are an outstanding new class of

agricultural fungicides that exhibit excellent

properties in a number of areas, including human

and environmental safety. Strobilurins fungicides

have been extremely popular because of the benefits

associated with their use. These fungicides have a

very good redistribution property which moves

translaminarly as well as systemically in the plants

vascular system and showed broad spectrum activity

against a wide range of crop diseases. Besides its

direct effect on disease management, it also shows

diverse physiological effects such as growth

enhancement, nitrogen assimilation and induced

systemic resistance against various diseases.


357

REFERENCES

1. P. Vincelli, The Plant Health Instructor.DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2002-0809-02,2002.

2. K. Grossmann and G. Retzlaff, PesticideScience, 50, 11-20, 1997.

3. D. W. Bartlett, J. M. Clough, J. R. Godwin,A.A. Hall, M. Hamer, & B. Parr-Dobrzanski,Pest Management Science 58, 649-662,2002.

4. W. S, Venancio, M.A.T. Rodrigues, E.Begliomini, N.L. de Souza, UEPG ExactSoil Sci., Agr. Sci. Eng., Ponta Grossa, 9(3),59-68, 2003.

AOX

NO SA

PR proteins

Induction of resistance to virus

movement and replication

Resistance to fungi

and bacteria

Legend : Activation Inhibition Process

Plant growth Secondary reaction

Faster recognition ofpathogen attack

Faster recognition ofpathogen attack

Sensibilisation ofmitochondrial forCa++ induced fore

formation

Activation of AOXInhibition of electron transport

Increasing in N assimilation

NADH

NAD

NONO3

NO2

High [H+] in cytosolLower of ATP levels

Pyraclostrobin

Fig. 3b. Influence of signaling in plant cells via nitric oxide (NO).

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯

→→ →→→

Fig. 3a. Primary biochemical reactions in plant cells.


358

EUTROPHICATION : A FORMIDABLE FOE

Amit K. Ghosh and Suman Sarkar

Eutrophication is an environmental hazard symbolizing the menace of water pollution. It isdeveloping as a major global threat by spreading its malignant impact across a wide range ofwater bodies around the world. In simple words it is an increase in the concentration ofnutrients like nitrates and phosphates to such levels that the overall primary productivitytriggers a ‘bloom’ or excessive rise in phytoplankton populations. Several negative environmentaleffects like hypoxia/anoxia in the water bodies follow this that lead to severe reductions offishes and other faunal elements.

* Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow. [email protected], [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

E utrophication is a process whereby water bodies like ponds, lakes, slow-moving

streams, coastal oceans and estuaries receive highconcentration of nutrients, particularly nitrates andphosphates that stimulate excessive plant growthe.g., algae and various problematic plant weeds.This enhanced growth in the aquatic systems reducesdissolved oxygen level in water causing severemortality. Nutrients can come from a variety ofsources such as fertilizer runoffs, nitrogen depositionfrom the atmosphere, soil erosion and sewagetreatment plant discharges. Ecologists use theadjective ‘eutrophic’ (= well feeding) to describethe biological systems into which there is a highinput of otherwise limiting nutrients. On the otherhand, ‘oligotrophic’ (= few feeding) implies thenutrient-deficient condition. Overall, the eutrophicaquatic systems receive relatively high nutrient loadand can be clearly distinguished from theoligotrophic ones by their larger average standingcrops (not only primary producers) along withother metabolic characteristics.

India was earlier known as the land of sacredrivers but now it is gradually becoming a land of

polluted and toxic water bodies. One of the majorfactors behind this large-scale alteration iseutrophication that is reducing the cleanliness ofwater bodies in India and also the water systemsacross the globe. Water pollution is a seriousproblem in India as several of its surface waterresources and groundwater reserves are alreadycontaminated by biological, toxic organic andinorganic pollutants. In many cases, these sourceshave been declared unsafe for human consumptionas well as for irrigation and industrial purposes.This illustrates that degraded water quality cancontribute to scarcity of water as it limits itsavailability for both human use and the ecosystem.The concept of eutrophication was first introducedby C.A. Weber in the year 1907 to depict thenutrient conditions of the flora of German peatbogs1. The species requiring higher concentrationof essential elements were described as eutrophentand those surviving at low nutrient concentrationsas oligotrophent. Few years later in 1919, E.Naumann applied these forms to describe theSwedish water types and their phytoplankton asoligotrophic, mesotrophic and eutrophic based onthe concentrations of phosphorus, combined nitrogenand calcium along with the density of associatedphytoplankton populations2.


359

Water is not only a valuable economic resourcebut also the basic essentiality for all the livingorganisms on the earth. With rising globalpopulation, fierce expansion of industries and greaterdemands in agriculture, consumption of water hasincreased manifold in the last few years. In the year1999 the overall demand of water was 552 BCM inIndia and by 2025 the expected demand will be1050 BCM3. In India, the per capita availability offreshwater has dropped from over 5,000 cubicmeters per year in 1947 to less than 2,000 cubicmeters per year in 19973. By 2025, this figure willfall further to 1,500 cubic meters per year, which isquite alarming3. Six of India’s twenty major riverbasins are already below the water scarcity thresholdof 1,000 cubic meters per year, with five morebasins to be added to the list within the next threedecades4.

CAUSES OF EUTROPHICATION ANDMAJOR LIMITING FACTORS

Natural eutrophication occurs over centuries aswater bodies like lakes progressively get filled inwith sediments. There are two different ways ofentry of effluents causing eutrophication : canalizedflow and the natural flow from drainage areas.Both need a special approach to work out thetheoretical basis and practical measures forcontrolling anthropogenic eutrophy5,6. Urban sewageand industrial effluents are delivered into the rivers.This practice causing eutrophication has alwaysbeen the primary one. Efforts are being made andtechniques are being developed for controlling thismenace. One of them is to set up a device forblocking the access of eutrophic matter to a waterbody by improving the facilities for sewagetreatment and purification of industrial effluents.The conventional methods however fail to eliminatemineral compounds of nitrogen and phosphorusfrom waste waters, although numeroushydroengineering techniques are being developed(fabricated) for dealing with this problem.

Although related to nutrient enrichment ingeneral, basic cause of eutrophication is animbalance of nitrogen and phosphorus load withthat of silica7. The main causes of eutrophicationcan be summarized as :

(1) Natural run-off of nutrients arising from theweathering of rocks and soil,

(2) Run-off of inorganic fertilizers (applied inagriculture) containing compounds ofnitrogen and phosphorous,

(3) Run-off of organic manure from farmscontaining nitrates, phosphates and ammonia,

(4) Run-off from erosive activities followingconstruction, mining activities and poor landuse,

(5) Discharge of detergents rich in phosphates,

(6) Discharge of partially treated or untreatedsewage containing nitrates and phosphates,and

(7) Experimental discharge of nutrients in watersystems for aquaculture and ecologicalstudies.

Aquatic ecosystems can be polluted in a numberof ways but mostly by agents that are not producedunder the natural conditions, e.g., powdered wastes,toxic chemicals like lead and mercury compounds,hot effluents like hot water, radionuclides (e.g.,Thorium and Uranium Series Radionuclides) etc.Pollution can destroy the natural habitats for algalgrowth e.g., by blanketing the sediments and/oraquatic macrophytes like Pistia sp., Spirodela sp.and Lemna sp. with silt, coal mining wastes, woodpulp wastes etc. If the sediment load remainssuspended for considerable time in the water it willreduce light penetration to the extent that the growthof the other members of the aquatic ecosystem inquestion is retarded or prevented. A case ofdepression in carbon fixation productivity has beenevidenced in freshwaters where light is reduced by


360

pulp-mill effluents. The species present before andafter were similar, but fixation was reduced from338-369 mg carbon m–2 day–1 to 24-29 mg carbonm–2 day–1 that showed the considerable impact ofeutrophication8.

Nitrate is an important factor in controlling theoccurrence and abundance of phytoplankton. Anoverall increase in nitrates in the aquatic ecosystemsmay be attributed to wastes, surface run-off waterand nitrification of ammonia. Some observationstill date have shown loss in the concentration ofnitrates which may be due to the incompleteoxidation of free ammonia. When dissolved oxygenincreased, nitrates also have shown directrelationship with pH, sulphate, calcium andphosphorus9,10. The maxima of nitrates in monsoonhave been explained on the assumption thatsuspended particles might have accelerated theprocess of nitrification by providing a larger surfacearea for bacterial activity8,11.

The quantities of phosphates observed in theeutrophication analyses vary a lot at the globalscale, mainly due to the differential rates of deathand decomposition of algae and other aquaticvegetation elements in different environmentalsettings. Experiments conducted by environmen-talists like Welch and Hutchinson have reported theincrease of phosphorus as a result of sewagecontamination8,11. The concentration of phosphateswas more in summers during which the blooms ofMicrocystis (cyanobacteria) were observed. It hasbeen observed that the concentration of phosphatesand phytoplankton density has a direct relationshipwith the amount of nitrates12.

Supplies of light and nutrients determine thegrowth of algae and aquatic vascular plants.Therefore these resources can be considered as thelimiting factors in causing eutrophication8,11,12. Lightavailability plays a key role in the growth anddevelopment of submerged aquatic vascular plants,which are usually rooted and can access sedimentsfor nutrients. Phytoplankton abundance and speciescomposition changes as a function of ratios between

supplied nutrients and underwater light conditions.Some common species of cyanobacteria, known toproduce various kinds of toxins, can regulate theirbuoyancy and often become common as turbidityincreases. Apparently, subtle differences in ratios,such as nitrogen to phosphorus, or phosphorus tosilicon, can alter competitive relations among algalspecies involved in bloom formation11,12.

Eutrophication is unlikely to occur if nitrate andphosphate contents in water are low but even thenutrient-rich waters may not witness the incidenceof eutrophication if other factors like temperatureand current velocity are not favorable. Theinfluencing factors of eutrophication are :(1) Excessive nutrients, (2) Slow current velocity,(3) Adequate temperature and (4) Microbial activityand biodiversity13,14. There are several opinionsexisting on the relationship of nutrient enrichmentto eutrophication and algal blooms : (1) Whenphosphorus concentration in water is low, it mayact as the limiting factor for eutrophication,(2) When phosphorus concentration in waterincreases rapidly, factors such as light, temperature,water depth, pH, waves or wind etc may becomethe operating limiting factor8,12.

EFFECTS OF EUTROPHICATION

The major effects of eutrophication are : (i) adecrease in the species diversity and negativemodifications in the dominating taxa of the aquaticsystem, (ii) increase in the biomass of toxin-releasing, harmful flora and fauna, (iii) increase inturbidity of water bodies, (iv) increase in rate ofsedimentation, thus decreasing the lifespan of lakesand ponds, and (v) triggering of small to large-scale anoxia/hypoxia.

During the last 100 years, and particularly in thelast five decades, the trophic levels of a largenumber of lakes and other water bodies have maderapid advancements15. Universally, the relativeenrichment has been a direct consequence of socialor cultural advances made by the growing human


361

populations. Factors like deforestation and theimplementation of agriculture alter terrestrialnutrient cycles in favor of more labile components,larger proportion of which enter drainage water.Ploughing and the practice of applying moderninorganic fertilizers simply accentuate the trend.Fertilizers and pesticides used extensively inagriculture have entered the water supply throughrunoff and leaching to the groundwater table that inturn pose a hazard to human, animal and plantpopulations. Some of these chemicals include severalextremely hazardous substances as considered bythe WHO and which are banned or under strictcontrol in developed countries. Studies on theGanges indicate that the concentration level ofcertain chemicals viz., HCH, DDT, Endosulfan,Methyl Malathion, Malathion, Dimethoate, andEthion are higher than the internationalstandards16,17,18. Some of these substances havebeen known to bio-accumulate in certain organisms,leading to increased risk of contamination wherethese organisms are used for human consumptionand a persistence of the chemicals in theenvironment over long periods of time.

The sudden availability of limiting nutrientssuch as nitrogen, phosphate and potassium, spursthe growth of aquatic plants and otherorganisms11,12. In short time the water body becomeschoked with vegetation and the BOD level decreases.Decaying organic matter and partially decomposedmatter accumulates on the river or lake-bed, therebylimiting the water’s suitability for humanconsumption and other uses. A high level of fertilizeruse has been associated with increased incidencesof eutrophication in rivers and lakes in several ofIndia’s most important water bodies, such as theHussain Sagar in Hyderabad19 and Nainital inUttarakhand20.

NUTRIENT REMOVAL

The removal of excess nutrients from sewageeffluents is feasible but involves modifications to

most sewage plants which are designed to removesolids (primary process), followed by a secondaryprocess, which involves either activated sludge ortrickling filters to remove nutrients (nitrates andphosphates; approximate removal 30-50%). Theoriginal purpose of these processes is to reduce theBiological Oxygen Demand (BOD), for achievingsuitable levels to prevent de-oxygenation ofreceiving waters. Removal of the nutrients left afterthe secondary treatment is possible by a variety ofprocesses, one of which involves growth andharvesting of algae from the effluent. Others involveion exchange, electrochemical methods,electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, distillation orchemical precipitations as tertiary processes.

THREAT OF EXHAUSTION

If the modern methods of utilizing waterresources continue in future, the threat of theexhaustion will increase many times. The waterresources are rapidly deteriorating owing to wastedisposal into the rivers. A holistic approach isrequired for managing the water resources in spiteof the thrusts arising from various sources likeagricultural, industrial and domestic sectors11,21.

A specific aspect of water pollution by man is adisturbance in the regimen of the inland waterbodies known as cultural or anthropogeniceutrophication. This phenomenon which has becomewidespread in many countries over the last coupleof decades is causing public concern and attractingthe attention of scientists all over the world. Theharm it does to the utility value of lakes and waterreservoirs is a grave threat to the earth’s waterresources as illustrated by the evidences present innumerous publications on specific and technicalsubjects.

At the very same time, this phenomenon hasbecome particularly widespread in the past fewyears, extending to a large number of lakes in manycountries with highly developed cultural landscapes.


362

Wetlands and coastal areas have been severely

affected by increasing development and pollution.

Almost one quarter of India’s population lives

within 60 km range of the shoreline, mostly owing

to the large coastal mega-cities like Chennai and

Mumbai. As a result, industrial and domestic

pollution has severely degraded estuarine and coastal

environments. It has been estimated that over 20,000

million litres per day of mostly untreated domestic

sewage reaches marine water bodies in the coastal

areas of India3,4. Oil spills from tanker traffic in the

Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea have also adversely

affected marine and coastal fauna e.g., economically

valuable shrimps and coral species22,23.

CONCLUSION

Environment is a true wealth for the entire

humanity and we must protect it. A large number

of factors including eutrophication are degrading

our valuable environment and better approach from

the human fraternity is required to protect the

aquatic resources vulnerable to eutrophication. In

addition to the tasks of controlling eutrophication

and preventing its effects, the problem of forecasting

its rates in different natural conditions with a varied

character and anthropogenic activities, as well as

an estimation of potential dangers to the aquatic

environments is urgently required. High authenticity

for such forecasts and estimates is needed to furnish

the ground for legislative, administrative and public

measures to control the process of eutrophication

and the damage caused by it to the entire human

race.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to the Director, Birbal

Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany for his kind

permission to publish this article. One of us (S.

Sarkar) is highly indebted to CSIR for the Senior

Research Fellowship (NET, Award No. 09/

528(0016)/2009-EMR-1).

REFERENCES

1. C. A. Weber, Beibl Bot Jahrb 90, 19-34,1907.

2. E. Naumann, Svensk Bot Tidskr 13, 129-163,1919.

3. Published Report-World Bank, 1999.

4. Published Report-Ministry of WaterResources, 2000.

5. E. Bonsdorff, E. M. Blomqvist, J. Mattila, A.Norkko, Coastal eutrophication: Causes,consequences and perspectives in theArchipelago areas of northern Baltic Sea. EstCoast Shelf Sci 44, 63-72, 1997.

6. J. G. Ferreira, S. B. Bricker, T. C. Simas,J Env Manag 82, 433-445, 2007.

7. J. C. Dauvin, T. Ruellet, N. Desroy, A. L.Janson, Mar Poll Bull 55, 241-257, 2007.

8. G. E. Hutchinson, A treatise on limnology,Vol. I, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York,1957.

9. R. Riegman, Wat Sci Tech 32, 63-75, 1995.

10. T. Jickells, J Sea Res 54, 58-69, 2005.

11. P. S. Welch, Limnology. Mc Graw HillBook New York Press, pp. 536, 1952.

12. CS Reynolds, Eutrophication explained,Salmon & Trout Magazine, No. 215, pp.7-43, 1979.

13. J. X. Li, W. G. Liao, Prot Water Res 2, 4-5,2002.

14. G. A. Rohlich, P.D. Uttormark, Waste watertreatment and eutrophication, In: Nutrientsand eutrophication: The limiting nutrientcontroversy, Limnology and Oceanography,Symposium I, pp. 231-245, 1972.

15. W. K. Dodds, M. R. Whiles, Trophic Stateand Eutrophication, Freshwater Ecology(Second Edition), 469-507, 2010.


363

16. S. K. Sarkar, M. Saha, H. Takada, A.Bhattacharya, P. Mishra, B. Bhattacharya,J Clean Prod 15, 1559-1567, 2007.

17. M. Singh, G. Müller, I. B. Singh, J GeochemExp 80, 1-17, 2003.

18. D. P. Modak, K. P. Singh, H. Chandra, P. K.Ray, Water Research 26, 1541-1548. 1992.

19. M. Suneela, G. Radha Krishnan, K. V.Krishna, et al., Water and sediment analysisof Hussain Sagar Lake, Hyderabad. ProcTaal2007: The 12th World Lake Conference,304-306, 2008.

20. M. C. Pant, A. P. Sharma, P. C. Sharma, EnvPoll Ser B, Chem Phy 1, 149-161, 1980.

21. V. Istvánovics, Eutrophication of Lakes andReservoirs, Encyclopedia of Inland Waters,pp. 157-165, 2009.

22. A. N. Kadam, M. K. Chouksey, Status of oilpollution along the Indian coast. Proc NatSem Creeks Est Mangr – Pollution andConservation, 12-16, 2002.

23. T. C. Jennerjahn, Ear-Sci Rev 114, 19-41,2012.

Glossary

Anthropogenic Eutrophication - The processof eutrophication triggered by human culturalactivities accelerating the hazardous process inthousands of water bodies across the globe.

Bioaccumulation - Accumulation of chemicalsubstances viz., pesticides in an organism. It occurswhen an organism absorbs toxic substances at arate greater than that at which that particularsubstance is lost. Bioaccumulation refers to uptakefrom all possible sources of air, water and food etc.

Biomagnification – Sequence of processes inan ecosystem by which higher concentrations ofparticular element/chemical, are reached inorganisms higher up the food chain, generallythrough a series of predator-prey relationships.

BCM - Billion Cubic Metres.

Distillation - A method involving separation ofmixtures based on differences in volatilities in aboiling liquid mixture.

Epilimnion - The top-most layer in a thermallystratified lake and is warmer receiving the maximumsunlight with typically higher pH and dissolvedoxygen than the lowermost layer hypolimnion.

Electrodialysis - A process involving transportof salt ions from one solution to another throughion-exchange membranes under the influence of anapplied electric potential difference.

Estuary - A partly enclosed coastal body ofwater with one or multiple fresh-water bodiesflowing into it along with a free connection withthe open sea.

Hypolimnion - The dense, bottom layer of athermally stratified lake lying below the thermoclinei.e., the middle transition layer between the layer atthe surface (epilimnion) and the deep one(hypolimnion).

Mesotrophic - Water bodies with an intermediatelevel of productivity i.e., greater than oligotrophicbut lesser than eutrophic.

Phytoplankton - The autotrophic component ofthe planktonic community, phytoplankton obtainsenergy through the process of photosynthesis anddwell in the well-lit surface layer i.e., the euphoticzone of a water body viz., ocean, lake, river etc.

Redox Processes - All chemical reactions inwhich the atoms have their oxidation number(oxidation state) changed e.g., oxidation of carbonto yield CO2, reduction of carbon by hydrogen toyield CH4 or oxidation of sugar (C6H12O6) in thehuman body through a series of complex electrontransfer processes.

Reverse Osmosis - A filtration process thatremoves various large molecules and ions fromsolutions by applying pressure to the solution whenit is on one side of a particular selective membrane.


364

INTRODUCTION

W e have more prokaryotic organisms onor in our bodies than we have eukaryotic

cells. In fact, only one out of 10 cells in our bodiesis human. Analysis of human genome was only anintroduction to the genetic composition of ourbodies. Human and their commensal organism haveevolved together over the last two million yearsand have gradually become dependent on oneanother. The various commensals include eubacteria,archaebacteria, and fungi, which together comprisehuman microbiome. The concept of humanmicrobiome was first suggested by JoshuaLederberg, who coined the term “microbiome, tosignify the ecological community of commensal,symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms thatliterally share our body space”1.

Humans and their resident microbes havecoexisted for atleast a billion years during which

HUMAN MICROBIOMICS-DECODING THE MYSTERIES OF OURPERMANENT GUESTS

Latika Bhatia

The human body is inhabited by at least 10 times more bacteria than the number of humancells in the body. The various commensals include eubacteria, archaebacteria, and fungi,which together comprise human microbiome. These microbial assemblages are not onlyknown to be vital for human health but also prevent the dangerous microbes from establishinga foothold. The gut is considered the primary site for cross-talk between the host immunesystem and microorganisms. Human Microbiome Project aims to identify a core humanmicrobiome, a common set of commensal species that can be defined as a healthy microbiota.Indigenous microbiota are an essential component in the modern concept of human health,but the composition and functional characteristics of a healthy microbiome remain to beprecisely defined.

animals began domesticating microbes and allowingthem permanent residence. Human provide residenceto numerous microbial communities comprised ofhundreds of individual bacterial species. Almostevery environmently exposed surface of our bodiesis teeming with symbiotic microbes. Much of ourunderstanding of the human microbiome comesfrom culture based approaches using the 16 SrRNA technology. However, it is estimated that asmuch as 20% to 60% of the human associatedmicrobiome, depending on body site, is uncultivable,which has likely resulted in an underestimation ofits diversity. The microbiota normally associatedwith the human body have an important influenceon human development, physiology, immunity andnutrition. Also communities and mutualistic bacteriaassociated with the human body constitute the firstline defense against infection by competitivelyexcluding invasive nonindigenous organisms thatcause disease. Commensal bacteria also have theability to activate anti-inflammatory responsesleading to beneficial effects on the host via TLR(Toll Like Receptors) signaling when the cascade

* Department of Microbiology & Bioinformatics, BilaspurUniversity, Bilaspur (C.G.)E-mail : [email protected]


365

to pro-inflammatory responses is lacking.Furthermore, investigators have postulated roles formicrobes in human diseases not traditionallyassociated with infectious etiologies, such as cancer,autoimmune disorders, chronic pain states, andinflammatory bowel disease 2, 3.

WHY HUMAN MICROBIOME PROJECT ?

Following the publication of the human genomesequence in 2001, Julian Davies argued that althoughcompleting the human genome sequence was a‘‘crowning achievement’’ in biology, it would beincomplete until the synergistic activities betweenhumans and microbes living in and on them areunderstood. Relman and Falkow called for a ‘‘secondhuman genome project’’ that ‘‘would entail acomprehensive inventory of microbial genes andgenomes at the four major sites of microbialcolonization in the human body: mouth, gut, vagina,and skin’’. In this direction, the International HumanMicrobiome Project (HMP) has been recentlylaunched, with funding beginning later in 20084.

The HMP is a logical conceptual andexperimental extension of the Human GenomeProject. The HMP is not a single project. It is aninterdisciplinary effort consisting of multipleprojects, which are now being launched concurrentlyworldwide, including in the United States (as partof the next phase of the National Institutes ofHealth’s Roadmap for Medical Research), Europeand Asia. The advent of highly parallel DNAsequencers and high-throughput mass spectrometerswith remarkable mass accuracy and sensitivity ispropelling microbiology into a new era, extendingits focus from the properties of single organismtypes in isolation to the operations of wholecommunities4.

Initial HMP efforts include sampling multiplessites of healthy volunteers to determine whetherhumans share core microbial diversity profiles. Thegoals of the HMP are to demonstrate the feasibilityof characterizing the human microbiome well

enough to enable study of the variation in thehuman microbiome (with population, genotype,disease, age, nutrition, medication, and environment)and its influence on disease, while providing botha standardized data resource and technologicaldevelopments to enable such studies to beundertaken broadly in the scientific community.The HMP is a limited effort per se, but has theultimate objective of creating broad opportunitiesto improve human health through monitoring ormanipulating the human microbiome.

It is estimated that the human microbiota iscomposed of ~1014 bacterial cells, which is 10times more than the total number of human cells.The largest and most complex is the one comprisedby intestinal bacteria that includes as many as 1012

cells per 1 g of feces in the average humanindividual. Perhaps we should regard ourselves as‘superorganisms’ together with the indigenousmicrobes and that the composite genome should bereferred to as the human ‘metagenome’. The 16SrRNA genes are directly amplified from the humanmetagenomic DNA using a broad- range PCRprimers, and used to make libraries of clone. Eachclone in a library represents a 16S rRNA gene froma prokaryotic organism. The clones are thendifferentiated through fingerprinting methods suchas denaturant gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)or amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis(ARDRA) and the non-redundant clones aresequenced. In the recent years, either randomlyselected clones or all the clones in a library arebeing sequenced. After sequencing, 16S rRNA genesare clustered into groups and a threshold of sequencesimilarity (> 97%) is established to distinguishspecies level phylotypes5,6. A large-scale 16Sphylotype analysis (grouping only by 16S rRNAsequence similarity) was carried out for three humanadult microbiota. The analysis of 13335 bacterial16S sequences identified 395 phylotypes at thestrain level using a threshold of 99% sequenceidentity (% ID) and a single archaeal phylotype(Methanobrevibacter smithii) within the three


366

samples. Members of the genera Bacteroides,Eubacterium, Clostridium and Ruminococcus werethe major species found in the adult microbiota. Ofthe 395 phylotypes, ~80% represented sequencesfrom species yet to be cultivated. This analysis alsoindicated high interindividual variations in microbialcomposition among the three samples.

One of the major goals of the HMP is todetermine whether there is an identifiable ‘coremicrobiome’ of shared organisms, genes orfunctional capabilities found in a given body habitatof all or the vast majority of humans. The humanintestinal tract harbors the most abundant, andamong the most diverse, microbial community ofall body sites. As in most mammals, the gutmicrobiome is dominated by four bacterial phyla:Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, andProteobacteria, which represent more than 1000different molecular species or phylotypes.Remarkably, this phylotype composition can bespecific and stable for each individual. Genomeanalysis of several Bacteroides strains dominant inadult intestinal microbiota indicated the richness ofgenes involved in polysaccharide metabolism,exemplifying the functional adaptation of intestinalmicrobes to gut habitats rich in polysaccharides,which are metabolized by bacteria to generate short-chain fatty acids such as butyrate, the major energysource for the host 7.

The HMP will address some of the mostinspiring, vexing and fundamental scientificquestions today. Importantly, it also has the potentialto break down the artificial barriers between medicalmicrobiology and environmental microbiology. Itis hoped that the HMP will not only identify newways to determine health and predisposition todiseases but also define the parameters needed todesign, implement and monitor strategies forintentionally manipulating the human microbiota,to optimize its performance in the context of anindividual’s physiology 4.

METAGENOMICS AND THE ROLE OFHUMAN MICROBIOTA

Human microbiome has significantly enrichedmetabolism of glycans, amino acids and xenobiotics;methanogenesis; and 2-methyl-Derythritol 4-phosphate pathway-mediated biosynthesis ofvitamins and isoprenoids. Thus, humans aresuperorganisms whose metabolism represents anamalgamation of microbial and human attributes.

It has not been possible to isolate vast majority(>95%) of microorganisms and culture them, asrequired growth conditions have not or cannot bereproduced in the laboratory. However, DNAsequences and metagenomics have now made itpossible to analyse the entire human microbiome.Metagenomics is employed as a means ofsystematically investigating, classifying andmanipulating the entire genetic material isolatedfrom environmental samples. This is a multi-stepprocess that relies on the efficiency of four mainsteps. The procedure consist of (i) the isolation ofgenetic material, (ii) manipulation of geneticmaterial, (iii) library construction, and the (iv) theanalysis of genetic material in the metagenomiclibrary. The clones can be screened for phylogeneticmarkers or “anchors.” such as 16S rRNA and recA,or for other conserved genes by hybridization ormultiplex PCR or for expression of specific traits,such as enzyme activity or antibiotic production, orthey can be sequenced randomly 8.

This metagenomics analysis begins to define thegene content and encoded functional attributes ofthe gut microbiome in healthy humans. Futurestudies are needed to provide deeper coverage ofthe microbiome and to assess the effects of age,diet, and pathologic states (e.g., inflammatory boweldiseases, obesity, and cancer) on the distal gutmicrobiome of humans living indifferentenvironment9.

Every human body contains a personalizedmicrobiome that is essential to maintaining health


367

but capable of eliciting disease. The oral microbiomeis particularly imperative to health because it cancause both oral and systemic disease. The oralmicrobiome rests within biofilms throughout theoral cavity, forming an ecosystem that maintainshealth when in equilibrium. However, certainecological shifts in the microbiome allow pathogensto manifest and cause disease. Severe forms of oraldisease may result in systemic disease at differentbody sites10.

The human vagina and the bacterial communitiesthat reside therein, form a finely balancedmutualistic association. Previous studies indicatethat indigenous bacterial populations play a keyrole in preventing colonization by “undesirable”organisms, including those responsible for bacterialvaginosis, yeast infections, sexually transmitteddiseases, and urinary tract infections. Lactobacillihave been thought to be the keystone species ofvaginal communities in reproductive-age women,both in the sense of being the dominant species andin the sense of being the species with the greatestimpact on the vaginal ecosystem. Thesemicroorganisms benefit the host by producing lacticacid as a fermentation product that accumulates inthe environment and lowers the pH to ~4.5.

Several of our physiological features, such asnutrient processing, maturation of the immunesystem, pathogen resistance, and development ofthe intestinal architecture, strictly depend on themutualistic symbiotic relationship with the intestinalmicrobiota. The vast majority of bacteria in thehuman intestinal microbiota (> 99%) belongs to sixbacterial phyla: Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes,Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Fusobacteria andVerrucomicrobia. The two dominant divisionsare Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes, which representtogether up to 90% of the total microbiota, with arelative abundance of 65% and 25%,respectively. Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria,Verrucomicrobia and Fusobacteria are the

subdominants phyla with a relative abundance upto 5, 8, 2 and 1%, respectively.

The gut microbiome has co-evolved with humansand taken on some of the metabolic functionnecessary to human survival, such as vitaminbiosynthesis and plant polysaccharide (starch andcellulose) fermentation. Genome of human gutbacteria contain a large repertoire of genes involvedin acquisition and metabolism of polysaccharides.These genes are organized as polysaccharideutilization loci (PUL) that encode functionsnecessary to detect, bind, degrade and importcarbohydrate species encountered in the gut habitateither from the diet or from the host glycansassociated with mucus and the surfaces of theepithelial cells. Gut ‘microflora’ play crucial rolesin the developing human organism, and contributeto immunological processes (e.g., inflammatoryresponse), endocrinological functions, andhomeostatic energy balancing such as energyextraction and fat storage. The microbiota favorssystemic exposure to the lipopolysaccharides (LPSs),large glycolipids derived from the outer membraneof Gram-negative bacteria. LPSs can cause acondition of “metabolic endotoxemia” characterizedby low-grade inflammation, insulin resistance, andaugmented cardiovascular risk. Gut microbes arealso implicated in the development of type 1diabetes, through epigenetic effects on the innateimmune system.

GUT MICROBIOTA AND OBESITY

Newer avenue of research is concerned with therole microbes in the gut play in obesogenesis, andwhat the interventions are that might alleviate suchcontributions Obesity is associated with phylum-level changes in the microbiota, reduced bacterialdiversity, and altered representation of bacterialgenes and metabolic pathways. These resultsdemonstrate that a diversity of organismalassemblages can none the less yield a coremicrobiome at a functional level, and that deviationsfrom this core are associated with different


368

physiologic states (obese versus lean). Modernresearch techniques such as FISH, flow cytometry,and quantitative PCR have suggested that infantswith lower levels of Bifidobacterium and highernumbers of Staphylococcus aureus in their stoolare at risk of subsequent obesity. Analysis of 16SrRNA datasets produced by the three PCR-basedmethods, plus shotgun sequencing of communityDNA, revealed a lower proportion of Bacteroidetesand a higher proportion of Actinobacteria in obeseversus lean individuals. Obesity was characterizedby a higher proportion of Firmicutes andActinobacteria with respect to Bacteroidetes and anoverall reduced bacterial diversity. This reduceddiversity suggests an analogy: the obese gutmicrobiota is not like a rainforest or reef, which areadapted to high energy flux and are highly diverse,but rather may be more like a fertilizer runoffwhere a reduced diversity microbial communityblooms with abnormal energy input. Studies oflean and obese mice suggest that the gut microbiotaaffects energy balance by influencing the efficiencyof calorie harvest from the diet, and how thisharvested energy is utilized and stored. Obese (ob/ob) mice, with 50% more Firmicute activity in theirguts, appear to digest more of their food and gainmore calories from it, and the Firmicutes alsoregulate host metabolic genes. Probiotics may proveto be useful adjuncts in strategies to alleviatethe huge burden of childhood obesity. Mice fedtrans-10, cis-12-conjugated linoleic acid-expressingL. plantarum PL62 featured reduced adiposetissue and body weights, as well as serum glucoselevels 11, 12.

PROBIOTICS AS BACTERIOTHERAPEUTICAGENTS

Abundant communications and “microverses”are being transmitted between diverse microbialcommunities and different cell types in disparatelocations within the human body. Commensalmicrobes may actively prevent gastrointestinalinfections through production of antimicrobial

factors, stimulation of the host immune system, orcompetition with pathogens for nutrients or hostbinding sites. Commensal organisms, which caninhibit the pathogens, a phenomenon known aspathogen interference, may be useful for therapeuticapplications. Probiotics or beneficial microbes haveproved to be important bacteriotherapeutic agents.Probiotics have been applied successfully in thecontext of gastroduodenal disease, specificallyHelicobacter pylori infection. Multiple clinical trialsdemonstrated that a variety of probiotic strains canimprove tolerability of H. pylori eradication therapy.Probiotics such as Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, L.reuteri, Bifidobacterium, and the yeast“Saccharomyces boulardi” have also been reportedto improve diarrhea and other symptoms of acutegastroenteritis. Probiotics have been investigatedfor their abilities to alleviate antimicrobial-associateddisease including Clostridium difficile infection.Beneficial effects of probiotics include not onlyanti-pathogenic effects but they also impartimmunomodulatory features, regulation of cellproliferation, the ability to promote normalphysiologic development of the mucosal epithelium,and enhancement of human nutrition.

CONCLUSION

The human body is naturally colonized by adiverse array of micro-organisms whose metabolicactivity is important for human physiology andhealth. The alimentry canal may be regarded fromthe point of view of bacterial process within it, asa singularly perfect incubator. Technology is nowproviding advanced sequencing techniques that aremore cost effective and faster than ever, allowingfor metagenomic analysis of microbial communitiesfound in varied samples. Probiotics modulateimmune responses, provide key nutrients, orsuppress the proliferation and virulence of infectiousagents. The human microbiome is in fact dynamicand often in flux, which may be indicative of thecontinuous interplay among commensal microbes,pathogens, and the human host. Defining the


369

complexity of the human microbiome in health anddisease will enhance the understanding of multiplepathological mechanisms and facilitate thedevelopment of novel diagnostic tools andtherapeutic interventions. The analysis of themicrobiome and its genomes will pave the way formore effective therapeutic and diagnostic techniquesand, ultimately, contribute to the development ofpersonalized medicine and personalized dentalmedicine.

REFERENCES

1. B Fredrik, et. al., Cell Host & Microbe, 12,2012.

2. Steven R. Gill, et. al., Science, 312, 1355-1358, 2006.

3. J Qin, et. al., Nature, 464, 59-65, 2010.

4. PJ Turnbaugh, et. al., Nature, 449,doi:10.1038/nature06244, 2007.

5. Z Gao, et. al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,104, 2927–2932, 2007.

6. I Nasidze, et. al.,Genome Res, 19, 636–643, 2009.

7. J Rajendhran and P Gunasekaran, Indian JMicrobiol, 50, 109–112, 2010.

8. L Bhatia Latika, Everyman’s Science, 45,6, 345-350, 2011.

9. HJ Tilg, Clin Gastroentero., 44, Suppl1: S16-8, 2010.

10. MF Zarco, TJ Vess, GS Ginsburg, OralDiseases, doi : 10.1111/j.1601-0825.2011.01851.x, 2011.

11. RE Ley, et. al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,102, 11070–11075, 2005.

12. PJ Turnbaugh, et. al.,Nature, 444, 1027–1031, 2006.


370

INTRODUCTION

I n the recent time the radio frequency hasturned out to be of immense importance

both for its enormous utility and its adverse effectson the living world. Many of the recent inventionsand research works are heavily dependent on radiofrequency also called electromagnetic radiation. Inthis paper we have tried to highlight some of thebasic features of radio frequency and have pointedout the perils of overuse or uncontrolled use ofRadio frequency.

Some Facts : Electromagnetic radiation is aform of energy emitted and absorbed by chargedparticles which exhibits wave-like behaviour as iftravels through space. Radio frequency is a rate ofoscillation in the range of about 30 KHz to 300GHz which corresponds to the frequency ofelectrical signals normally produced to detect radiowaves. In order to receive radio signals an antennais used. Since an antenna picks up thousands ofradio signals at a time, a radio tuner is necessary totune it to a particular frequency. This is done by aresonator which can amplify oscillations within aparticular frequency band. Electrical currents thatoscillate at RF have the special property that theycan ionize air creating a conductive path through it.Exploiting this property by high frequency units,

RADIO FREQUENCY- A BLESSING OR A CURSE

Anandarup Chatterjee and Shyam Sundar Kar

* Radiance College,Bangalore, Email : [email protected] and Institute of Engineering & Management,Kolkata, Email : [email protected]

arc welding is done. Radio frequency radiation isalso known as electromagnetic radiation.

Radio spectrum refers to the part ofelectromagnetic spectrum corresponding to radiofrequencies. Different parts of the radio spectrumare used for different radio transmission technologiesand applications. Radio Spectrum is governmentregulated in developed countries and in some casesis sold or licensed to operators of private radiotransmission systems, e.g., cellular telephoneoperators or broadcast television stations. A band isa small section of the spectrum of radiocommunication frequencies.

A noteworthy property is that above 300 GHz,the absorption of electromagnetic radiation byEarth’s atmosphere is so great that the atmosphereis effectively opaque for passage of signals throughit until it becomes transparent again in the infraredand optical frequency ranges.

The following is a list of band names, providingfrequencies and uses of the bands.

GENERATION OF RADIO FREQUENCY

The radio frequency energy is emitted fromvarious sources. The present civic life is full ofelectrical and electronic products like mobile phones,microwave oven, stabilizers,, electric shavers,household remote controls, radars and transmissiontowers which emit invisible electromagneticradiation (EMR).

This impact of radio frequency in the present world is unimaginable, yet not beyond criticism.Scientists have noted some adverse effects of this on human life. This paper tries to delve intothese negative aspects of electromagnetic radiation to caution us against a disaster.


371

USES OF RADIO FREQUENCY

The radio frequency radiation, i.e.,electromagnetic energy is used for multitude ofpurposes. Over the last century its use incommunication industries has been overwhelming,particularly in radio transmission, televisiontransmission, cellular phones and medical treatment.

While the cellular service has become an inseparablepart of our modern life, the instrument likeDiathermy has turned out to be an unavoidablemedical instrument for surgery. Radio frequency

energy is normally used in medical treatments for

minimally invasive surgeries. Using radio frequency

bloodless operations (cutting and coagulation) are

Example uses

Natural and man-made electromagnetic waves (millihertz,microhertz, nanohertz) from earth, ionosphere, sun, planets,[citation needed] etc.

Communication with submarines

Communication with submarines, Main power (50/60Hz)

Communication within mines

Submarine communication, avalanche beacons, wirelessheart rate monitors, geophysics

Navigation, time signals, AM longwave broadcasting, RFID

AM (medium-wave) broadcasts, amateur radio

Shortwave broadcasts, citizens’ band radio, amateur radioand over-the-horizon aviation communications, RFID,Over-the-horizon radar, Automatic link establishment (ALE)/Near Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS) radiocommunications, Marine and mobile radio telephony

FM, television broadcasts and line-of-sight ground-to-aircraft and aircraft-to-aircraft communications. LandMobile and Maritime Mobile communications, amateurradio

Television broadcasts, microwave ovens, mobile phones,wireless LAN, Bluetooth, ZigBee, GPS and two-way radiossuch as Land Mobile, FRS and GMRS radios, amateurradio

Microwave devices, wireless LAN, most modern radars,communications satellites, amateur radio

Radio astronomy, high-frequency microwave radio relay,microwave remote sensing, amateur radio

Terahertz imaging – a potential replacement for X-rays insome medical applications, ultrafast molecular dynamics,condensed-matter physics, terahertz time-domainspectroscopy, terahertz computing/communications, sub-mm remote sensing

Frequency andwavelength in air

< 3 Hz> 100,00 km

3–30 Hz100,000 km–10,000 km

30–300 Hz10,000 km–1000 km

300–3000 Hz1000 km–100 km

3–30 kHz100 km – 10 km

300–3000 kHz10 km – 1 km

300–3000 kHz1 km – 100 m

3–30 MHz100 m 10 m

30–300 MHz10 m – 1 m

300 – 3000 MHz1 m – 100 mm

3–30 GHz100 mm – 10 mm

30 – 300 GHz10 mm – 1 mm

300 – 3,000 GHz1 mm – 100 μm

ITUband

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Abbr.

subHz

ELF

SLF

ULF

VLF

LF

MF

HF

VHF

UHF

SHF

EHF

THz

Band name

sub-hertz

Extremely lowfrequency

Super lowfrequency

Ultra lowfrequency

Very lowfrequency

Low frequency

Mediumfrequency

Highfrequency

Very highfrequency

Ultra highfrequency

Super highfrequency

Extremely highfrequency

Terahertz


372

done including the treatment of sleep Apnea.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses radio

frequency waves to generate images of the human

body. Various sensors used at different walks of lifeare almost inseparably connected with our everyday life and research.

In the domestic arena, microwave ovens havebecome a part and parcel of the civic life. Theremote control systems, televisions and FM radioare three of the most popular uses of high frequencyEM wave.

THE GROWING PERILS

The uncontrolled use of radio frequency radiationin the form of mobile telecommunications, televisiontransmitters, FM Radio Stations, household remotecontrol systems has provided the modern civilizationwith a great peril looming large on human andplant lives mainly by its non-ionizing radiation.The mushrooming mobile industries in every cornerof the globe with radiating steel towers have forcedthe general public to the continuous exposure ofradio frequency radiation leading thereby to theundesirable permanent effects on human health andbehavior. The alarming effects of radio frequencyhas been established beyond doubt as a significantcause of cancers of many types2-5. Not for theservices of human civilization, the radio frequencyenergy is being abused to torture convicts, damageenemy potentials and change psychic state of enemypersonnel.

We can classify the RF susceptible groups asfollows :

(a) Pre-adolescent Children

Various studies have shown that the pre-adolescent children are more susceptible to the RF-radiation than the older ones because absorption ofmicrowaves of the frequency used in mobiletelephony creates head resonance, i.e., creates anobject of the size of child’s’ head. The developingnervous system and associated brainwave activity

in a child are more vulnerable to RF aggression byits pulses. The mitotic activity in cells of developingchildren area subjected to genetic damage. Expertssay that the pre-adolescent children are susceptibleto electromagnetic radiation due to their thinnerskull and rapid growth rate.

Even at greater risk are the elderly and thepregnant women.

(b) Pregnant Woman

A pregnant woman and her foetus are vulnerableto electromagnetic radiations as these radiationscontinuously read with the developing embryo andthe developing cells of the foetus. Though notconclusively inferred, it is said that deformation ofthe foetus in the womb of a woman can happen dueto excessive use of cell phones and electrical gadgetslike microwave ovens and remote control systems.Intensive research works are going in this directionin Europe and America.

(c) Patients with Pace-makers

The radio frequency has been observed to affectadversely the implanted pacemakers. The chance isvery high that the electromagnetic radiation makethe pacemaker malfunction and even stopfunctioning.

(d) The Elderly

As the human brain is the most vulnerableportion for radio frequency radiation, the entirenervous system of the elderly easily fall prey to thisradiated energy resulting in neurological effectssuch as alzheimer, increase in ornithinede carboxylicactivity, disorder of enzymes and free radicals thatdecrease the brain metabolism.

(e) The Small Birds

Ornithologists have pointed out that the entirebiological system of the small birds like sparrowsare being grossly affected by radio frequencyradiations so much so that the reproductive powerof such genre is being lost, expectedly leading to


373

extinction in the long run. The small birds likesparrows are fleeing from the areas covered by RFtransmission towers.

(f) The Insects

The small insects like bee, which have brainsare supposed to have been adversely affected bythe RF radiation6-9. It is true that not many studiesare there but the few studies so far made amplysupports the above view.

(g) The Flora and Fauna

The botanists have started observing somepeculiar metabolic changes in the flora and faunain the recent times. They are attributing this to‘global warming and more emphatically on radiofrequency radiation. The changes in the leaves,peculiar spots on the stems and leaves are thoughtto be special effects of this radiation8–12. Themedicinal plants exposed to RF radiation are nowunder the danger of imbecility and erroneous results.

OUR STUDIES

Extensive studies have been done to relateoccurrence of cancer due to RF radiation. Doctorsfrom the United Kingdom issued warning urgingchildren under 16 not to use cell phones to reduceexposure to radio frequency radiation1-5. Over 100physicians and scientists at Harvard and BostonUniversity Schools of Public Health have calledcellular tower a radiation hazard. Thirty threedelegate physicians from 7 countries have declaredcell phone towers a public health emergency. Theresearchers have opined that RF radiation iswreaking havoc with normal biological cellfunctions. ‘RF alters tissue physiology, saysDr.George Carlo, an epidemiologist who foundgenetic damage in a $28 million research program,paid for by the industry. In 1998 the Viennaresolution signed by 16 of the world’s leading bio-electromagnetic researchers provided a consensusstatement that there is scientific agreement thatbiological effects from low intensity RF exposure

are established. The World Health Organization hasreported - ‘Many epidemiological studies haveaddressed possible links between exposure to RFfields and excess risk of cancer.’Dr. Robert Becker,author of ‘The Body Electric and Crosscurrents,the Perils of Electro-pollution” has remarked,” Atpresent the greatest polluting element in the earth’senvironment is the proliferation of electromagneticfields”. “Radiation once considered safe, he said, isnow correlated with increases in birth defects,depression, Alzheimer disease, learning disabilities,chronic fatigue syndrome and cancer. The incidenceof brain cancer is up by 25% since 1973 in USA.”

Forming a team of experts including physician,environmentalist and electronic engineers weconducted a survey of changing situations. Wevisited some of the remotest villages in the districtsof Howrah, Hooghly, 24-parganas and Burdwanand examined one hundred twenty cases, somewithin and some others outside the RF-radiationzones and have noted the following :

(1) The skin-disorder of green cocoanutsexposed to direct RF radiation are muchmore than those where this radiation is less.Before induction of cell-phone towers inthe villages there was no such skin-disorder.

(2) The number of sparrows in the cities andsuburbs has declined alarmingly addingcause to ecological balance.

(3) The number of suicides and mental disordersis increasing in the areas covered undercell-phone towers

(4) Certain plants including medicinal plantsare having metabolic changes in the areasunder cell-phone network.

(5) The occurrence of lightning is on increasein the areas covered by RF towers.

(6) The size and shapes of certain fruits liketomatoes in the vicinity of towers haveundergone deformation.


374

THE FUTURE MENACE

It is to be accepted that the medical treatment

and the communication system prevalent in today’s’world depends heavily on the use of RF radiation.

It is difficult to accept life without television andradio. More difficult is to think of aviation without

radar communication. Yet the hazards of this moderntechnology cannot be ignored. We can only think

of imposing stringent controls over the use of thisformidable blessing of science. The process of

controlling has already been started in the developedcountries. Use of mobile phones by under-sixteen’s

has been banned by law in U.K. Awarenesscampaigns have been intensified in USA, Europe

and Australia but insignificant efforts are visible inthe countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Africa

and Latin America. Failure to control this will leadto extinction of many living species, flora and

fauna and crippling of human civilization in nearfuture due to ecological imbalance.

Acknowledgement : The authors wishes tothank Professor Dr. D. Chatterjee , Principal and

Professor of the Institute of Engineering &management, Kolkata, T. N Sen and Prof. R. Ghosh

for the encouragement and guidance provided inwriting this paper. Thanks are also due to the

reviewer of the paper for some helping criticism formodification.

REFERENCES

1. A. Ahlbom , A. Green, L. Kheifets, D. Savitz,

A. Swerdlow. Environmental Health

Perspectives ; 112, 17, 1741-1754, 2004.

2. PD Inskip, RE Tarone, EE Hatch, et al.

2001. New England Journal of Medicine,344, 2, 79-86, 2001.

3. SJ Hepworth, MJ Schoemaker, KR Muir,et al. British Medical Journal, 332, 7546,883-887, 2006.

4. T Takebayashi, N Varsier, Y Kikuchi, et al.,British Journal of Cancer, 98, 3, 652-659,2008.

5. C Johansen, Jr. JD Boice, JK McLaughlin,JH Olsen. Journal of the National CancerInstitute, 93, 3, 203-207, 2001.

6. D. J. Panagopoulos, A. Karabarbounis,L. Margaritis, EBM, 23, 1, 29-43.

7. S. O. Nelson, Review and assessment ofradio frequency and microwave energy forstored grain insect control. Search NationalAgri. Lib. Digital Lab.

8. Melissalevine, Marene Mayer, RF effects onbees, plants, wildlife, Smartmeter, MeshNetwork, 2012.

9. A. Balmori, Pathophysiology, 2009, 191-199,2012.

10. Alasdair & J Philips, Animals, Birds, Insects& Plants : www.powerwatch.org.uk

11. P. R. Doyon, Are Microwaves killinginsects, frogs & birds And are we next :www.reuse.com, 2008.

12. D. J. Panagopoulos & L. H. Margaritis, 2ndInternational workshop on Biological effectsof EMFs, Rode, Grece, 348-452, 2002.


375

KNOW THY INSTITUTIONS

CSIR-NORTH EAST INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, JORHAT

THE HISTORY

The Special Committee of the Governing Bodyof CSIR recorded on September 15, 1954 that“.......................There were special priorities ofIndustry and raw materials in Assam which requiredinvestigation. The inadequacy of communicationbetween Assam and other parts of India made itnecessary to put up a separate laboratoryin Assam...................” Consequently, the committeediscussed for setting up of a third Regional ResearchLaboratory (RRL) in the country and the first inAssam. As a result on 18 March, 1961, ProfHumayun Kabir, the then Minister of ScientificResearch & Cultural Affairs, Govt. of India laid thefoundation stone of RRL, Jorhat.

BRIEF PROFILE

Nestled in the far flung north eastern part of thecountry, CSIR-NEIST (erstwhile known as RRL)

was established under the aegis of Council ofScientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhias a multidisciplinary laboratory. Its major thrust ofR&D activities has been to develop indigenoustechnologies by utilizing the immense natural wealthof India in general and NE region in particular andthus contributing to the region’s as well as country’sindustrial growth and economic prosperity. TheNorth Eastern region of the country is bestowedwith an abundance of material resources likepetroleum, natural gas, minerals, tea as well asaromatic and medicinal plants and hence thelaboratory was targeted to undertake research fordevelopment of knowhow for a wide range ofindustries and extension works. Over the years, thelaboratory has generated more than 114 technologiesin the areas of Agrotechnology, Biological Science,Chemical Science, Engineering Science, Geo-


376

science and Materials Science of which about 60%were commercial successes culminating in settingup of various industrial ventures throughout thecountry. Over the years, the laboratory alsodeveloped expertise in the areas like natural productschemistry, drugs and drug intermediates, VSKcement plant technology, agro-technologies,petroleum microbiology and petrochemicals, crudeoil transportation, paper and paper products,beneficiation chemicals, ecology and environmentstudies, geotechnical investigations, foundationdesign engineering, soil and building materials,geoscience and seismic surveillance studies etc.After its glorious more than 50 years of existencesince 1961, the Institute has come to bear the samesignificance and connotation in the entire NorthEast India as that of the CSIR at New Delhi for therest of the country.

THE R&D PROGRAMMES

Current research clusters

A. Chemical Sciences

● North East Exploration for Pharmaceuticals

● Environmental Research Initiative for paperand process industry

● Affordable Healthcare Agents

● CSIR Advanced Analytical Facility for NorthEast

● Development of Sustainable Processes forEdible Oils with Health Benefits fromTraditional and New Resources

● Catalysts for Specialty Chemicals

● Organic reactions in generating innovativeand natural scaffolds

● Advanced Polyolefins

● Specialty Materials Based on EngineeredClays

● New Generation lubricants and additives.

● Natural products as affordable healthcareagents.

● Membrane and Adsorbent TechnologyPlatform for Effective Separation of Gasesand Liquids

● Inherently Safer Practices for Industrial RiskReduction

● Development of Sustainable WasteManagement Technologies for Chemical andAllied industries

● Biocatalysts for the Industrial Applicationand Green Organic Synthesis.

● Biomass to Energy.

● Affordable Cancer Therapeutics

● Molecules to Materials to Devices

● Open Source Drug Discovery

B. Biological Sciences

● Plant diversity : studying adaptation biologyand understanding/exploiting medicinallyimportant plants for useful bioactives.

● Therapeutics of chronic obstructivepulmonary disease (COPD)

● Bioprospection of plant resources and othernatural products

● Introduction, Domestication, Improvementand Cultivation of Economically ImportantPlants.

● Nanomaterials : Applications and impact onSafety, Health and Environment

● Plant-Microbe and Soil Interactions

C. Engineering Sciences

● Engineering of Disaster Mitigation and HealthMonitoring for safe and smart builtenvironment.

D. Physical Sciences

● Probing the Changing Atmosphere and itsImpacts in Indo-Gangetic Plains andHimalayan Region.

E. Information Sciences

● Comprehensive Traditional KnowledgeDigital Library.


377

● CSIR knowledge gateway and open sourceprivate cloud infrastructure.

MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS

The laboratory has focused R&D mainly in Bio-sciences, Chemical Sciences, Engineering Sciences,Earth Sciences, Material Sciences and Agro-technology & Rural development.

Besides attending to the national priorities, thelaboratory has been engaged in ameliorating thesocio-economic conditions of the rural folks throughthe inputs of S&T. In the rural development sidealso, its efforts for ‘Lab to Land’ activities, thelaboratory has brought more than 5000 ha of fallowand waste lands in the NE states under the cultivationof various medicinal, economic and aromatic plantssuch as Citronella, Lemongrass, Patchouli, etc., andMushroom with the agro-techniques developed byit involving 25,000 families of rural farmers, womenfolks and self employed youths.

PUBLICATIONS

In frontier areas of fundamental and appliedresearch a total of 2925 research papers arepublished in journals of high national andinternational repute. The current average impactfactor of the published papers stands of 2.931.

PATENTS ACQUIRED

Over the years CSIR-NEIST has also earned itsname in the field of IPR with total 298 patentsgranted in India and 30 patents granted in abroad.

FACILITIES AVAILABLE

300 MHz NMR, GC-MS, LCMS, FTIR, CHN& Sulphur analyzer, Thermomechanical analyzer,surface area analyzer, interfacial tensiometer forliquid-liquid and solid-solid interfacial tension andcontact angle preparative HPLC, Atomic absorptionSpectrometer, Refrigerated centrifuge, XRD,Universal Testing machine for determiningengineering parameters of materials, Elrich mixerRO5T suitable for micro-pelletization and mixing,High temperature electrical furnace, 1600°C, Lightscattering detector, 50 It cap, Laser diffraction

particle size analyzer, 0.04-2500 micron, Zetapotential analyzer with autotitration, Thermalanalyzer for DTA, TGA & DSC, Atomic emissionSpectrometer (ICP-AES), petro mineralogicalmicroscope, pilot plant facility and SPD unit.

SERVICES

The laboratory offers the following services tothe clients, entrepreneurs and user agencies.

(a) Consultancy & Testing services

Areas

● Cultivation of medicinal, aromatic plants

● Survey of medicinal, aromatic andeconomic plants

● Designing of distillation units andspecialized fabrication works

● Geotechnical studies and foundationdesigns

● Seismic survey

● Hazard and safety analysis

● Environmental impact assessment andenvironmental management

● Preparation of TEFR

(b) Testing and analysis

Areas

● Quality assessment of water, food products,edible oils and spices

● Pesticides, fertilizer and soil

● Building materials, cement, iron & steeland timbers

● Oil & Petroleum products, coals andminerals

● Gems and stones

● Fibre, paper, boards and garments

Contact

Director, CSIR-North East Institute of Science& Technology, Jorhat- 785006 (Assam) Phone :(0376) 2370012, 2370086, Fax : 0376-2370011E-mail : [email protected]./[email protected],Websites : www.rrljorhat.res.in, www.neist.res.in


378

Conferences / Meetings / Symposia / Seminars

3rd International Conference on Reliability, Infocom Technologies and Optimization(ICRITO 2014), October 8-10, 2014, Amity University Uttar Pradesh.

Topics :

Quality and Reliability

● Quality Assurance

● Reliable and secure communications

● Software Reliability and Testing

● Infocom Systems Reliability

● Power Systems Reliability

● Reliability and Maintenance Models

● Fault Tolerance in Hardware and Softwaresystems

Mathematical Modelling and Optimization

● Soft computing

● Financial Optimization

● Inventory Management

● Fuzzy Optimization

● Knowledge Management

● Supply chain management

● Stochastic Petrinets

Infocom Technology (IT)

● Free and Open source software

● Natural language processing

● Cloud computing

● Computer Architecture and EmbeddedSystems

● Artificial Intelligence and Experts Systems

● Data Mining and Data warehousing

● Mobile Adhoc Networks

● Network Technologies

● Convergence Technologies

● Human-Computer Interface

● Information and Network Security

● Mobile Computing

● Software Engineering

● Advances on Computing Mechanisms

● Software and Web Engineering

● ICT Act and Cyber Laws

● Rural Applications of IT

● E-Governance

Safety and risk analysis

● Risk Analysis

● Infrastructure Systems Safety and Risk

● Probabilistic Fracture Mechanism and Fatigue Analysis

● Probabilistic Safety Assessment

Contact : Prof. Sunil Kumar Khatri, General Chair, ICRITO’2014, Amity Institute of InformationTechnology, 1-1, 3rd Floor, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector -125, Noida-201313, IndiaMobile : +91-8130977443 , +91-9910206349, Tel : +91-0120-4392277/76, E-mail : [email protected]


379

5th International Conference on Stem Cells and Cancer (ICSCC-2014) : Proliferation,Differentiation and Apoptosis, 8-10 November 2014, New Delhi.

● Embryonic Stem Cells

● Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

● Mesenchymal and Cardiac Stem Cells

● Hematopoietic and chord blood stem cells

● Neural stem cells

● Other stem cells

● Cancer stem cells

● Proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis ofstem cells

● Proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis ofcancer cells

● Clinical research and trials in stem cells andcancer

● Hematopoietic malignancies

● Myeloid leukemias

● Lymphoid leukemias

● Breast cancer

● Oral, head and neck cancer

● Cervical cancer

● Lung cancer

● Other cancers

● Cancer genomics and proteomics

● Cancer diagnostics and biomarkers

● Cancer therapeutics

● Immune systems in stem cells and cancer

● Nanotechnology applications in stem cellsand cancer

● Ethical issues in stem cells and cancerresearch

● Molecular Biology of stem cells

● Molecular biology of cancer cells

● Molecular medicines for cancers

● Mathematical modeling and bioinformaticsin stem cells and cancer

● Other topics related to stem cells and cancer

Contact : Prof. Dr. Sheo Mohan Singh, Director, ICSCCB, A-304, Orange Province, Vishal Nagar, Pimple

Nilakh, Pune - 411027, India. Tel : + 91-9545089202,

Email : [email protected]


380

S & T ACROSS THE WORLD

OLDEST STAR PROVIDES HINTS ABOUTFIRST SUPERNOVAS

Studying one of the oldest known stars in theuniverse has given astronomers a closer look atwhat happened in the universe more than 13.7billion years ago.

Named SMSS J031300.362670839.3, the starsits 6,000 light-years from Earth toward the outskirtsof the Milky Way and lacks iron. Scientists thoughtthat the high-energy explosions, or supernovas, ofthe universe’s first stars would have seeded galaxieswith this heavy element. But the old star’s chemicalcomposition and that of four others suggest that theexplosions of the first stars were much lower inenergy than those of giant stars today.

Any iron formed in those earliest explosionsprobably fell into the resulting black hole. Thatcould explain why old, second generation starssuch as SMSS J031300.362670839.3 have verysmall traces of iron, and it suggests that low-energysupernovas were more common in the early universethan originally thought, astronomers report February9 in Nature.

NEARLY 1-MILLION-YEAR-OLD EURO-PEAN FOOTPRINTS FOUND

Footprints impressed into hardened sedimentalong England’s southeastern coast belonged tohuman ancestors that lived at least 780,000 yearsago.

Footprints of ancient human ancestors at a StoneAge site on England’s southeastern coast emergedbriefly only to be eroded away by the sea. At leastfive individuals created the prints between 1 millionand 780,000 years ago, say archaeologist NickAshton of the British Museum in London and hiscolleagues.

The footprints were discovered and photographedin May 2013, the researchers report February 7 inPLOS ONE. A low tide at England’s Happisburghsite revealed that heavy seas had worn away layersof hardened silt, exposing a stretch of footprint-covered sediment.

Many prints contained impressions of the archand heel. One print displayed toe marks. Lengthsand widths of the ancient footprints correspondedto individuals who stood between 3 and 5.7 feettall, suggesting that adults and youngsters strolledtogether. The foot sizes resemble those of possibleNeandertal ancestors whose fossils, previously foundin northern Spain, date to at least 800,000 yearsago.

A waterlogged hominid footprint, shown abovea camera’s lens cover, emerged with dozens ofothers at an ancient coastal site in England as aresult of erosion caused by strong waves.

Only 3.6-million-year-old hominid footprints inTanzania and 1.5-million-year-old footprints inKenya are older than the Happisburgh discovery.

REWRITING THE TEXT BOOKS :SCIENTISTS CRACK OPEN ‘BLACK BOX’

OF DEVELOPMENT

We know much about how embryos develop,but one key stage — implantation — has remaineda mystery. Now, scientists from Cambridge havediscovered a way to study and film this ‘black box’of development. Their results — which will lead tothe rewriting of biology text books worldwide —are published in the journal Cell. Embryodevelopment in mammals occurs in two phases.During the first phase, pre-implantation, the embryois a small, free-floating ball of cells called ablastocyst. In the second, post-implantation, phasethe blastocyst embeds itself in the mother’s uterus.

While blastocysts can be grown and studiedoutside the body, the same has not been true fromimplantation. And because embryos are so closely


381

connected to their mothers, implantation has alsobeen difficult to study in the womb.

According to study author Professor MagdalenaZernicka-Goetz of the University of Cambridge:“We know a lot about pre-implantation, but whathappens after implantation — and particularly themoment of implantation — is an enigma.”

Scientists are interested in studying implantationbecause the embryo undergoes huge changes insuch a short space of time.

“During these two days, it goes from a relativelysimple ball to a much larger, more complex cup-like structure, but exactly how that happens was amystery — a black box of development. That iswhy we needed to develop a method that wouldallow us to culture and study embryos duringimplantation,” she explained.

Working with mouse cells, Professor Zernicka-Goetz and her colleague Dr Ivan Bedzhov succeededin creating the right conditions outside the womb tostudy the implantation process.

To be able to support development, they createda system comprising a gel and medium that, as wellas having the right chemical and biologicalproperties, was of similar elasticity to uterine tissue.Crucially, this gel was transparent to optical light,

allowing then to film the embryo duringimplantation.

This new method revealed that on its way fromball to cup, the blastocyst becomes a ‘rosette’ ofwedge-shaped cells, a structure never before seenby scientists.

“It’s a beautiful structure. This rosette is what amouse looks like on the 4th day of its life, andmost likely what we look like on the 7th day ofours, and it’s fascinating how beautiful we are then,and how these small cells organise so perfectly toallow us to develop.”

As well as answering a fundamental question indevelopmental biology, the new method will allowscientists to study embryo growth and developmentat implantation for the first time, which could helpimprove the success of IVF, and extend ourknowledge of stem cells, which could advance theiruse in regenerative medicine.

The findings also mean developmental biologytext books will need rewriting. “The text booksmake an educated guess of what happened duringthis part of development, but we now know thatwhat I learned and what I teach my students aboutthis was totally wrong,” said Professor Zernicka-Goetz.

Documents

Everyman’s Science Vol. XLVIII No. 5, Dec ’13 — EVERYMAN’S Jan … · 2016. 12. 2. · Everyman’s Science Vol. XLVIII No. 5, Dec ’13 — Jan ’14 320 applications of