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LEC course

C 1

Language Units:

Phonemes, morphemes, words, clauses, sentences, paragraph, words, phrases, text.

Morphology:

Variable - takes on several forms

internal forms of the parts of speech: Invariable -article, preposition,con!unction, inter!ection

Variable parts of speech: change their forms in order to convey grammatical information

a. Lexical morphologyb. "nflectional morphology #study of paradigmatic relations, word paradigm$

Paradigm a word has to %e varia%le to have paradigm

&ords may assume in various contexts.

'all, caller, call ing, calls

(yncretic form : - Lexical morphemes

)rammatical morphemes

Types of morphemes:

*ree vs. %ound #ex.+s in calls$

Lexical #derivational$ vs. )rammatical #inflectional$

xercises:

. likelihood / 0 morphemes- lexical1. faithfulness- 0 morph., lexical0. su%consciousness -2 morph., lexical2. shamelessly- 0 morph., lexical3. rewrites- 0 morph., grammatical4. writings / 0 morph., )ramm.

5 the presence of 6s+ in 7writings proves that 6-ing+ is a lexical morpheme

1

"n order to deliver

grammatical information.

&e derive new words

from the same %ase.

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5 the grammatical morpheme is always last and only appears once in a word # there can beonly one inflectional morpheme in a word , always in final position $

5 Lexical and grammatical morphemes can coexist

5 grammatical morphemes come last %ecause they do not affect the meaning of the word

(yncretism vs. suppletion

(uppletion can %e: a$ Partial / ex. go 5 gone #the sound changes$

%$ 8otal / ex. go 5 went

Types of inflection:

a. external: called, known %. internal: f oot- f eet, met-meetc. 9ero # o $: cut- cut, sheep- sheepd. suppletion: %oy-girle. word order #case relation$

Abbreviations:

V %ase, can %e a paradigm too ex play

Vs 0rd person singular plays

Ved 1 past played

Ved ! past participle played

Vin" present participle playin"

#i indirect ob$ect

#d direct ob$ect

#p prepositional ob$ect

Cs sub$ect complement

Co ob$ect complement

AdvC adverbial complementation

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C !

Lexical classes:

pen vs. close

#pen: Closed:

a verbb ad$ectivec adverbd inter$ectione noun

%rammatical cate"ories: aspect& case& comparison& "ender& mood& number& tense&person& voice

'ynthetic( analytical mar)ers* +

, ;isylla%ic ad!ectives can follow %oth synthetic and analytical markers

ex. 8he )enitive with 6s+ and with 6of+, one is the uxiliaries: 'omplementation:

8ense, modality, aspect, voice i? d? p, 'o?'s, >dv' #ver% phrase +@P+ad!uncts of manner?space? time$

5 there is a limit of - auxiliaries that can %e used in a @P

ex. AheB may have %een given the %ooks given =ead

3

8hey areindefina%lyrenewa%le.

a articleb numeralsc pronound con$unctione preposition

>uxiliaries d

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5there can %e noun phrases inside a @P

5 a @P can %e made up of other phrases or even higher units, like clauses.

5 in an auxiliary string the first one is called 6operator+

8he finite ?non-finite distinction> ver% form which conveys informationcf. (ings, sang, singing, to sing(imple #head only$ ? complex #more than !ust a head$ @Ps

=

'omplex finite @Ps

8ype > # modal? periphrastic$: >ux mod?per C @ ex. can take8ype D # perfective$: >ux have C @ed1 ex. has taken8ype ' #progressive$: >ux %e C @ing ex. is taking8ype ; #passive $: >ux %e C @ed1 ex. was taken

cf.

. may %ite 5>1. is %iting 5'0. may %e %iting 5>C'2. may %e %itten5 >C;3. has %een %itten5 DC;4. have %een %iting 5DC'E. has %een %eing %itten 5DC'C;F. would have %een %uilt 5>CDC;G. doesn+t come 5>H. must have seen 5>CD. must have %een seen 5>CDC;1. will %e writing 5>C'0. could have %een %eing %uilt 5>CDC'C;

=

. @intrans ex. "t has rained.? (he cried.? Iohn was snoring.1. @ingC' ( #'s su%!ect copulate$ ex. Mary is clever.? =e %ecame a cop.? 8hey were in

love.0. @M < 8J>

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3. @'PLK C dC 'o ex. " painted the wall white. ? 8hey %elieved Iohn innocent. #'o$

5the cause and result:

" painted the wall, so it was white.

5 chain relationship %etween @ C dC'o

4. @8J>dv' ex. " put my head on his shoulders.E. @"dv' ex. " leaned against the wall.? 8he %ox weights H kg.

Classification of verbs

5it is the most important part of speech

'riteria of classification:

. Lexical morphology1. *orm0. Predication2. 8ransitivity3. *unction

1 Lexical morpholo"y:a. ;erivation:

'lass preserving: misspell, cooperate, destruct

'lass changing: empower, sociali9e, glorify,ver%ali9e.

5denominal- the %ase in part of the noun class

5dead!ectival- the %ase is part of the ad!ective class

5derivation allows us to create a%stract words and is important for word economy

%. 'omposition: #to$ speedwalk, #to$ snow%all, 5 the !oining of 1 free morphemesc. 'onversation: #to$ father, #to$ %rake, #to$ email, #to$ empty

5 morpheme: 8he morphology of nglish is simplified, so words have simplified paradigms, this way a word doesn+t need changes.

d. Dack formation: donate donation, negate, %urgle, mutate, reminisce, dominate! .orm

5 Morphological makeup>. (imple: get, know, holdD. 'ompound: lip-read, moonlight'. 'omplex? Phrasal ver%s: A@ C particleB;. @er%al phrases: have %reakfast, %e in a hurry, make friends

5the noun, noun phrase, prep. have the value/ 0redication :

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a complete predication : intransitive ver%s, reflexive ver%s #they can make a predicate on their own$

b incomplete predication : auxiliaries, transitive ver%s, ver%s with o%ligatory preposition or other o%ligatory elements #they can+t form a predicate on their own$

c double predication: A@ C cognate o%!ectB: live a happy life, walk a %risk walk ,i nitial intransitive ver%s, can %e transitive with the co"nate ob$ect 5similar formally or semantically, a semantic plus, they resem%le in form and meaning, the link can only %e semantic

- Transitivity:$ "ntransitive: @

1$ 8ransitive:a. Monotransitive: @C d

%. ;itransitive: @C iC dc. 'omplex transitive: @C dC 'o2 .unction:

lexical(main auxiliaries: primary and modal 'emi3auxiliaries: to have to, to have got to, to %e willing to, to %e eager to lin)in"(copular catenative: to seem to be "one

5they need other ver%s to complete

The 4orpholo"y of Lexical Verbs

Jegular vs. "rregular

Jegular: @, @-s, @-ing, @-ed #@-ed @-ed1$

"rregular: @, @-s, @-ing, @-ed , @-ed1

@er% inflections in the old code:

1) V3s: (i5( after %ases ending in C?- voice si%ilants: catches (5( after %ases ending in other voiced sounds: hugs (s( after %ases ending in other voiceless sounds: comes! V3ed

(id( after %ases ending in alveolar stops: evaluated, planted (d( after %ases ending in voiced sounds: earned, learned (t( after %ases ending in voiceless sounds: slept, stopped

6ases in true written code:

- %ermination 7V3in"& V3ed : the find vowel in the %ase is short, stressed, spilt in a

simple vowel: %eg?%egging? %egged, admit, permit, refer, control, prefer, run?running,sit?sitting, %egin?%eginning

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- Treatment of 8y9: worry- worries, worried? die-dying? lie-lying- etection of find silent ;e 7V3in"& V3ed : %ehave, shave, agree-agreeing-agreed, dye,

to tiptoe- Addition of ;e: catch- catches, fish, clash, %ox

C -

'even classes& accordin" to three criteria

5@-ed - @-ed1 identity

5 (uffixation #learnt, taken$

5 @owel identity in the main forms #put?put?put$

'lass #%urn$: learn, smell, spell, spill, spoil, %uild, have, lend, make, send, spend 'lass 1 #%ring$: deal, cheep, feel, %uy, sleep, sell, teach 'lass 0 #cut$: hit, cost, cast, let, split, shut 'lass 2 #meet$: feed, hold, cling, stick, find, get, fight 'lass 3 #mow$: mow-mowed- mown- mowed, saw, sew, son, show, hew 'lass 4 #know$: %reak, choose, speak, stud, %ear, swear, %ite, hide, forget, grown,

thrown, shake, take, give, dream, fall 'lass E #swim$: %egin, sing, sink, shrink, go, run, spring, stink

The verb cate"ories

Tense& aspect& voice& mood& number& person

8ime vs. 8enseN

5 8ense: grammaticali9ed or lexicali9edN

it has %ecome %asically grammaticali9ed %ut its particular lexicali9ed

5tense: 1 category of the ver% or a category of the sentenceN

Tense as a cate"ory of the verb

tense: a deictic category

a%solute vs. relative #they are related?dependent on an a%solute tense$

ex. &hen walking in the park, " often meet her.

&hen walking in the park, " often met her.

8hey do not provide temporary information directly

0resent tense 7V3Vs

A Unrestricted use #P8 Apresent tenseB PaCPrC*$

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%eneric: )old is more valua%le than silver.? Iohn speaks 'hinese. Co"nitive truth: 8wo and two is four. ? &ater %oils at HH H'. 'entential statements: 8he %est defense is the attack.? 'rime doesn+t pay.

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>uxiliary ver% construction:

(hall?&illC @ / neutral, colorless future

&ill- x #in con!unction with st, 1 nd, 0 rd persons

su%!ucteN-the foretelling future

De going toC @ #futurity- intent$

future of present intention: 8hey are going to get married.? " am going to get mydriver+s license.

future of present cause: "t+s going to rain.? (he+s going to have a %a%y.

0resent tense

- as a synthetic constraint, in conditional and temporal sentences.- it reRuires the presence in the same context of a future time adver%ial- it is associated with the idea of immuta%ility of the events in reference to : &hat time

is the foot%all matchN? &hen is the meetingN

0resent pro"ressive

- imminent arrangement, plan or program- it reRuires the presence of a future time adver%ial

Present Present Progressive

- more o%!ective, impersonal

" start work tomorrow." leave for Paris next week.

- arrangement, programProgramming:

" am starting work tomorrow." am leaving for Paris next week.

>uxiliary ver% construction C progressive

- "ndicates that a future even will %e in progress at a certain future moment explicitly

stated in the context.- the use of this pattern precludes the interpretation of volition, insistence, associatedwith the use of will #shall$Q the going to C ver%.

- pen endedness C future comment #development$ : "+ll %e seeing Iohn tonight.- higher degree of - De a%out to C @.- %e a%out toC ingressive: (he is a%out to speak.- %e to arrangement? comment: 8hey are to marry soon.

The future in the past

auxiliary ver% construction:o %e going to C ver%

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o past progressiveo %e a%out to? %e to C ver%

Time

(imultaneity

(eRuentiality

primitive tenses

(8 the time at which the sentence is written-spoken

J8 the time axis #past?present?future$ indicated %y the sentence #@. tense and?or timeadver%ial$

8 moment in the time axis at which the event?state occurs.

tense of the sentence- different patterning of (8, J8, 8 to denote relations of seR.and?or sim

a sentence to %e temporarily specific must include a J8 if the J8N is not there.

e.g.

. Iohn went to see the play last week. >8J #J8S(8Q 8 J8$1. 8hey are having lunch. >8J #J8 (8Q 8 J8$0. 8hey have already had lunch. >8J #J8 (8Q 8SJ8$2. 8hey had already had lunch when " got home. >8J #J8S(8Q 8SJ8$3. " will %e meeting them at the station tomorrow. >8J #J85(8Q 8 J8$4. " knew we would meet again soon. >8J #J8S(8Q 85J8$E. " will have written the letter %y the time you come %ack. >8J #J85(8Q 8SJ8$F. =as he started work yetN >8J #J8 (8Q 8SJ8$G. 8hey are eating a large cake. >8J #J8 (8Q 8 J8$H. " have never seen her %efore. >8J #J8 (8Q 8SJ8$. 8he guests left when " got home. >8J #J8S(8Q 8 J8$1. 8he guests had left %y the time " got home. >8J #J8S(8Q 8SJ8$0. Please call me as soon as you get there. >8J #J85(8Q 8 J8$

2. Dy the time we stop, we will have driven 1HH miles. >8J #J85(8Q 8SJ8$3. " have %een living in this house for 1H years now. >8J #J8 (8Q 8SJ8$

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8ense of the sentence # @P timeadver%ial$

8ime relations:

(8 #speech time$

J8 #reference time$

8 #event time$

8ense of the @ # finite @P$

8ime relations:

S PP

PP

5PP

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4. 8he guests will have left %y the time " got home. >8J #J85(8Q 8SJ8$

C ?

Aspect

>spect and >ktionsart

aspect a grammatical category which stands for the different way of writing theinternal temporal constituency of a situation

aspect a matter of the speakers viewpoint or perspective on the situation such aswhether the situation is viewed as completed, %eginning, ongoing, ending or repeating.

>ktionsart inherent aspectual properties of ver%s organi9ed as sets of %inaryoppositions

aktionsart an indication of the intrinsec temporal Rualities of a situation, covering

such possi%ilities as stative vs. dynamicQ punctual vs. durativeQ continuous vs. iterative

phrase? stage meaning formsimminence anteriority with respect to

the event proper %e a%out to

%e toingressive proximity to the event to %e a%out to

%e in the point of inceptive %eginning of the event inchantive ver%s: start,

%egin, take up progressive iterative development #progression$

repetition of eventskeep on, go on, @P type '

terminal completion? final stage of events

end, finish, stop, cease, Ruit,@P type D

.g.

Iohn was reading a %ook. Iohn was knocking on the door. " read a %ook last night. Iohn was knocking on the door.

Perfective vs. "mperfective situations #perfectum?imperfectum$

Types of aspect:

. Perfect1. Progressive0. =a%itual2. Prospective

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e.g.

Iohn used to smoke a pack of cigarettes a day. Iohn would smoke a pack of cigarettes a day.

0rospective:

7Perfect is said to %e retroactive: it esta%lishes a relationship %etween an event? state at thetime and an event which has taken place at an earlier time. (imilarly, the PJ (P '8"@connects present and future.

Typical expressions of prospective meanin":

6e about to 6e on the point of

"ndicative meaning: %oth descri%e the su%!ect+s present state relative to the future event.

De going to:

no implication of imminent futurityQ unlike expressions of futurity it has no straight forwardtime reference

e.g.

Dill will throw himself off the cliffs.

Dill is going to throw himself off the cliffs.

0ro"ressive:

3? 4 th centuryQ A%eC prep. C

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previous case present effect

" have lost my pen. " lost my pen three minutes ago.

Iohn has %roken his leg. Iohn %roke his leg yesterday.

e.g.

(he has %een an invalid all her life. (he still is

(he was an invalid all her life. (he is dead.

Princeton has %een visited %y instein. 5 instein visited Princeton.

Types of perfect:

1 0erfect of result : the present state referred to as the result of some past event.a. Iohn has arrived.

%. " have fixed the 8@.c. (he+s had a shower.d. Dill has gone to >merica.

! Experiential perfect: indicates that a given situation has held at least once duringsome time in the past leading up to the present.

a. Dill has %een to >merica. %. =ave you heard her singN

/ 0erfect of persistent situation: refers to a situation which has started in the past %utcontinues into the present

a. 8hey have %een married for years. %. (he has %een waiting here for hours.c. " have studied nglish for years.d. " have %een studying nglish for ten years.

- 0erfect of recent past: used when the present relevance of the past situation referredto is a simply one of temporal closeness #!ust, recently, already $

a. " have !ust met Iohn. %. (he has already had a %a%y.

C @

A TI#>'ABT

e.g.

ver since we %ought the car, we+ve %een traveling a%road every day.

ver since we+ve owned the car, we+ve %een traveling a%road every day.

The Vender3 enny aspectual classification

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Verbs with internal temporal constituency:

Activity V0 #run, walk, drive a car $ Accomplishments V0 7"row up, paint a picture, make a speech, %uy, draw a circle,

run a mile $

Verbs with no internal temporal constituency:

Achievements V0 7reco"ni5e , reach, lose, find, die $ 'tate V0 7 own, have, posses & believe, wish, know, trust

Comrie9s classification of a)tionsart:

V'

V'

Vs

e "

Iohn is singing. 5 >telic

Iohn is making a chair. 58elic

8hey clim%ed the mountain. 58elic

8hey reached the summit. 5atelic

Voice types of voice in nglish voice as a ver%? sentence category

14

0unctual

Tick, !ump, knock, arrive,reach, sit down

urative

Jead, write, walk, sleep,cook, point, drive, run

'tative

Tnow, %elieve, like,understand, own, %elong

situations characteri9ed %ylack of effort? made up of

ynamic

Pay, run, walk, rest

situations characteri9ed %yeffort? internal structure

Telic

;ie, clim%, %uy, draw acircle, eat an apple

#Process in%uilt terminal point$

Atelic

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voice constraints actional vs. statal passives Ruasi-passives

Voice

grammatical category which makes it possi%le to view a situation in two ways, withoutchange in the facts reported:

e.g.

Iohn %eat Iack. Iack was %eaten %y Iohn.

*ocus on the actor focus on the patient

5 "n nglish there are two types of voice: an active voice which is unmarked and a passivevoice, which has morphosyntactic reali9ation.

> ver% or a sentence categoryN

The passive transformation involves:

the use of particular complex finite @P #type ;$ the change of word order # %ecomes ( position$

the addition of an optimal constituent #an agentive prepositional phrase$The passive auxiliary: 6E 7formal

The closest substitute: %ET 7less formal& preferred in imperatives and a"entlessconstructions

used in contexts where the su%!ect is not regarded as a purely possessive participant, onthe contrary, some measures of responsi%ility, intention or involvement to the su%!ect.

e.g.

)et lost ;on+t get run over ur flat is getting painted. "+m getting vaccinated tomorrow. Iohn got mugged last night. 8hey almost got themselves killed in a car accident.

5 as a rule& transitive verbs can occur in both active and passive constructions

E E0TI#>':

Passive constraints:

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(emantic constraints:

passive trends to %e associated with the informational function of the language:

it is felt as more o%!ective, impersonal and therefore preferred in scientific discourse.

>ctional @s. (tatal Passive:

8he window was %roken.

8he house was sold.

>ux D C @-ed1 @' P C 's #ad!ectival$

test: active counterpart use of another @ ' P ? use of a 7pure ad!ectivemodifications %y adver%ials

'ause ffect

;ynamic vs. (tatic descriptions

Duasi passive constructions:

structures that are passive in meaning rather than form

5'onstructions including active ver%s with passive value:

- 8he %ooks sold Ruickly.- 8he potatoes don+t peel easily.- 8he medicine tasted %itter.- 8his %ed sleeps true people.

5)erund forms with passive meaning:

=is car wants washing.

5 'onstructions with factitive? causative ver%s:

" had my flat painted.

5'onstructions with prepositions which can introduce Ruasi-agents:

- &e are interested in literature.- =e is fascinated with her.- " am worried a%out Iane+s health.

C

4##

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grammatical category which stands for the linguistic means of suppletion used to refer to asituation as factual or non-factual, real or un-real, assertive or non-assertive

in nglish mood- related distinctions rest upon the *"8= J? =>; D 88 J

18

"

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- e.g. "f this were true, we would have to change our plans.? " wish we met moreoften.? "+d rather they left now.

Time reference of sub$unctive

defective time reference: past and present

.g. &e wish we had met you %efore that. ? "+d rather they left now.

'ub$unctive eHuivalent:

1 'hould infinitive: "t is told that he should resign.? 8here was a suggestion that Iohnshould %e fired.?

! Fputative shouldG in I. clauses& exclamation or rhetorical Huestions: "f theyshould arrive sooner, tell them to wait.? =ow should " knowN? 8hat you should darecontradict me

/ ould3 infinitive: it stands as a more colloRuial variant of the su%!unctive after &"(=: " wish you would %ehave.5 " wish you %ehaved.? " wish you would see me. 5&ould have seen me.

- 4ay * infinitive: it is an alternative to formulate the su%!unctive: Long live our friendship.? May our friendship live long.

- in such clauses it can express wish& purpose& comparison: May you never set foot in this house again ? "t looks as it may rain.

- it can also recur in con$unction with verbs or expressions denotin" feelin"or after impersonal constructions with introductory IT: "+m afraid " mightget lost.? " hope you may recover soon.

2 4i"ht* Infinitive- it is a more tentative variant of 4ay* Infinitive

? Infinitive constructions:- 8here was a suggestion to fire Iohn.- &e+ll hold hands not to get lost.

C J

I40EBATIVE

etymologically it performs a directive function, %ut the illocutionary force of the imperativegoes %eyond reRuests and commands- warnings, invitations, prohi%ition, wishes, suggestionsand imprecations.

it displays certain features of syntactic structure, i.e. the su%!ect is optimal, thecircumstances with L 8, the non-occurrence in con!unction with modals.

'ub$ectless imperatives:

- occur in most types of directive clauses- no tense, aspect or voice distinctions, rare exceptions in: =ave done with it ? Up and

%e doing ? De seated ? De prepared ? De gone ? )et lost.

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- F.or3ToG Infinitive: "t+s time for you to go.- Absolute infinitival constructions: =e left home, never to return.

The %erund

istribution:- >spectual ver%s: start, stop, finish, %egin, cease, take up, give up, Ruit, go on, keep

on- ver%s of feeling: like, en!oy, hate, avoid- ver%s like :need, want, reRuire, deserve in Ruasi- passive constructions- impersonal constructions with introductory "8- words? expressions like 7%usy , 7near , 7feel like- ver% features: @-ing displays tense, aspect and voice contrast, the a%ility to take on d:

seeing, having seen, %eing seen, having %een seen.- noun features: a%ility to take modifiers, at sentence level, it performs functions that are

typical of

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>d!ective status: when in ad!ectival compounds: )ood-looking, heart-%reaking, for-fetched,frost-%itten

e.g. Iohn is insulting.

Co%!ect >ux D C @-ing Cintensifier # another @ link$Q @ link C's #participial ad!.$

- on the processN- on the stateN

5'onstructions with the participle:

Present participle constructions

. Accusative * 0resent 0art : " saw him coming.? " listened to Iohn talking to hisfriend.

1. %solute present part. constructions: &eather permitting, we shall go on a trip.2. Prepositional a%solute present part constructions: 8he children were playing with their

mother watching them.

Past participle construction:

. >ccusative C past participle: =e had his license suspended.? =e heard his name called.1. >%solute past part constr.: ur work done, we all went home.? 8he play finished, the

audience %urst into applause.- regret, forget, remem%er:

o " regret to say that the proposal was re!ected.o " regret saying that the proposal was re!ected.o " forgot to lock the door.? " didn+t lock the door.o " forgot locking the door.? " locked the door, %ut " forgot it.

8he infinitive particulari9es and the gerund generali9es

Auxiliary verbs

0rimary verbs(auxiliaries

4odal auxiliaries

Primary auxiliaries:

>uxiliaries

helperswituretN lexical meaningwith grammatical functionwith lexical function #7have $to %e, to have, to do

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ecessity 7deoreticM(epistemic

Oou must stay in %ed if you want to recover soon.8o %e healthy, a plant must receive a good supply of %oth sunshine and moisture.#deoriticN necessity.$

pistemic necessity: involves a !udgment? usually the speakers, as to what can %e expectedto %e the case, the speaker makes an assumption on the %asis of some prior knowledge or experience: 8here+s someone at the door. "t must %e Iohn.

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interrogative and negative contexts: 'an the %ook %e Iohn+sN? "t cannot %e Iohn+s.>lternative expressions of epistemic necessity: 8he play should? ought to %e over %ynow.? "f you can drive a truck, driving a car shouldn+t %e hard.

'cale of certainty:

There is a boo) on the des)

"t is Iohn+s."t must %e Iohn+s."t should %e Iohn+s."t may %e Iohn+s."t could %e Iohn+s."t might %e Iohn+s.

#bli"ation: 7expressin" obli"ation( lac) of obli"ation(prohibition& "oin"(as)in" forinstructions& "ivin" orders

" must go now. #o%ligation %y internal reasons, authority exercised %y the speaker$" have #got$ to go. #o%ligation is external$negative contexts: 8hey must not go. #negative o%ligation$? Must we goN

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illin"ness( unwillin"ness: &ill you do me a favorN? 8hey won+t listen to myexplanations.Insistence: 7stron" volition : "f you will go out without your overcoat, what do youexpectN? Oour father shall hear a%out this threat.

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it fits into the class of marginal modals from a formal point of view, it can occur %othas operator and with 7;o support, this explains the two spelling variations: use to?used to: =e used to smoke.? =e used not to smoke #operator in negative context$