international · (Muhammad Anisur Rahman) . ... gamani corea, mahbub ul hoq, enrique igiesias, jan meijer, marc nerfin (president), ... Resume: La lutte contre

international foundation for development alternatives

fundacion international para alternativas de desarrollo

fondation internationale pour un autre developpement

i f d a doss i e r 3 1 september/october 1982

Page - E D I T O R I A L : Un autre d6veloppement avec les femmes 2

. Alphabetisation centre les "analphabi5tes1'? (Majid Rahnema) 3

. The theory and practice of participatory action research (Muhammad Anisur Rahman)

. Participatory research, popular knowledge and power (~udd L. Hall) 31

. La dimension cultural del desarrollo (Sergio Spoerer) 4 3

. On the interaction between cultural elements, political institutions and life styles (Gunnar Adler-Karlsson)

MARKINGS

. South-South Option - The 1982 Third World lecture delivered by Julius K. Nyerere 6 3

I N T E R A C T I O N S

. The yin and yang of Asian women 72

. The WHO international code of marketing of breast-milk substitutes - A time for reevaluation (Ted Greiner) 7 7

. Launched! A movement to right wrongs with right products (IOCU) 80

. The law and the consumer (Pahang Association of Consumers) 8 2

. Ethnic diversity of mono-culturalism - The struggle for , Africa (Jimoh Omo-Fadaka) 8 3

. The Minority Rights Group 8 6

. The mysterious whistling language of the Mazateca Indians 88

. US Admiral Rickover: I would sink all my nuclear-powered ships 8 9

. Risks of unintentional war 91

M A T E R I A L S R E C E I V E D 9 3

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS 9 4

executive committee. ismaTi-sobri abdoila. ahmed ben salah, gamani corea, mahbub ul hoq, enrique igiesias, jan meijer, marc nerfin (president), justinian f rweyemamu, ignacy sochs, juan somavia, maurlce f strong, Inga thorsson

co-chairmen 1981-1982: fernondo henr~que cardoso. ernst michanek

secretariat: 2. place du marchh, ch- 1260 nyon, switzerland: telephone 41 (22) 61 6 2 8 2 ; telex 28840 Hda ch ; cable fipad, geneva

rme office: 207 via panisperna, 00184 rome; telephone 679 9622

EDITORIAL

UN AUTRE DEVELOPPEMENT AVEC LES FEMMES

Fin ju in s ' e s t t e rn 6 Dakar, sous ee t i t r e , un skrninaire organis6 par L'Asso- e i a t i o n des f e m e s a f r i ea ines pour 'La recherche SW Le developpement e t la Fondation Dag HarmarskJ'old. L' Nous repro(ILLisons ei-dessous Le message adressd par Le president de La FIPAD, emp&hk de se rendre 2 Dakar, aux organisateurs de l a rencontre, Mmie Angdlique Savan4 e t Sven Homretl.

ChSre Marie Angelique, cher Sven,

A la veille de l'ouverture d'une rencontre 3 laquelle je me re- jouissais a plus d'un titre de participer, je me trouve dans l'im- possibilite d'etre avec vous. Je le regrette d'autant plus que le seminaire de 1'AFARD et de la DHF aborde, d'une manisre que je crois juste, Ie plus critique des problSmes de notre temps.

Un autre developpement: Face a la crise qui Obranle d'une manic- re ou d'une autre toutes les soci6tes de cette planste, la seule issue est dans l'approche d'un dgveloppement authentique de, par et pour tous les Gtre humains; de, par et pour chacun et chacune de nous. Les ressources et les moyens sont a notre disposition pour satisfaire les besoins fondamentaux de chacun, individuelle- ment et socialement, besoins materiels et besoins, au sens large, politiques: 116panouissement autonome de chaque personne et de chaque groupe humain, 3 partir de sa culture et en harmonie avec la nature, est desonnais possible.

Avec les femmes: Les ordres sociaux domines par les males ont echoue. Un autre developpement, puisqu'il appelle de nouvelles structures, implique le rejet de tout mimgtisme. Imitant les hommes, les femmes ne feraient que reproduire des modcles et des structures condamnes. Au contraire, le mouvement de liberation ferninin, qui s'affinne partout et dans tous les domaines, se doit et nous doit, donnant libre cours 3 l'imagination, d'innover. Comme le Tiers Monde dans son ensemble, conune les jeunes, c o m e tous ceux qui sont alien& et exploit6s, les femmes, mais surtout les femmes,marginalis6es de tant de manieres et depuis si longtemps, representent 2 la fois la diffOrence porteuse de changement et la totalit6 garante d'un avenir meilleur. Elles sont les ac- coucheuses d'un autre developpement.

Nyon, 21 juin 1982

l/ cf. Dossier FIPAD - nos 21, 23, 25 et 29.

ALPHABET1 SAT I ON CONTRE LES "ANALPHABETES" ?

p a r Maj id Rahnema

B o l t e p o s t a l e 1 2 0 Bamako, Ma l i

O r i g i n a l : F r a n q a i s

Resume: La lutte contre ltanalphab6tisme tend 2 devenir une lutte contre les analphabstes, dont le nombre absolu, en depit de toutes les "campagnes", s'ac- croTt. Leur savoir est percu come un "non savoir" par ceux qui croient savoir. Les ressources de l'oralit6, qui demeure pourtant le moyen essentiel de la communication humaine, sont dgnigrees. I1 ne svagit certes pas de nier le r31e de l16criture, mais au contraire de la d6velopper en fonction de l'acquis et des besoins des intgressss, et avec eux. Les techniques modernes - cassettes et moyens.audio-visuels - permettent desonnais de mettre en valour leur capacit6 de "lire le monde". L'auteur illustre son propos par la description du programme d'audiothsques en cours au Mali - des centres d'informations au service des illettres, produites avec eux et dans lqur propre langue.

Abstract: The fight against illiteracy tends to become a fight against the illiterates, whose absolute numbers, in spite of all "campaigns", have increased. Their knowledge is perceived as "non-knowledge" by those who believe they know. The resources of the spoken word, which continues to be the essential means of human communication, have been denigrated. Certainly, the role of literacy should not be denied, but on the contrary should be developed on the basis of the experience and needs of those concerned, and with them. Modern techniques - cassettes and audio-visual aids - make it possible to en- hance their capacity for "reading the world1'. The author illustrates his point by a description of the "a~dioth2~ue" programme in Mali - information centres destined for the use of illiterate people, produced with them and in their own languages.

Resumen: La lucha contra el analfabetismo se esta convirtiendo en una lucha contra 10s analfabetos, cuyo niimero aumenta a pesar de todas las "campaiias". Los que creen saber, perciben el saber de 10s analfabetos como un "no saber". Los recursos de la comunicaci6n oral, que sigue siendo de todas maneras el medio esencial de la comunicaci6n humana, son denigrados. For cierto que no se trata de negar el rol de la escritura, sino a1 contrario, de desarrollarla en funci6n de la experiencia y de las necesidades de 10s interesados, y con ellos.

(Sigue en la pag. 15)

4

Majid Rahnema

ALPHABET1 SAT1 ON CONTRE LES "AMALPHABETES" '?

La l u t t e c o n t r e l 8 a n a l p h a b 6 t i s m e e s t e n p a s s e de se t r a n s f o r m e r e n une l u t t e c o n t r e l e s a n a l p h a b e t e s .

Lorsqu 'en 1975, j ' a i pousse c e c r i d ' a l a r m e au s e i n du Conse i l e x e c u t i f de l'UNESC0, il a p a r u 2 c e r t a i n s c o m e une bou tade , v o i r e une formule de p rovoca t ion . Entre- temps , l a t endance s ' e s t r e n f o r c e e . Un m i l l i a r d d ' e t r e s humains d e n i g r e s

D ' a u s s i l o i n qu 'on s ' e n souvienne, t o u s ceux q u i p a r t i c i p a i e n t 2 l a c r e a t i o n d e s c u l t u r e s a v a i e n t d r o i t au r e s p e c t . D e n o t r e temps, les "progr6s1 ' de l ' e d u c a t i o n dans l e s soci6t ies contem- p o r a i n e s o n t r e u s s i 2 r e t i r e r ce d r o i t , d ' abord aux a n a l p h a b e t e s , de p l u s e n p l u s 2 t o u s ceux que 1 ' 6 c o l e n ' a p a s touche de s a grSce. Les uns e t les a u t r e s , mais s u r t o u t l e s a n a l p h a b e t e s , o n t e t 6 e n f a i t p r i v e s de t o u t e p o s s i b i l i t 6 e f f e c t i v e de p a r t i c i - p a t i o n 2 l e u r d e v e n i r c o l l e c t i f .

Avant l ' a p p a r i t i o n de l ' e c r i t , c ' e s t - 2 - d i r e pendan t d e s m i l l i e r s d ' a n n e e s , ceux qu 'on a p p e l l e a u j o u r d ' h u i du nom p e j o r a t i f d ' a n a l p h a b e t e s e t a i e n t t o u t l e monde. MSme a p r e s , pendan t d e s s i S c l e s , c e q u i c o n f e r a i t aux gens l e d r o i t S l ' a u t o r i t e morale , au r e s p e c t , e t meme S l ' e x e r c i c e d e s p r o f e s s i o n s ou f o n c t i o n s i m p o r t a n t e s n e d e p e n d a i t n i du nombre d ' ann6es p a s s e e s S l ' e c o l e n i du n i v e a u de l e u r m a t t r i s e de l ' a l p h a b e t . Dans d e s c o n t i - n e n t s e n t i e r s , dans l e s pays p r o d u c t e u r s d e s c u l t u r e s l e s p l u s r a f f i n e e s , d e s m i l l i o n s d l S t r e s humains p a r t i c i p a i e n t e n t o u t e f i e r t e , e t dans t o u s l e s domaines du s a v o i r e t de l a p r a t i q u e , 2 l a r e p r o d u c t i o n , 2 l a t r a n s m i s s i o n e t S l a c r e a t i o n d e s c o n n a i s s a n c e s , s a n s q u ' i l l e u r f a t jamais n e c e s s a i r e de p a s s e r p a r l ' e c r i t . Aujourd 'hu i e n c o r e , p l u s d 'un m i l l i a r d d'hommes ou de femmes, ceux- l2 q u i c o n s t i t u e n t l e s r a c i n e s de t o u t developpement e t de t o u t e c u l t u r e v i v a n t e , communiquent e t se forment g r a c e aux s e u l e s r e s s o u r c e s d e l ' o r a l i t e .

Dans l e s s o c i 6 t 6 s q u i a v a i e n t d6couver t 1 1 6 c r i t u r e , i1 e t a i t i m p o r t a n t e t n e c e s s a i r e pour c e r t a i n s d ' a v o i r r e c o u r s 2 l W 6 c r i t , don t l e s avan tages s o n t e v i d e n t s . T o u t e f o i s l a t res grande m a j o r i t 6 des gens q u i n ' a v a i e n t p a s e u l a chance de l ' u t i l i s e r n ' e n 6 t a i e n t jamais pour a u t a n t d 6 n i g r e s t c u l p a b i l i s e s ou p u n i s .

Us l e s o n t a u j o u r d ' h u i , de p l u s e n p l u s , e t s o u s t o u t e s s e s formes. Q u e l s que s o i e n t les m 6 r i t e s i n t r i n s f i q u e s e t l e s c a p a c i t 6 s p e r s o n n e l l e s d ' u n "analphabfite" , il s u f f i t q u ' i l s o i t c o n s i d e r 6 c o m e t e l pour que t o u t e s l e s p o r t e s l u i s o i e n t ferm6es.

Toujours p l u s d ' i n j u s t i c e e t de d i s p a r i t e s

Lorsque l e s s o c i 6 t 6 s i n d u s t r i e l l e s m i r e n t en p l a c e l e u r s premi- e r e s " u s i n e s de n o r m a l i s a t i o n " e t de "progrfis s o c i a l " , don t 1 ' 6 c o l e , e l l e s l e s a v a i e n t j u s t i f i 6 e s notamment pour c o r r i g e r l e s i n g q a l i t e s h e r i t e e s du passe . En que lques g e n 6 r a t i o n s , l ' e c o l e r e u s s i t , grSce aux e l i m i n a t i o n s e t aux "chances" e t o r i e n t a t i o n s q u ' e l l e a r r i v a i t S donner 2 s e s heureux c l i e n t s , S a c c e n t u e r d e s i n e g a l i t e s e t 2 e n p r o d u i r e de n o u v e l l e s .

A t i t r e d 'exemple , dans l a p l u p a r t des pays du T i e r s Monde, l e s 6 c o l e s c o n t i n u e n t d ' e t r e ferm6es 5 prfis de 40% de l e u r s popula- t i o n s . De ceux q u i e n t r a v e r s e n t I e s e u i l , p l u s de l a m o i t i e n ' a r r i v e jamais 2 l a f i n du p r i m a i r e . Vingt pour c e n t d ' e n t r e eux seulement f i n i s s e n t I e t ronqon du s e c o n d a i r e . S e u l un pour c e n t - excep t ionne l l ement q u a t r e - d e s 616ves q u i o n t 6 t e admis 5 1 ' 6 c o l e a r r i v e n t S gagner l e u r dipli5me u n i v e r s i t a i r e , document q u i r e p r e s e n t s , en f a i t , dans l a p l u p a r t d e s c a s , l e s e u l passe- p o r t S l a r e s p e c t a b i l i t e s o c i a l e e t aux f o n c t i o n s economiquement i n t e r e s s a n t e s .

D ' a u t r e p a r t , t o u s l e s " e x c l u s " d e s sys t smes s c o l a i r e s appar- t i e n n e n t , p resque p a r t o u t , aux groupes humains l e s p l u s a p p a u v r i s . D6j2 les 40% q u i n ' o n t jamais a c c e s S 1 ' 6 c o l e a p p a r t i e n n e n t 2 c e t t e d e r n i e r e c a t e g o r i c . 'Ce s o n t l e s desavan- t a g e s de f o r t u n e e t de r a n g s o c i a l q u i c o n s t i t u e n t p a r l a s u i t e , les r a i s o n s p r i n c i p a l e s pour l e s q u e l l e s l e s m E m e s d e f a v o r i s e s s o n t r e j e t 6 s g radue l l ement p a r 1 ' 6 c o l e .

La p remiere grande campagne d ' a l p h a b e t i s a t i o n d a t e de l a Revolu t ion d ' o c t o b r e . Comme d ' a u t r e s q u i l a s u i v i r e n t , e l l e r e p r g s e n t a pour l e s uns e t pour les a u t r e s l a f o i dans d e s lendemains nouveaux, d e s lendemains d ' e s p o i r e t de s o l i d a r i t 6 q u i a l l a i e n t d e b a r r a s s e r l a p lanf i te de t o u s les v e s t i g e s d ' i n - j u s t i c e ou de d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . P l u s de s o i x a n t e ans a p r e s , l e b i l a n d e s campagnes d ' a l p h a b e t i s a t i o n e s t l o i n d ' a v o i r p o r t 6 l a promesse des f l e u r s : dans l a p l u p a r t d e s c a s , c e s de rn i f i r es n ' o n t a b o u t i q u ' S d e s s u c c e s r e l a t i f s , l e nombre des analpha- b e t e s a y a n t augment6 en c h i f f r e s a b s o l u s . Mais 1 2 , m@me, oil e l l e s o n t r e u s s i S a t t e i n d r e l e u r s o b j e c t i f s , e l l e s o n t e u l i e u dans un c o n t e x t s g e n e r a l t e l q u ' e l l e s o n t e u l e u r p r o p r e p a r t i n d e n i a b l e dans l ' a g g r a v a t i o n d e s i n 6 g a l i t e s socio-economiques e t c u l t u r e l l e s au d e t r i m e n t des a n a l p h a b s t e s .

Execu te r un a n a l p h a b e t e i n v e t e r e pour s e r v i r d 'exemple :

Ayant souven t e t 6 concues p a r l e s p r i v i l e g i e s de l ' e c r i t , c e s campaqnes f u r e n t souven t marquees p a r un e t a t d ' e s p r i t de " c r o i s 6 " don t on mesure seulement a u j o u r d ' h u i t o u t e l a g r a v i t e . I1 s ' a g i s s a i t pour l e u r s promoteurs d ' u n e c r o i s a d e de c a r a c t e r e q u a s i manicheen e t redempteur. D'oii, dans c e s campagnes, c e s r e f e r e n c e s c o n s t a n t e s 2 l a "honte" que c o n s t i t u e l ' a n a l p h a b e - t i s m e , au "f16aut ' 2 e n r a y e r , a u " d e f i " que c e "mal" pose Fi l a consc ience u n i v e r s e l l e . On a v a i t p a r t o u t l ' i m p r e s s i o n q u ' i l s ' a g i s s a i t l5 d 'une n o u v e l l e miss ion c i v i l i s a t r i c e , c e t t e f o i s engages p a r d e s "bons c o l o n s " d ' u n t y p e nouveau : une o p e r a t i o n de c h a r i t 6 devan t p resque f o r c e r l a d i g n i t 6 Fi l a categoric i n f e r i e u r e de l a p o p u l a t i o n q u i v i v a i t dans l a "honte" de 1 1 0 r a l i t t 5 .

L ' a b e r r a t i o n que represents c e t e t a t d ' e s p r i t p e u t S t r e i l l u s - t r e e p a r un exemple de c a r a c t e r e anecdo t ique e t c a r i c a t u r a l don t j ' a i 6 t e pe r sonne l l ement t6moin. Dans un grand p a y s , tapageuse- ment l a n c e dans une campagne n a t i o n a l e d ' a l p h a b & t i s a t i o n , un m i n i s t r e de l ' e d u c a t i o n n a t i o n a l e , p a r a i l l e u r s un p r o f e s s e u r p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t r e s p e c t 6 pour son e r u d i t i o n e t son a t t achement 2 l a c u l t u r e de son pays , n ' h e s i t a p a s , a u c o u r s d 'une r e u n i o n du Comite n a t i o n a l d ' a l p h a b e t i s a t i o n don t il a v a i t l a charge , 2 p r o p o s e r une s o l u t i o n " e f f i c a c e , r a p i d e e t r a d i c a l s " pour l ' e r a d i c a t i o n d e f i n i t i v e du " f l e a u " : s e s a i s i r du p remier a d u l t e q u i p e r s i s t e r a i t dans son Â¡ta d ' a n a l p h a b 6 t e nonobs tan t t o u t e s l e s chances e t les r e s s o u r c e s q u i l u i s e r a i e n t o f f e r t e s p a r l a campagne e t , 5 t i t r e d 'exemple , t o u t simplement l ' e x e c u t e r pour s e r v i r de l e c o n aux a u t r e s :

Ce m i n i s t r e e x p r i m a i t p e u t - S t r e avec p l u s de p a s s i o n e t de f r a n c h i s e l a n a t u r e cachee de b i e n d e s i d e o l o g i e s q u i o n t , h 6 l a s , longtemps sous- tendu l e s campagnes d ' a l p h a b e t i s a t i o n . Marquees p a r l a meconnaissance profonde que p o r t e n t c e r t a i - n s e g a r e s d e s c u l t u r e s e c r i t e s Fi l ' e n d r o i t d e s r i c h e s s e s insoupyonnees de l ' o r a l i t e , c e s i d e o l o g i e s o n t a i n s i lonqtemps v6hiculGr au- d e l 2 des d i s c o u r s humanisants de t o u t e s s o r t e s , l e mepr i s malad i f e t souven t i n c o n s c i e n t q u ' a r b o r e n t l e s p r i v i l e g i e s de l ' e c r i t pour l e s c u l t u r e s o r a l e s .

I1 e s t pa radoxa l q u ' u n e c e r t a i n e " r e d ~ c o u v e r t e " du monde non e n c o r e touche p a r l1h6g6monisme de l ' e c r i t (notanunent de 1 ' A f r i q u e e t des e x t r a o r d i n a i r e s p o t e n t i a l i t e s d 'une o r a l i t e q u i l u i a pe rmis , a t r a v e r s l e s g rands " l e t t r 6 s " de l a p a r o l e e t souven t s a n s l e moindre a p p o r t de l ' e c r i t , de deve lopper les a s p e c t s les p l u s a u t h e n t i q u e s de s e s c u l t u r e s ) , a i t e n f i n permis a c e r t a i n s de r e a l i s e r t o u t e l ' i n e p t i e de l e u r s a t t i t u d e s e thno- c e n t r i q u e s dans c e domaine.

I1 est r e g r e t t a b l e que c e t t e p r i s e de consc ience a i t t o u t e f o i s e u l i e u l o r s q u e Ie mal e t a i t d6jFi f a i t , Les changements

d ' a t t i t u d e q u i p o u v a i e n t e n r e s u l t e r G t a i e n t , e n e f f e t , de t r e s peu d ' i m p a c t p o u r p e s e r s u r un march6 de v a l e u r s d o n t l e s j eux a v a i e n t e t 6 d e f i n i s a i l l e u r s ,

Sournises aux i n f l u e n c e s i r r g s i s t i b l e s du monde ambian t , l e s n o u v e l l e s s o c i 6 t e s du T i e r s Monde a v a i e n t , 2 l e u r t o u r , e k e amenees 2 s e p o u r v o i r d e s memes t y p e s d ' u s i n e s de n o r m a l i s a t i o n e t de d i s p o s i t i f s e l i t i s t e s q u i s e m b l a i e n t a v o i r r 6 u s s i dans l e s pays d i t s deve loppes . L 1 6 c o l e , en t a n t q u l u n e de c e s u s i n e s l e s p l u s r e c h e r c h e e s , a v a i t p a r t o u t p r 5 t e son masque aux p o u v o i r s e t a b l i s pour l e u r p e r m e t t r e de p r o c e d e r aux c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s e t aux h i e r a c h i e s d o n t c e s d e r n i e r s a v a i e n t b e s o i n . E n moins de deux g e n e r a t i o n s , un nouve l o r d r e de r e u s s i t e , de r e s p e c t a b i l i t e s o c i a l e e t d ' a c c e s aux p o s t e s de comrnande e t a i t n6 , 2 l ' i m a g e d e s soc i6 t i e s i n d u s t r i e l l e s mal d6ve lopp6es I q u i e t e n d a i t ses p r i v i l e g e s e x c l u s i f s aux d i f f e r e n t s p r o d u i t s d e s sys t emes s c o l a i r e s s e l o n une h i e r a c h i e p y r a m i d a l e b i e n d e f i n i e . Les mannes " p e r c o l a i e n t " 2 p a r t i r d ' u n sommet r e s e r v e aux d ip l6mes p o s t - u n i v e r s i t a i r e s de q r a n d e s i n s t i t u t i o n s academiques du Nord p o u r desce.ndre e t s o u v e n t s ' a r r e t e r aux d ip l6mes d e s Gco les s e c o n d a i r e s . Dans c e r t a i n s pays - les p l u s p a u v r e s - il p e u t e n c o r e y a v o i r d e p l a c e p o u r les t e n a n t s d e s c e r t i f i c a t s p r i - m a i r e s . A i l l e u r s , il n ' y e n a p r e s q u e p l u s pour l e s non- s c o l a r i s e s . En t o u t c a s , p l u s une s e u l e p o u r les a n a l p h a b e t e s , d o n t les chances de r e u s s i t e s o c i a l e s o n t devenues p a r t o u t une a f f a i r s de l o t e r i e .

E t t o u j o u r s p l u s de d e p e n s e s pour un p l u s g rand nombre d 1 a n a l p h a - b e t e s

La q r a v i t e d e c e t t e m a r g i n a l i s a t i o n d e p l u s e n p l u s p o u s s e e d e s a n a l p h a b e t e s e t , p a r 1 2 , de l e u r p e n a l i s a t i o n de f a i t , ne p o u r r a t o u j o u r s e t r e p l e i n e m e n t p e r c u e que d a n s l e c o n t e x t e d e c e t t e a u t r e r e a l i t e , r e q u l i e r e m e n t r a p p e l e e l e 8 sep tembre d e chaque annee p a r les p l u s h a u t e s i n s t a n c e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s : malgre l e s ' r 6 u s s i 6 e s " i n d e n i a b l e s d e c e r t a i n e s campaqnes d ' a l p h a b 6 t i s a t i o n 1 il e x i s t e e n c o r e a u j o u r d ' h u i dans Ie monde p r e s d ' u n m i l l i a r d d ' a n a l p h a b g t e s .

A l o r s que c e nombre e t a i t de 700.000, il y a e n c o r e s e u l e m e n t une v i n q t a i n e d ' a n n e e s . Chaque annee r e p r e s e n t a n t , e n termes d e dgpenses p o u r l ' e d u c a t i o n , e n moyenne p r S s d e 250 m i l l i a r d s d e d o l l a r s a m e r i c a i n s , l a s e u l e p a r t d e s p a y s du T i e r s Monde e t a n t d e 1 8 m i l l i a r d s . I /

l/ C'est l a Commission internationale sur I e Developpement de l 'education - (UNESCO) qui avai t estime qu'en 1970, l e s depenses d'education pour l ' ensemble du monde pouvaient se chi f f rer globalement 5 plus de 200 mill iards de dol lars americains, l a par t du Tiers Monde 6tant de 12 milliards. Voir Edgar Faure e t a l . , Apprendre S Stre , (Par is , Fayard, 19721, p. 42.

En d ' a u t r e s t e rmes , a l o r s que l e s "p rogr6s de l t 6 d u c a t i o n " coup les aux nouveaux r a p p o r t s de pouvoi r o n t r g u s s i p a r t o u t S. f a i r e d e s ana lphabg tes l e s nouveaux p a r i a s , c e s mt5mes "progr6s" n ' o n t r e u s s i q u ' & auqmenter l e u r nombre e n c h i f f r e s abso lus !

A q u i va l a "hon te"?

S ' i l y a done "honte" ou " f l@aul ' ou "mal", i l s s e p l a c e n t a u n iveau d e s " l e t t r 6 s " b i e n a l p h a b e t i s e s q u i c o n s t i t u e n t p resque p a r t o u t l e tandem s a v o i r / p o u v o i r des s t r u c t u r e s p o l i t i q u e s dominantes. Les a n a l p h a b g t e s , en t a n t que p o p u l a t i o n s n a r q i n a l i - s e e s e t souven t opprim6es des pays d o n t i l s f o n t p a r t i e , n ' y s o n t pour r i e n .

La h o n t e , e l l e e s t dans l a r s a l i t e d 'un s y s t h e de p o u v o i r q u i ne f a i t r i e n pour s e s p r o p r e s v i c t i m e s . On ne l e s 6cou te pas . On ne r e c h e r c h e meme p a s 2 s a v o i r dans q u e l l e mesure e l l e s p o u r r a i e n t , t o u t e n e t a n t p r i v g s d e l a l e c t u r e de l ' a l p h a b e t , c o n t r i b u e r S l a p r o d u c t i o n e t S l a d i s s 6 m i n a t i o n du s a v o i r . On l e s p e n a l i s e seulement : pour l e mal qu 'on l e u r a f a i t , pour les nombreuses d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s dont e l l e s c o n t i n u e n t d t 6 t r e l ' o b j e t , pour l a mauvaise consc ience q u ' e l l e s r e p r e s e n t e n t dans " c e monde oil t o u t es t t o u r n 6 c e n t r e l ' i n n o c e n t " .

L ' o r a l i t e a u s e r v i c e de l a l e c t u r e du monde

Le p l u s g r a v e e s t que l a p l u p a r t de c e s v r a i s "damn6s de l a t e r r e " o n t souvent d e s t a l e n t s p o t e n t i e l s insoupq'onnes p o u r l i re l e monde s a n s a v o i r jamais e u l a chance d ' a p p r e n d r e S l i r e les mots. I1 s u f f i t d ' e c o u t e r un g r i o t de n ' i m p o r t e q u e l l e "b rousse" a f r i c a i n e p o u r r e a l i s e r l ' e x t r a o r d i n a i r e r i c h e s s e de son d i s - c o u r s , pour d g c e l e r t o u t e l a f i n e s s e e t l ' i n t e l l i g e n c e q u i marquent son message, pour s e r e n d r e compte d e s r e s s o u r c e s i n c r o y a b l e s qu 'une o r a l i t 6 b i e n v a l o r i s e e p e u t r e p r 6 s e n t e r c o m e o u t i l s dans l a p r o d u c t i o n e t dans l a t r a n s m i s s i o n d e s connaissances .

Dans b i e n d e s v i l l a g e s e t dans b i e n d e s s i t u a t i o n s , l a p l u p a r t des o b j e c t i f s n 6 c e s s a i r e s a u p le in -6panouissement d ' u n e communaut6, notamment S. son d6veloppement, peuvent f a c i l e m e n t S t r e a t t e i n t s p a r Ie r e c o u r s aux s e u l e s r e s s o u r c e s de I f o r a l i t S . L ' u t i l i s a t i o n d ' u n e t e c h n o l o g i e a u s s i s imple e t peu coQteuse due l a c a s s e t t e p e u t , p l u s p a r t i c u l i G r e m e n t , s e r v i r S e n v a l o r i - . s e r les p o t e n t i a l i t 6 s les moins e x p l o i t S e s . I1 n e f a l l a i t p a s a t t e n d r e McLuhan pour real iser que 1 8 0 c r i t n e c o n s t i t u e p a s Ie s e u l i n s t r u m e n t de t r a n s m i s s i o n , de r e p r o d u c t i o n e t de c r e a t i o n d e s conna i s sances . Pendant longtemps e n c o r e , dans b i e n d e s en- d r o i t s du monde, Ie r e c o u r s aux r e s s o u r c e s de l ' o r a l i t e , ( s u r t o u t s i e l l e e s t b i e n v a l o r i s e e e t e n r i c h i e p a r l e s techno- l o g i e s modernes les p l u s s i m p l e s du s o n , e t , l e c a s e c h e a n t , de

l'image), peut parfaitement se substituer 5 l'alphabet pour atteindre les memes objectifs de developpement et d'education.

En fait, tant que les populations accoutumees 2 110ralit6 n'ont pas encore, d'elles-memes, profondement ressenti le besoin d'apprendre S lire et ecrire, tant qu'elles n'auront pas decouvert la "situation-limite" qu'il leur faudra necessairement atteindre dans leur desir d'etendre davantaqe les horizons de leur connaissance, lfalphab6tisation se transforme en un exercice vide de sens, frustrant et souvent voue S 1'6chec. Elle constitue aussi un gaspillage injustifiable de ressources, qui pourraient bien mieux Stre utilisees, notamment pour assurer les mEmes fins recherchees par l'alphabetisation.

L'objectif primordial de toute campagne d'alphabetisation etant finalement d'aider 1'analphabSte 2 mieux lire le monde et, par tant, d'augmenter ses possibilit6s de connaltre et d'agir sur son milieu, il est done indispensable, tout d'abord, de detecter, dans ce meme milieu, toutes les ressources n6cessaires S la promotion de cette lecture du monde.

I1 est clair que dans un milieu nourri par la culture orale, l'alphabet ne constitue, au depart, qu'une ressource potentielle. C'est, par contre, l'oralite, la parole, qui reprssente encore le seul moyen de communication et d'apprentissage. Aussi, mSme dans un contexts d'alphabi5tisation1 crest ce moyen essentiel et primordial qui doit etre tout d'abord pleinement exploit6 et mis en valeur.

L'alphabetisation AVEC les analphabetes

Une strateqie visant 5 cette pleine valorisation des ressources de l'oralite doit Stre concue dans le cadre d'une politique de reconciliation avec les porteurs de la culture orale, ainsi que de leur rehabilitation en tant que citoyens S part entisre. Aussi, il est essentiel que Ie recours aux ressources de l'orali- to ne paraisse pas, non plus, aux populations concern6es1 come une autre facon de les condamner 5 la marginalisation que represents 11analphab6tisme. Une telle strateqie doit plut8t viser, d'une part, 2 rendre aux populations non encore initiees 2 1'6criture toute la diqnite et la richesse de leurs cultures orales, d'autre part 2 leur montrer qu'un tel objectif ne s'inscrit nullement en faux contre une politique educationnelle plus vaste destinee S utiliser, l2 oil cela serait utile et souhaitable, tous les autres moyens necessaires S la lecture du monde, en premier lieu, l'alphabetisation.

Pour d'autres structures 6ducationnelles basees sur l'oralite

Que de temps et d'arqent auraient pu Stre epargnes si, au lieu d'ecouter les "experts" et les planificateurs, obnubiles par la superiorit6 absolue de l'ecrit, l'on avait proc6d6, dSs le

d e p a r t , 2 une j u s t e e s t i m a t i o n des r e s s o u r c e s de l l o r a l i t e pour l l a c q u i s i t i o n , pour l a t r a n s m i s s i o n e t pour l a p r o d u c t i o n du s a v o i r . Un t e l e x e r c i c e nous a u r a i t beaucoup a i d e pour m e t t r e au p o i n t de n o u v e l l e s s t r u c t u r e s d l a p p r e n t i s s a g e , de fo rmat ion e t d ' e d u c a t i o n a d a p t e e s aux r e a l i t e s c u l t u r e l l e s des comrnunaut6s concernees . De t e l l e s s t r u c t u r e s a u r a i e n t notamment p u s ' i n s p i r e r t a n t d e s mGthodes pedaqogiques t r a d i t i o n n e l l e s s u i v i e s au s e i n de c e s communaut~s ( e t p r a t i q u e e s p a r des g r i o t s , des marabouts e t a u t r e s m a l t r e s e t f o n n a t e u r s reconnus) que des p o s s i b i l i t e s a s s e z e x t r a o r d i n a i r e s de c e r t a i n e s t e c h n o l o g i e s modernes e t s imples comme I e magnetophone e t l a c a s s e t t e . Des " 6 c o l e s " o r a l e s d l u n type t o u t 2 f a i t nouveau a u r a i e n t a i n s i pu v o i r l e j o u r , q u i a u r a i e n t a i d 6 l e s p o p u l a t i o n s concernees 2 r e a l i s e r l e u r s a s p i r a t i o n s c u l t u r e l l e s e t e d u c a t i o n n e l l e s dans des c o n d i t i o n s b i e n m e i l l e u r e s d l e f f i c a c i t G , dlGconomie d e s moyens e t de p r e s e r v a t i o n d e l e u r i d e n t i t e c u l t u r e l l e profonde.

S i l a c a s s e t t e a v a i t 6tG i n v e n t e e a v a n t 1 1 6 c r i t u r e

La meme f i x a t i o n s u r 1 ' 6 c r i t nous a f a i t a u s s i p e r d r e de vue que l ' a l p h a b e t , t o u t en e t a n t un o u t i l ind i scu tab lement i r r emplaqab le , ne p e u t p a s non p l u s s e s u b s t i t u e r 2 l a p a r o l e avec s e s avan tages egalement i r r e m p l a c a b l e s , On o u b l i e souvent c e t t e ev idence que l a pensee ne d o i t s a r i c h e s s e n i 2 1 ' 6 c r i t n i 2 l ' i m p r i m e r i e , c e s d e r n i e r s n ' e t a n t que de s i m p l e s o u t i l s 2 son s e r v i c e . S i l a c a s s e t t e a v a i t et6 i n v e n t e e avan t eux, e l l e a u r a i t p e u t - e t r e meme 6 t e mieux s e r v i e , dans l a mesure oii s a t r a n s m i s s i o n e t s a r e p r o d u c t i o n a u r a i e n t e t 6 p l u s f a c i l e s e t p l u s f i d 5 l e s , s a n s a v o i r 2 s e soumet t re 2 une c e r t a i n e d i c t a t u r e de l ' a l p h a b e t .

En t o u t e t a t de c a u s e , p e n s e r q u ' u n e p r o g r e s s i o n l i n e a i r e do ive necessa i rement mener une s o c i e t e du s t a d e de l l o r a l ( q u i s e r a i t a s s i m i l e 2 une s o r t e d l e x p r e s s i o n p r i m i t i v e ) au s t a d e de l l e c r i t c o n s i d e r e c o m e un "niveau de m e n t a l i t 6 6 v o l u 6 e " d G n o t e une v i s i o n r e d u c t i o n n i s t e - e t c e r t e s e t h n o c e n t r i q u e de l ' o r a l i t e .

P l u s que jamais , il e s t n g c e s s a i r e de c o n s i d e r e r l e s deux pheno- m h e s c o m e e t a n t c o m p l ~ m e n t a i r e s , chacun repondant 2 un mode d ' e x p r e s s i o n e t de t r a n s m i s s i o n e n s o i i r r e m p l a q a b l e e t g e n e r i s . Ce s e r a i t notamment un drame pour l e s c i v i l i s a t i o n s a f r i c a i n e s d l a v o i r un j o u r 2 abandonner l a c u l t u r e "de l l o r a l " pour un monopole e x c l u s i f d e 1 ' 6 c r i t .

Cet a p p e l p r e s s a n t pour l a r e v a l o r i s a t i o n d e l 1 o r a l i t 6 c o m e i n s t r u m e n t de c u l t u r e , d ' e d u c a t i o n e t de communication, ne d e v r a i t c e r t e s p a s Ztre i n t e r p r e t 6 comrne une i n v i t a t i o n 2 renoncer dorenavan t 2 t o u t e f f o r t d ' a l p h a b g t i s a t i o n . Une t e l l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e r a i t a u s s i impensable e t dangereuse que l ' e s p r i t q u i , j u s q u l a p r e s e n t , a p r e s i d e 5 l ' g l a b o r a t i o n d e s programmes d 1 6 d u c a t i o n , de s c o l a r i s a t i o n e t d ' a l p h a b 6 t i s a t i o n , s a n s t e n i r compte d e s e x t r a o r d i n a i r e s r e s s o u r c e s de l l o r a l i t e .

Le probleme e s t done de r e v e n i r au p o i n t de d e p a r t e t de s e demander : l ' a l p h a b e t i s a t i o n e s t - e l l e une f i n e n s o i ou un moyen, e n t r e a u t r e s , de f o u r n i r aux ana lphabg tes de t o u t e s s o r t e s ( y compr i s ,he las , c e r t a i n s de nos e x p e r t s e n a l p h a b e t i - s a t i o n ) t o u t ce q u i l e u r e s t n e c e s s a i r e pour apprendre 5 mieux l i r e l e monde? Ce q u i r e v i e n t , non p a s 2 c o n f e r e r 5 l a l e c t u r e d e s mots un r o l e q u a s i e x c l u s i f , mais de l u i r endre s a p l a c e l a ? l u s a p p r o p r i e e dans une s t r a t e g i c g l o b a l e e t p l u r a l i s t e de c o n s c i e n t i s a t i o n e t de r e - d e f i n i t i o n de l a p r a x i s n e c e s s a i r e 2 l a comprehension du monde e t , I e c a s e c h e a n t , 2 s a t r ans forma- t i o n .

Tou tes l e s v o i e s 2 e x p l o r e r pour l i r e l e monde

L ' i d e e de l a c r e a t i o n d e s aud io theques c o n s t i t u e , s u r un p l a n c o n c r e t , une mesure, parmi d ' a u t r e s , q u i p o u r r a i t E t r e p r i s e pour repondre aux p reoccupa t ions q u i viennerit d ' e t r e expr im6es, p r e o c c u p a t i o n s que l ' o n peu t r eprendre g r o s s o mod0 dans l e s termes s u i v a n t s :

Malgre t o u s l e s e f f o r t s dep loyes dans l e c a d r e des p o l i t i q u e s de s c o l a r i s a t i o n e t d ' a l p h a b e t i s a t i o n dans I e monde, il e x i s t e a u j o u r d ' h u i p e u t - S t r e p l u s de deux m i l l i a r d s d ' e t r e s humains q u i a p p a r t i e n n e n t a l a c u l t u r e de l ' o r a l , don t un m i l l i a r d d ' a n a l - p h a b s t e s proprement d i t s . 11 e s t e n f i n temps que l a p l e i n e e x p l o i t a t i o n des r e s s o u r c e s i n e s t i m a b l e s d e c e t t e o r a l i t 6 s o i t c o n s i d e r e e comme un o b j e c t i f p remier de t o u t e a c t i v i t e d e l i b e r a t i o n , e n termes d ' e d u c a t i o n e t de d6veloppement1 e t comme - -

une c o n d i t i o n s i n e qua non du p l e i n epanouissement de s e s p o p u l a t i o n s .

Tout d o i t S t r e m i s e n oeuvre pour que t o u t E t r e humain, oii q u ' i l s e t r o u v e , s o i t s o l i d a i r e m e n t a s s i s t 6 dans son d e s i r p ro fond d ' apprendre 5 l i r e l e monde. C e t o b j e c t i f , mEme e n c e q u i con- c e r n e l e s i n d i v i d u s o f f i c i e l l e m e n t c o n s i d e r e s c o m e a l p h a b e t i s e s ou s c o l a r i s e s , est l o i n d ' e t r e a t t e i n t .

En f a i t , p l u s l ' o n a s s i s t e 2 une c o m p l e x i f i c a t i o n du monde, p l u s il d e v i e n t d i f f i c i l e , v o i r e i m p o s s i b l e , de l e l i r e p a r le s e u l b i a i s de l ' a l p h a b e t . Ce d e r n i e r n ' e s t qu 'une s imple t e c h n i q u e d ' e x p l o r a t i o n . C ' e s t p a r l e s v o i e s de l a c o n s c i e n t i s a t i o n , de l 'engagement de t o u t e s l e s p o p u l a t i o n s du monde dans l e s d i f - f e r e n t ~ p r o c e s s u s conduisan t 5 c e t t e l e c t u r e du monde, de l a p a r t i c i p a t i o n de t o u s , s a n s d i s t i n c t i o n aucune, S l a c r e a t i o n e t 5 l a t r a n s m i s s i o n du s a v o i r , e n f i n de l a m o b i l i s a t i o n de l e s moyens d i s p o n i b l e s e t n e c e s s a i r e s S c e t t e f i n , que l ' o n p o u r r a s ' e n t r ' a i d e r l e s uns les a u t r e s pour l a r echerche de manis res p l u s l u c i d e s e t i n t e l l i g e n t e s de l e c t u r e du monde.

Tout au long de c e s v o i e s , l ' a l p h a b e t p e u t c e r t e s S t r e un e x c e l l e n t compagnon de r o u t e , mais b i e n d e s voyageurs peuvent e n c o r e avancer s a n s l u i . Leur b a r r e r l a r o u t e , s o u s p r S t e x t e q u ' i l s s o n t a n a l p h a b & t e s , r e l e v e r a i t d 'une s t r a t 6 g i e i n t e r - v e n t i o n n i s t e i n j u s t i f i a b l e e t a r b i t r a i r e . I1 r e v i e n d r a i t s u r - t o u t 3. p r i v e r 1'hurnanitS e n t i g r e d e t o u t e s les l u m i s r e s p a r t i - c u l i s r e s s i i n d i s p e n s a b l e s & l a p o u r s u i t e du chemin commun.

Autonomie de 1 ' apprenan t

D e s s t r a t e g i e s autrement p l u s i m a g i n a t i v e s d o i v e n t a i n s i e t re concues pour a s s u r e r que , dans c e s n o u v e l l e s v o i e s , t o u s l e s moyens p o s s i b l e s e t i m a g i n a i r e s s o i e n t m i s 3. l a d i s p o s i t i o n de t o u s pour que chacun e n f a s s e usage s e l o n s e s p r o p r e s beso ins . . L ' i m p o r t a n t e s t que c e s moyens n ' a b o u t i s s e n t p a s , de nouveau e t sous d ' a u t r e s faqons , 5 r e p r o d u i r e ou i n t e n s i f i e r les i n j u s t i c e s e t les d i s p a r i t e s que 1 ' o n a u r a cherche 2 d e t r u i r e . I1 f a u d r a s u r t o u t v e i l l e r 5 ce que les v i e i l l e s s t r u c t u r e s de dominat ion ne les r e c u p s r e n t p a s pour s ' e n s e r v i r encore 3. l e u r s p r o p r e s f i n s de n o r m a l i s a t i o n ou d ' i n t e g r a t i o n c u l t u r e l l e . C ' e s t 3. c e t i t re q u ' i l s e r a t o u j o u r s i m p o r t a n t d ' a s s u r e r l a p l u s grande autonomie p o s s i b l e des apprenan t s p a r r a p p o r t au type de s a v o i r r e c h e r c h e p a r eux.

L 'Sco le n ' a jamais a s s u r e c e t t e autonomie. Ce qu 'on y apprend e s t souven t s a n s r a p p o r t avec l e s b e s o i n s de l ' a p p r e n a n t e t , de t o u t e f a c o n , s e u l e y accede une m i n o r i t 6 p r i v i l e g i e e de l a p o p u l a t i o n . Les g rands moyens a u d i o - v i s u e l de t r a n s m i s s i o n du s a v o i r , t e l s l a r a d i o e t l a t e l e v i s i o n , s o n t egalement des o u t i l s 5 s e n s unique. 11s s e r v e n t 5 "gaver" l e u r s c o n s o m a t e u r s d 'un t y p e d ' i n f o r m a t i o n e t de conna i ssance souven t peu u t i l e s l e u r p l e i n epanouissement ou 3. l ' e n r i c h i s s m e n t de l e u r p r a x i s . S e u l , l e s b i b l i o t h s q u e s a u r a i e n t pu, du moins thgor iquement , p e r m e t t r e 3. l ' a p p r e n a n t de c h o i s i r l e t y p e d e s a v o i r don t il a b e s o i n , de facon r e l a t i v e m e n t autonome. Mais les b i b l i o t h s q u e s s o n t r a r i s s i m e s . E t m e m e 1 5 oil e l l e s e x i s t e n t , e l l e s ne d i s - posen t que de l i v r e s p r o d u i t s a i l l e u r s e t dans l e s g randes l angues du monde. Les p o p u l a t i o n s m a r g i n a l i s g e s n ' o n t aucune p a r t dans l e cho ix ou, a f o r t i o r i , dans l a p r o d u c t i o n du s a v o i r q u i l e s i n t e r e s s e .

C e q u ' e s t m e audioth&que

I1 f a l l a i t done imaginer d e s b i b l i o t h s q u e s d 'un t y p e nouveau, p l u s p a r t i c u l i & r e m e n t d e s t i n e e s 5 I ' u s a g e de non a l p h a b e t e s , don t l e s m a t e r i a l s de " l e c t u r e " s e r a i e n t p r o d u i t s s u r mesure pour t o u s ceux q u i v o u d r a i e n t s ' y ~ S f e r e r , e n c o l l a b o r a t i o n e t r o i t e avec eux e t dans l e u r langue m a t e r n e l l e .

Les aud io thsques , don t l ' i d e e a e t 6 6 l a b o r e e p a r I e Bureau du PNUD 5 Bamako e n c o l l a b o r a t i o n avec l e s a u t o r i t g s mal iennes ,

et dGvelopp6e dans le projet MLI/80/010, repondent exactement 2 cet objectif.

Selon le texte initial de ce projet, elles se proposent d'entre- prendre, au benefice des masses analphabetes, une action:

. "Qui permet 5 toutes les populations de base, qu'elles soient analphabstes ou non, de participer effectivement au developpement de leur milieu en se servant de tous les moyens de transmission du savoir qui pourraient Ztre mis 5 leur disposition (savoir fonctionnel, scolaire, traditionnel ou autre).

. Qui revalorise et dynamise le savoir traditionnel par l'organisation d'ecoles orales qui ouvrent la voie du savoir 2 toute la population rura- Ie, sans exception aucune: d'une part en donnant aux masses analphabetes (907 de la population du Mali) la possibilite d'avoir accss au savoir mo- derne et aux connaissances traditionnelles d'autres regions du Mali et d'autres pays du monde, d'autre part en dormant aux traditionalistes l'op- portunite de transmettre leurs connaissances aux jeunes generations sans passer necessairement par l'ecriture.

. Qui donne aux initiatives de base un moyen d'exprimer et de transmettre leur propre programme sans passer par une correspondance ecrite.

. Qui, de par les motivations nouvelles qu'elle permet de susciter aupres des populations concernees, leur montre les limites de l'oralite, et par 12, les amSne plus activement 5 apprendre l'ecriture.

. A ces quatre necessites nationales s'ajoute la possibilite de propaga- tion de l'experience et de l'outil innovateur que represente 1'audiothS- que rurale dans d'autres pays du Tiers Monde, afind'en faire beneficier des centaines de millions d'analphabstes".

Les objectifs long terme

Quant aux objectifs 2 long terme et immgdiats des audiothGques, ils sont egalement definis dans le document du projet present6 comme suit:

"A. Objectifs de developpement

I1 stagit de disposer d'une audiothgque - c'est-&-dire d'un centre d'informations et de traditions orales enregistrees au niveau de chaque col- lectivite villageoise - et d'une audiothsque centrale au niveau de Bamako.

Avec Ie developpement du reseau dtaudiothCques villageoises, des audio- Cheques regionales (une par aire socio-culturelle et linguistique) seront creees sur la meme base que l'audiothsque centrale.

1. Les audiothsques villageoises seront concues come:

a) des foyers autonomes de culture vivante, oG la collecte et l'echange

d'informations seront possibles en premier lieu pour la grande masse de la population encore analphab6te. Celle-ci, au lieu d'etre marginalisee dans son analphabetisme, pourra puiser dans 110ralit6, 2 travers les elements sonores enregistres, les donnees vivifiantes de sa culture d'origine, celles de groupes socio-culturels avoisinants et de tous les pays du monde. . . . d) des bibliothsques d'un type nouveau, qui possederaient un materiel technique d'enregistrement et des possibilites techniques 6lementaire.s de conservation de bandes magnetiques, afin que tous puissent venir s'y do- cumenter sur des sujets varies comme l'histoire du village, lrhistoire ge- nerale, Ie savoir technique traditionnel, les technologies appropriees, les soins de sante primaires, I'agriculture, l'elevage, etc... Les audiothsques fonctionneront cornme des bibliothsques sonores: on organisera Ie przt, l'ecoute, le repiquage.

e) des centres destines 2 sensibiliser les populations aux problsmes de leur milieu, des centres de recherche de participation dans chaque village (ou groupe de villages) qui contribueront hautement au developpement endogsne.

2. L1audioth6que centrale

Elle centralisera une copie de chacune des bandes enregistrees au niveau des audiothsques villageoises et recevra des copies des ... enregistre- ments disponibles au niveau des services techniques. Elle sera un important centre de documentation, equip6 pour la collecte, le repiquage, 1'6coute et la transcription. Elle sera egalement chargee de la traduc- tion d'une langue en une autre des cassettes d'interzt general pouvant Ztre utilisees sur tout le territoire national.

B. Objectifs immediats

Lancer un projet-pilote pour la periode 1982-1983, au cours de laquelle seront mises en places:

. 20 audiothsques villageoises (10 par an) dans les cercles de Kolokani et de Youvarou;

. une audiothsque itinerante dans Ie wagon-bibliothsque;

. et une audiothsque centrale ." Perspectives

L e projet MLI/80/010, portant sur la creation de 20 audiothgques villageoises et d'une audiothgque centrale, n'est, 5 ce stade, qu'un projet-pilote assez modeste, de quelque US$300.000. I1 est cependant clair qu'il porte des ambitions depassant bien largement Ie cadre actuel du projet.

Pour les responsables du Ministere des Sports, des Arts et de la Culture, il est, en effet, considere comrne un pas au cours duquel 1'on essaiera d'apprehender les premiers problsmes relatifs a la creation d'un vaste reseau dlaudiothSques sur tout le territoirh national malien.

Ce rOseau permettra, en un premier temps, de mettre partout,et 2 la disposition de tous, une "banque" de donnges et d' informations capables de leur apporter toutes les lumisres disponibles sur les questions les confrontant. Au cours de cette periods, il faudra tout d'abord et necessairement, en consultation permanente avec les populations les plus directement concernees, faire un tri des types d'information 2 enreqistrer. I1 faudra ensuite proceder au choix (et plus tard 2 la formation) des auteurs/nar- rateurs qui seront charges de faire passer les messages (parl6s ou chantes) dans les conditions artistiques les plus adaptees aux exigences culturelles des populations. Et, dans cet ordre d'idees, alors que les griots, les marabouts et autres maitres ou personnes-ressources appartenant 2 chaque milieu pourraient souvent suffir pour la production des materiels concernant le savoir de type culturel, historique ou traditionnel, il est certain que la preparation des cassettes portant sur les connaissances de type "fonctionnel", scientifique ou technique necessitera le recours 2 des "professionnels" plus specialises, se trouvant eventuelle- ment ailleurs.

Sur un autre plan, le fonctionnement des premieres audiotheques pourrait donner lieu 2 une reflexion approfondie sur le role de ces nouveaux foyers de culture et d'information dans une transformation possible de toutes les structures (Sdncationnelles, culturelles et de formation dans les communaut6s de base. Cet aspect du problsme me semble Ztre porteur de promesses encore plus inte- ressantes pour l'avenir des pays en d6veloppement. A ce titre, les audiotheques pourraient, en effet, bien constituer des noyaux d'un type tout-2-fait nouveau, autour desquels seraient cr66es de nouvelles "6coles1' orales pouvant apporter une 6ducation/formation "sur mesure" 2 tous les apprenants de demain.

(Viene de la pag. 3)

Las tscnicas modernas - cassettes y medios audiovisuales - permiten desde ahora valorizar su capacidad de "leer el mundo". El autor ilustra su argu- mento mediante la descripcihn del programa de audiotecas que se realiza en Mali - centres de informacion a1 servicio de 10s iletrados, producidos con ellos y en su propia lengua.

-9

The IFDA/IPS Special United Nations Service

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So as t o cover i t s cost , the Service i s distributed by subscription only. Details from IFDA, Nyon.

A rnicrof iche collection o f IFDA Dossier Available from Inter Documentation. Poststrasse 14, 6300 Zug. Switzerland: a two-volume set of microfiches (20,784 pages on 213 microfiches) reproducing IFDA Dossiers 1 to 2 0 (January 1978 to December 1980) as well as the complete collection of the Third System Project papers and indices. Price: 950 Swiss francs.

IFDA DOSSIER 31 , SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1982 BUILD I NG BLOCKS

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF PART1 C I PATORY ACT I ON RESEARCH

by Muhammad Ani su r ~ a h n i a n g 2 , r u e R o b e r t d e Traz Apt . 0 2 1206 Geneva , S w i t z e r l a n d

O r i g i n a l l anguage : E n g l i s h

Abstract: By Participatory Action Research (PAR) the author means action research that is participatory and participatory research that unites with action. He outlines elements of an emerging methodology in the direction of catalytic work of educated activists to generate and promote self-organization development of the rural poor and processes of their own praxis, which becomes progressively independent of outside assistance. He elaborates the ideological underpinning of PAR which aims at liberation by people themselves and at the transformation of the relations of production in both physical goods and knowledge. He examines the relationship between the local and the national spaces as well as PAR'S own tensions, between the intellectuals and the people. The last section discusses PAR as research with its accepted social-value bias which may nevertheless become objective through social verification.

THEORIE ET PRATIQUE DE LA RECHERCHE-ACTION PARTICIPATIVE

Resume: Par "recherche-action participative" (RAP), l'auteur entend une recherche-action fondee sur la participation et une recherche participative unie 2 l'action. I1 esquisse les elements d'une methodologie de l'action catalyti- que de militants instruits qui stimulent l'auto-organisation des ruraux pauvres et l'affirmation de la praxis autonome de ceux-ci, se liberant progressivement de l'aide exogsne. I1 examine les fondements id6ologiques de la RAP cornme effort vers la liberation des interesses par eux-mzmes et vers la transformation des rapports de production en ce qui concerne tant les biens physiques que les connaissances. I1 analyse les rapports entre les espaces locaux et nationaux, de m&ne que les tensions internes de la RAP (entre intellectuels et la base). La dernisre section envisage la RAP comme recherche qui reconnalt ses valeurs socialement motivees, mats que la verification sociale approche cependant de l'objectivite.

(Resumen en Espaiiol pag. 30)

* / The author, a former member of the Planning Commission of Bangladesh and a member of the IFDA Council, is currently an advisor for rural employment policies to the International Labour Office. Views expressed here are his own and in no way commit the ILO. The paper from which the following pages have been excerpted has been prepared for the 10th World Congress of Sociology, Mexico, August 1982.

Muhammad Anisur Rahman

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF PARTIC I PATORY ACTION RESEARCH

The tradition of intellectuals stimulating and assisting popular struggles is an age-old one. This tradition seems to be gaining some mornentm in Â¥recen times, and developing links not only uithin but also across national boundaries. Two major factors may be contributing to this: ( 1 ) convergence of national systems into elite domination over the masses, of both "riqhtrr and "left" varieties, which is generating its oun counter-consciousness; and (2) increasing faciZities for c o d c a t i o n betueen the resulting counter-culture.

This counter-culture has taken a wide variety of character, uith some carrying a conscious research (knouledge-generation) interest. The latter variety has sometimes been referred to as "action research", sometimes as "participatory research". The terminology has not yet converged.

Orlando Fals Borda chose the term "participatory action research" - henceforth to be abbreviated to FAR - in wit+ the present paper, I felt that this might be a useful term, making the point that ue are talking about Action Research that is participatory, and Participatory Research that uriites &th action (for trunsforming reality).

Attempts by educated activists to generate participatory grassroots processes for improvement of the economic and social status of the under rivileged in South Asia are many, and the b e is growing. 11 A process of cross-fertilization between them is ongoing, both at the national and international levels. Workshops bringing together several voluntary groups engaged in such work are commonplace in India and Bangladesh.

Methodology

While such works, naturally, have many differences in their approaches, broad similarities can be observed in many of them. For those which are in close touch with one another, a methodological and, indeed, ideological convergence seems to be approaching. Methodologically, a converging trend in the following direction may be observed:

1. Catalytic initiatives are taken by persons coming f r ~ m the well-educated class (university graduates and above), independent of macro-social organisations such as political parties, to promote self-mobilisation of the rural under- privileged for group or organised action to emerge from out of their own deliberations.

2. The s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n q e n e r a t i n q such g r a s s - r o o t s p r o c e s s e s i s t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d f o r qe t t i nc r t o g e t h e r t o i n q u i r e why t h e y a r e poor and o p p r e s s e d th rouqh s o c i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f t h e i r own, which promote t h e i r c r i t i c a l s e l f - a w a r e n e s s of t h e i r env i ronmen t .

3 . The u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d a r e encouraged t o d i s c u s s what t h e y c o u l d do by u n i t i n g , t o overcome p o v e r t y and o p p r e s s i o n . They a r e encouraged t o form g roups o r o r g a n i s a t i o n s a b s o l u t e l y of t h e i r own, whose s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n i n g a r e t o be d e c i d e d by them, and th rough t h e s e t o t a k e economic and s o c i a l a c t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r s e l f - d e l i b e r a t e d p r i o r i t i e s .

4 . A t t empt i s made t o g e n e r a t e a s e l f - r e l i a n c e c o n s c i o u s - n e s s among t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d , and an a t t i t u d e o f a s s e r t i o n o f t h e i r knowledge, v iews and d e c i s i o n s v i s - a - v i s o u t s i d e r s . M a t e r i a l l y , e x t e r n a l r e s o u r c e s and e x p e r t i s e a r e n o t c o n s i - d e r e d t o be p r i m a r y i n s o l v i n g t h e i r p rob lems - t h e s e a r e o f f e r e d o n l y a s supp lemen t s when needed and a r e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e m o b i l i s a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e ' s own r e s o u r c e s and s k i l l s . I n t h e u s e o f e x t e r n a l r e s o u r c e s emphasis i s p l a c e d on t h e f u r t h e r development o f p e o p l e ' s own r e s o u r c e s and s k i l l s f o r them t o a c h i e v e p r o g r e s s i v e l y g r e a t e r s e l f - r e l i a n c e .

5 . The p e o p l e a r e encouraged t o meet p e r i o d i c a l l y i n "camps" o r " p e o p l e ' s workshops" f o r r e v i e w o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s , t o u n d e r t a k e p e r i o d i c f a c t - f i n d i n q i n v e s t i q a t i o n s o f t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t , and t o t a k e d e c i s i o n s f o r subsequen t a c t i o n b a s e d on t h e i r own r e s e a r c h t h u s conduc ted - s e e k i n g t h e r e b y t o g e n e r a t e a p r o c e s s o f p e o p l e ' s p r a x i s , i . e . , a p r o g r e s s - i v e a c t i o n - r e f l e c t i o n rhythm.

6 . The p e o p l e , o n c e t h e y have deve loped e x p e r i e n c e i n m o b i l i s i n q and i n o r g a n i s e d a c t i o n , a r e encouraged t o s t i m u l a t e and a s s i s t o t h e r u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d p e o p l e a l s o t o s t a r t s i m i l a r a c t i o n , and t o g r a d u a l l y form h i g h e r l e v e l o r g a n i s a t i o n s by f e d e r a t i n g s m a l l e r o n e s , and t o d e v e l o p l i n k s w i t h o t h e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s o f t h i s t y p e .

7 . Dependence o f t h e p e o p l e on t h e i n i t i a l c a t a l y s t s i s supposed t o c e a s e , t h r o u g h t h e g e n e r a t i o n and development o f i n t e r n a l l e a d e r s h i p , c a d r e s and s k i l l s . T h i s does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean a c t u a l p h y s i c a l w i t h d r a w a l o f t h e c a t a l y s t s from p e o p l e ' s p r o c e s s e s ; b u t t h e p e o p l e s h o u l d , w i t h i n a r e a s o n a b l e t i m e , b e a b l e t o c a r r y on w i t h t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s on t h e i r own, w h i l e a c a t a l y s t may c o n t i n u e h i s o r h e r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h s u c h p r o c e s s e s and s e e k new r o l e s i n t h e i r p r o g r e s s i v e development .

8. The i n i t i a t o r s of such a c t i o n have n o t o n l y a p r a c t i c a l , b u t a l s o a r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t , i n g e n e r a t i n g and a s s i s t i n g such s e l f - r e l i a n t p e o p l e ' s p r o c e s s e s . T h i s i n c l u d e s a s e a r c h f o r methodology of s e l f - r e l i a n c e - s e n s i t i v e c a t a l y t i c a c t i o n , f o r a r o l e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e development o f p e o p l e ' s p r a x i s and " p e o p l e ' s power", and i n q u i r y i n t o t h e i m p l i c a t i o n of such i n t e r a c t i o n f o r s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h i s r e s e a r c h , however, i s s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e p e o p l e ' s c o l l e c t i v e i n t e r e s t s a s p e r c e i v e d by them, and t o a c o m i t - ment t o p r o t e c t i n f o r m a t i o n whose d i s s e m i n a t i o n might be c o n t r a r y t o t h i s i n t e r e s t .

PAR and social transformation The ideo logy

What w i t h s u c c e s s e s and f a i l u r e s , u n d e r l y i n g a l l such work i s t h e ideo logy t h a t a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s p e o p l e , t h o s e who a r e c u r r e n t l y poor and oppressed , w i l l p r o g r e s s i v e l y t r a n s f o r m t h e i r env i ron- ment by t h e i r own p r a x i s . I n t h i s p r o c e s s o t h e r s may p l a y a c a t a l y t i c and s u p p o r t i v e r o l e , b u t w i l l n o t dominate.

Many p a r t i c i p a t o r y a c t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s c l a i m t o have been i n s p i r e d by t h e i d e a l s of h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m . Indeed, t h e n o t i o n of " c l a s s s t r u q q l e " a s opposed t o c l a s s harmony i s i m p l i c i t i n PAR'S approach which s e p a r a t e s o u t t h e poor and oppressed f o r s e l f - consc ious m o b i l i s a t i o n t o a s s e r t themse lves ; t h e r e s u l t i n g a c t i o n s of t h e oppressed a r e i n e v i t a b l y c o n s t i t u t i n g c l a s s s t r u g g l e s o f d i f f e r e n t forms, t e s t i f y i n g t o t h e i n h e r e n t c l a s s consc iousness o f t h e oppressed .

H i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m , however, has passed through many hands, i n t h e o r y a s w e l l a s i n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n , and t h e r e seems no long- e r t o be any broad consensus a s t o i t s o p e r a t i o n a l meaning. The r e c e n t growth of PAR a s an a c t i v i t y independen t from l e f t p o l i t i - c a l p a r t i e s s u g g e s t s t h a t i t i s opposed,a t l e a s t , t o a c e r t a i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s ideo logy which views s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a s p r i m a r i l y t h e t a s k of a "vanauard" p a r t y which w i l l assume ( i t s e l f ) t o have a consc iousness t h a t i s "advanced" r e l a t i v e t o t h e consc iousness of t h e oppressed masses , and who w i l l m o b i l i s e t h e masses f o r s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n and s o c i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . One f e e l s from i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h PAR a c t i v i s t s t h a t , i n f a c t , t h e . growth of PAR owes i t s e l f t o t h e c r i s i s of t h e l e f t a s w e l l a s t o t h e c r i s i s of t h e r i g h t : a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e "vanguard p a r t y " t h e o r y h a s produced s t r u c t u r a l change i n a number of s i t u a t i o n s , b u t t h e r e i s ev idence t h a t i n s e v e r a l of them newer forms o f dominat ion over t h e masses have emerged, and t o t h i s t h e "vanguards" have n o t shown much s e n s i t i v i t y . P e o p l e ' s l i b e r a t i o n i n many " r e v o l u t i o n a r y " s o c i e t i e s has, a s a r e s u l t , remained

e l u s i v e . The u l t i m a t e c a r i c a t u r e of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a l of l i b e r a t i o n i s showing today ( January 1981, a t t h e t i m e of w r i t i n g ) i n Poland where a s e l f - g e n e r a t e d c o u n t e r v a i l i n g power of working c l a s s v i s - a - v i s t h e vanguard i s b e i n g m i l i t a r i l y suppressed i n t h e name o f p r o t e c t i n g " s o c i a l i s m " , which seemed t o be a s t r a - t e g y of development based on p a t e r n a l i s t i c d e l i v e r i e s t o t h e peop le through e x p e r t i s e and w i t h massive borrowed f i n a n c e . Managed w i t h o u t i n v o l v i n g t h e p e o p l e , t h e s t r a t e g y h a s f a i l e d even i n i t s own terms and h a s l e d t h e coun t ry i n t o economic and f i n a n c i a l bankruptcy.

Dual t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

H i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t h i s n a t u r e c a l l s f o r r e - t h i n k i n g of t h e meaning o f " l i b e r a t i o n " . L i b e r a t i o n , s u r e l y must be opposed t o forms of e l i t e dominat ion over t h e masses. The dominant view of s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n h a s been preoccupied w i t h t h e need f o r changinq e x i s t i n g , o p p r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e s of r e l a t i o n s i n m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n . Th i s is c e r t a i n l y a n e c e s s a r y t a s k . But - and t h i s is t h e d i s t i n c t i v e v iewpoin t o f PAR - dominat ion o f masses -by e l i t e s i s r o o t e d n o t on ly i n t h e p o l a r i s a t i o n of c o n t r o l over t h e means of m a t e r i a l p roduc t ion b u t a l s o over t h e means o f knowledge p roduc t ion i n c l u d i n g , a s i n t h e former c a s e , t h e s o c i a l power t o de te rmine what i s v a l i d o r u s e f u l knowledge. I r r e s p e c t i v e of which of t h e s e two p o l a r i s a t i o n s s e t s o f f a p r o c e s s of dominat ion, i t can be argued t h a t one r e i n f o r c e s t h e o t h e r i n augmenting and p e r p e t u a t i n g t h i s p r o c e s s . By now, i n most p o l a r i s e d s o c i e t i e s , t h e gap between t h o s e who have s o c i a l power o v e r t h e p r o c e s s of knowledge g e n e r a t i o n - an impor tan t form of " c a p i t a l " inasmuch a s knowledge is a form o f s o c i a l power - and t h o s e who have n o t , have reached dimensions no less fo rmidab le t h a n t h e gap i n a c c e s s t o means of p h y s i c a l produc- t i o n . H i s t o r y i s showing t h a t a convergence of t h e l a t t e r gap i n no way e n s u r e s convergence of t h e former; on t h e c o n t r a r y , e x i s t e n c e o f t h e l a t t e r h a s been s e e n t o o f f s e t t h e advantages o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y c l o s u r e s of t h e former and has set o f f pro- c e s s e s of dominat ion once a g a i n .

For improving t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of l i b e r a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , t h e s e two gaps shou ld be a t t a c k e d , wherever f e a s i b l e , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h i s i s n o t accomplished by t h e masses merely b e i n g mobi l i sed by a vanguard body w i t h t h e l a t t e r ' s "advanced" consc iousness . People canno t be l i b e r a t e d by a consc iousness and knowledge o t h e r t h a n t h e i r own, and a s t r a t e g y such a s t h e above i n e v i t a b l y comprises s e e d s o f new forms o f dominat ion. I t i s a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e peop le deve lop t h e i r own endogenous p r o c e s s of consc iousness r a i s i n g and knowledge g e n e r a t i o n , and t h a t t h i s p r o c e s s a c q u i r e s t h e s o c i a l power t o a s s e r t it- s e l f v i s - a - v i s a l l e l i t e consc iousness and knowledge. The t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r t h i s a s s e r t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n of t h i s paper .

The change i n t h e r e l a t i o n s o f knowledge t h a t i s be ing conceived goes beyond t h e Maolst concept of "from t h e masses , t o t h e masses". The Chinese Revolu t ion d i d seek t o l e g i t i m i s e p e o p l e ' s knowledge and thought , and asked 6 l i t e s t o go t o t h e masses and l e a r n from them. But t h e t a s k of s y s t e m a t i s i n g p e o p l e ' s thought was g i v e n , it seems, t o t h e e l i t e s ( i n t e l l e c t u a l s ) and n o t t o t h e masses , w i t h t h e presumution t h a t t h e peop le a r e i n c a p a b l e of s y s t e m a t i s i n g t h e i r own thought - i . e . b u i l d t h e i r own s c i e n c e . I n t h i s view, r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y r e s t s u l t i m a t e l y w i t h t h e e l i t e s . Whether "Mao Tse-tung thought" c o r r e c t l y r e f l e c t e d p e o p l e ' s thought o r n o t , t h e p r o c e s s o f i t s systemat- i s a t i o n was, a p p a r e n t l y , e x t e r n a l t o t h e p r o c e s s of p e o p l e ' s own c o l l e c t i v e r e f l e c t i o n , and t h e knowledge t h a t was b u i l t was i n t h e end handed down t o t h e peop le . The wisdom o f a l l g r e a t r e l i g i o n s can be t r a c e d t o t h e wisdom of o r d i n a r y people r e v e a l - e d a t some p o i n t o r o t h e r i n some o r o t h e r c o n t e x t ; b u t system- a t i s e d r e l i g i o n descending from above and preached a s a f a i t h , r a t h e r t h a n ( s c i e n t i f i c a l l y ) r a t i o n a l i s e d through p r o c e s s e s o f p e o p l e ' s own ( c o l l e c t i v e ) s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n ( s e e l a s t s e c t i o n ) , i s a l i e n a t i n g r a t h e r than l i b e r a t i n g . I t can a l s o be r e p l a c e d by a n o t h e r r e l i g i o n i f t h e f a i t h does n o t work, o r i f t h e "p rophe t" d i e s .

PAR and macro-socia l s t r u c t u r e

PAR i s a s e a r c h f o r ways o f promoting t h e d u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s conceived above by g e n e r a t i n g and a s s i s t i n g p r o c e s s e s o f p e o p l e ' s own p r a x i s . I t s t a r t s a t t h e g r a s s r o o t s , a s a mic ro- leve l a c t i v i t y , and s e e k s t o s t i m u l a t e and a s s i s t g r a s s - r o o t s p r o c e s s e s t o develop i n t o a wider movement. How f a r t h i s can go from any g iven s i t u a t i o n cannot be u s e f u l l y s p e c u l a t e d i n t h e a b s t r a c t - PAR, and t h e development of p e o p l e ' s p r a x i s which i t s e e k s t o promote, a r e c r e a t i v e a c t s t h a t must move w i t h s k i l l and t a c t i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e and expand space f o r i t s own c o n t i - nued growth. I n t h i s s e n s e t h e r e i s no t h e o r y of how PAR may, i f a t a l l , b r i n g abou t m a c r o - s t r u c t u r a l change by i t s e l f , o r th rough t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t i t g e n e r a t e s . I n f a c t , t h e n o t i o n of p r a x i s i s opposed t o such t h e o r i s i n g which a s k s and presumes t o answer q u e s t i o n s on t h e c o u r s e of p r o g r e s s i v e c r e a t i v e encoun- t e r s between s o c i a l f o r c e s .

I n p l a c e s where s u s t a i n e d PAR i s b e i n g p o s s i b l e , t h e r e i s e v i - dence of t h e g e n e r a t i o n of s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e s a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l , i n terms o f bo th of t h e two r e l a t i o n s mentioned above. T h i s shows t h a t o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s a r e f a v o u r a b l e f o r t h e development of such p r o c e s s e s i n t h e s e p l a c e s , a t l e a s t up t o a p o i n t . For t h e Asian e x p e r i e n c e s i n p a r t i c u l a r , i t a p p e a r s t h a t a s p o r t i n g chance e x i s t s f o r t h e oppressed t o be a b l e t o u n i t e and f o r t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e power t o w r e s t s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s a t l e a s t from t h e i r immediate e x p l o i t e r s .

S p e c i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e of such space i n any g i v e n coun t ry shou ld be d e r i v e d from t h e s p e c i f i c s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t , and t h i s w i l l n o t be a t t empted i n t h i s paper . Broadly speak ing , one would surmise t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e l i n k between t h e s t a t u s quo of macro power and t h e l o c a l e l i t e s w i l l be a f a c t o r i n e x p l a i n i n g t h i s phenomenon. The s t r o n g e r t h i s l i n k i s , t h e l i k e l i e r i t i s f o r macro f o r c e s t o come t o t h e p r o t e c t i o n of l o c a l v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s i n t h e e v e n t of any t h r e a t t o t h e l a t t e r from o r g a n i s e d a c t i o n by t h e oppressed , t h e r e b y making it d i f f i c u l t f o r l o c a l a c t i o n by i t s e l f t o ach ieve much. On t h e f a c e o f i t , t h i s l i n k i s a q u e s t i o n o f t h e dynamics o f p o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e between n a t i o n a l and l o c a l e l i t e s , a r e l a t i o n t h a t by i t s e l f may vary both o v e r t ime and s p a c e , p e r m i t t i n g independent g r a s s - r o o t s m o b i l i s a t i o n , more a t c e r t a i n t imes and i n c e r t a i n a r e a s t h a n a t o t h e r t imes and i n o t h e r a r e a s . There may be some r o l e i n a more b a s i c s e n s e , of t h e economic worth of l o c a l G l i t e s t o t h e n a t i o n a l G l i t e s , by way of t h e dependence o f t h e p r i v i l e g e s of t h e l a t t e r on t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f economic s u r p l u s by t h e former a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l .

For Bhoomi Sena , t h e above c o n j e c t u r e is c o r r o b o r a t e d by a p a r t i c i p a t o r y study;}:/ of t h e movement which obse rves t h e money- l e n d i n g sawkars t o be an unproduc t ive c l a s s which has been con- t r i b u t i n g l i t t l e t o deve lop ing t h e p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s of J u n g l e p a t t i i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o make any s i g n i f i c a n t s u r p l u s a v a i l a b l e f o r use a t " h i g h e r " l e v e l s . Indeed, one of t h e r e a s o n s Bhoomi Sena has come a s f a r a s i t h a s , may be a s c r i b e d t o t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n between t h e f e u d a l money-lending c l a s s a g a i n s t which t h e t r i b a l s ' s t r u q q l e i s c h i e f l y aimed, and t h e emerqinq c l a s s of c a p i t a l i s t f a rmers i n t h e a r e a , w i t h power a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l no l o n g e r committed t o b a i l o u t t h e former p a r a s i t i c c l a s s . I n S r i Lanka, a t t e m p t s (now be ing withdrawn) t o c r e a t e a w e l f a r e s t a t e r a t h e r than deve lop t h e p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s , r e s u l t e d i n t h e c r e a t i o n of a s o f t s o c i e t y a s a whole , where t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l " s e c t o r h a s been s u b s i d i s e d w i t h r e s o u r - c e s r a i s e d t h r o u h t a x a t i o n of t h e "modern" s e c t o r supplemented by f o r e i g n aid.1.7 And i n Bangladesh t h e r u l e r s i n r e c e n t t i m e s have g iven t h e impress ion of b e i n g q u i t e c o n t e n t wi th t h e image of an " i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a s k e t c a s e " , w i t h s u c c e s s of government p o l i c y o f t e n equa ted w i t h t h e amount of f o r e i g n a i d i t i s a b l e t o o b t a i n , domes t i c r e s o u r c e m o b i l i s a t i o n remaining a t an a c u t e l y low l e v e l . I n such s i t u a t i o n s , t h e economic worth of l o c a l - l e v e l 6 l i t e s t o t h e n a t i o n a l e l i t e s i s low and i n p l a c e s n e g a t i v e , s o t h a t p o p u l a r movements c o n f r o n t i n g t h e former a l o n e may n o t be viewed by the. l a t t e r a s an immediate t h r e a t t o t h e i r m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s . Within l i m i t s , t h e n a t i o n a l 6 l i t e s may a c t u a l l y be induced t o p a t r o n i s e such movements a s examples o f democra t i c t o l e r a n c e and concern f o r t h e we l l -be ing and r i g h t s of t h e poor , a g e s t u r e t h a t may b e s t i m u l a t e d a l s o by t h e s u p p o r t t o such movements of f o r e i g n donor a g e n c i e s , f o r obv ious r e a s o n s . I t i s , however, a l s o n o t improbable t h a t s e c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e n a t i o n a l 6 l i t e s may c h e r i s h some n a t i o n a l i s t

sent iments , and may be a t t r a c t e d by i n i t i a t i v e s i n search f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e development s t r a t e g y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of g r e a t e r na t iona l s e l f - r e l i a n c e , and t h e support of such q u a r t e r s may a c t u a l l y have played a r o l e i n t he development of grass - roots peop le ' s processes i n t h e Asian region.

Notwithstanding ob jec t ive condi t ions such a s t h e above favouring the growth of PAR i n some coun t r i e s , t h e r e may be l i m i t s t o t h i s growth i n any one of them, given u l t ima te ly by t h e macro s t r u c - ture of t he soc i e ty which progress ive development of grass - roots processes and t h e i r i n t e r - l i n k i n g may even tua l ly confront . I n o t h e r s o c i e t i e s with d i f f e r e n t ob j ec t ive condi t ions very l i t t l e a c t i v i t y of t h i s na ture may a t a l l be pos s ib l e . When such l i m i t i s reached, it would be necessary t o seek t o change t h e macro s t r u c t u r e by appropr ia te means i n order t o enable t h e f u r t h e r development of peop le ' s p r ax i s . Unless peop le ' s self-conscious mob i l i s a t i on i t s e l f has developed a l ready t o a po in t t o be ab l e t o take on t h i s t a s k , PAR has t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o a l l y wi th o t h e r progress ive s o c i a l fo rces f o r confront ing t h e macro s t ruc - t u r e a t appropr ia te t imes.

PAR i n t h e "womb of t h e o ld o rde r "

I t i s important , however, t o note t h a t t h e development of genuine peop le ' s p r a x i s a f t e r macro-s t ruc tura l change i s l i k e l y t o be l imi t ed by t h e kind of s o c i a l processes t h a t have preceded it. The c l a s s i c work of Bettelheim on t h e Sov ie t ~ e v o l u t i o n A / revea ls , s e c t o r by s e c t o r , t h e almost t o t a l unpreparedness of t h e Sov ie t working c l a s s t o self-manage t h e t a sk of pos t - revolu t ionary r econs t ruc t ion , s o t h a t "exper t s" were ab l e t o take over and consol ida te t h e i r power, and eventua l ly e s t a b l i s h a d i c t a t o r s h i p over t h e people. A l l r evo lu t ions wi tness t h i s s t r u g g l e f o r power, a f t e r t h e o ld o rde r i s overthrown, between fo rces commit- t e d t o t h e r e l e a s e of peop le ' s i n i t i a t i v e s and those seeking t o dominate t he people i n new ways. I t may be suggested t h a t a c r u c i a l f a c t o r by which t h i s s t r u g g l e may be won o r l o s t i s the r e l a t i o n of knowledge - more s p e c i f i c a l l y whether t h e people can a s s e r t t h e i r r i g h t t o apply t h e i r own knowledge i n recon- s t r u c t i n g s o c i e t y , and t h e i r autonomy of choice of ou t s ide knowledge, r a t h e r than submi t t ing t o e x t e r n a l e x p e r t i s e i n a s t a t e of he lp lessness .

The e a r l i e r peop le ' s p r a x i s s t a r t s , t h e g r e a t e r should be t h e consciousness and confidence of t he people a t any s t a g e t o r e s i s t an invas ion of e x p e r t i s e . Accordingly, t he l i b e r a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l of t h e des t ruc t ion of an o l d order should be g r e a t e r t h e more advanced i s peop le ' s p r a x i s a t t h e time of t h i s a c t of t h e revolu t ion . I t is t h e r e f o r e never t o o e a r l y t o s t a r t PAR, i f space f o r t h i s e x i s t s o r can be c rea ted . Under such condi- t i o n s , vanguard p r a x i s cannot be viewed a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r peop le ' s p r a x i s , i f l i b e r a t i o n indeed i s t h e ob jec t ive . The growth of PAR, and f o r t h a t mat te r popular movements, i n

s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s i n r e c e n t t imes demons t ra tes t h a t p e o p l e ' s p r a x i s i s p o s s i b l e , r i g h t now. T h i s i s a c h a l l e n g e t o a l l "vanguards" t o c l a r i f y t h e i r commitment. The p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h a t t h e f u r t h e r development of PAR, t h a t even r e a c t i o n a r y s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s may p e r m i t , may be pre-empted by t h e a c t i o n of o t h e r macro-socia l f o r c e s committed t o some k ind o f s t r u c t u r a l change b u t i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e development of s e l f - a s s e r t i v e p e o p l e ' s i n i t i a t i v e s .

Notwi ths tand ing many o b s t a c l e s t h a t a r e be ing and w i l l be encounte red , t h e r e i s some assurance t h a t t h e on-going PAR i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s .nay n o t be i n v a i n . There i s e v i d e n c e a l r e a d y of t h e impact o f t h e F r e i r i a n work on r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h i n k i n g , and i f i t h a s n o t by i t s e l f y e t made a " r e v o l u t i o n " i n any s i n q l e c o u n t r y , r e v o l u t i o n a r y l e a d e r s h i p s a f t e r coming i n t o power a r e s e e k i n g t o adap t t h e F r e i r i a n method i n e d u c a t i o n a l programmes f o r r e c o n s t r u c t i n g s o c i e t y (e .g . i n Cuba, Nica ragua , Guinea B i s s a u ) . Thus even mic ro- leve l exper iments w i t h i n r e s t r i c t e d space can deve lop l i b e r a t i o n promoting knowledge and methods t h a t may f i n d macro- level a p p l i c a t i o n a f t e r space f o r t h i s h a s -been c r e a t e d by r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i o n . The same may be s a i d o f t h e mic ro- leve l i n i t i a t i v e s t h a t a r e ongoing i n As ia - any n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p i n such c o u n t r i e s which may s e a r c h f o r ways f o r s o c i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t may n o t end up w i t h an i n g l o r i o u s and o f t e n h o p e l e s s s t r a t e g y of d e l i v e r y of development from above and o u t s i d e , w i l l do w e l l t o c o n s i d e r t h e methodology of g e n e r a t i n g s e l f - r e l i a n t p e o p l e ' s p r o c e s s e s t h a t some o f t h e s e i n i t i a t i v e s a r e deve lop ing .

PAR'S own t e n s i o n

But PAR i t s e l f needs t o be modest abou t i t s own r o l e . I t shou ld be a d m i t t e d t h a t i t c o n s t i t u t e s a r a t h e r unusual i n t e r a c t i o n between two s o c i a l c l a s s e s : i n terms of m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t e l l e c t u a l s a r e p r i m a r i l y a consumer c l a s s , v i s - a - v i s t h e c l a s s of d i r e c t p r o d u c e r s , and i n terms of knowledge p r o d u c t i o n it i s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e o p p o s i t e . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o ob- s e r v e t h a t PAR p o s t u l a t e s e l i m i n a t i n g t h e second c l a s s d i s t i n c - t i o n b u t n o t t h e f i r s t , i n s o f a r a s ' n t e l l e c t u a l s a r e n o t supposed t o engage i n manual labour..!' Thus PAR p o s t u l a t e s p e r p e t u a t i o n of one o f t h e " g r e a t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s " i n s o c i e t y . T h i s must imply deep t e n s i o n s i n t e rms o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of m a t e r i a l p r i v i l e g e s and s o c i a l power from which PAR cannot be c la imed t o be immune.

PAR, a f t e r a l l , i s t h r e a t e n i n g t o become a r e s p e c t a b l e i n t e l l e c t - u a l movement, and p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h e r s a r e g a i n i n g i n s o c i a l s t a t u s , w i t h i n and a c r o s s n a t i o n a l f r o n t i e r s . PAR i s g e t t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d , and t h i s w i l l c o r r u p t some i n t h i s movement a t t h e same t ime t h a t t h i s w i l l promote i t s growth.

F i n a l l y , PAR c o n s t i t u t e s p r a x i s of t h e p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h e r a s w e l l a s t h a t of t h e p e o p l e , and t h e two p r o c e s s e s a r e d i f f e r - e n t , r o o t e d i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e t r a d i t i o n s and accumulated wisdoms of t h e two p a r t i e s i n t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n . The consequent p a i r s of knowledge-bui lding and s e l f - t r a n s f o r m a t i v e p r o c e s s e s may n o t always be i n harmony, a g g r a v a t i n g t h e t e n s i o n t h a t is i n h e r e n t i n t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n .

A s one p a r t i c i p a t o r y a c t i o n r e s e a r c h e r - a "community f a c i l i - ta tor" i n t h e S a r i l a k a s p r o j e c t i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s - t o l d me r e c e n t l y , " i n t h i s work you have t o c o n s t a n t l y f i g h t your enemies , and t h e g r e a t e s t enemy i s y o u r s e l f " .

PAR as research

The e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s t a n d p o i n t of PAR opposes t h a t of o t h e r s c h o o l s such a s empi r i c i sm, l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m and s t r u c t u r a l i s m , which r e j e c t ( s o c i a l ) va lue -b ias i n what i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be " s c i e n t i f i c " r e s e a r c h , and from t h e same p r i n c i p l e adop t t h e de tached o b s e r v a t i o n a l method of s o c i a l i n q u i r y . I t may be a rgued , however, t h a t no r e s e a r c h i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s can be v a l u e - f r e e , a l though some s p e c i f i c i n q u i r i e s may n o t be c o n s c i o u s l y so .

I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , a l though r e s e a r c h may be c o n s i d e r e d by some s c h o o l s t o be v a l i d f o r i t s own sake i r r e s p e c t i v e of i t s s o c i a l u s e , t h e " s o c i a l value-added" by r e s e a r c h - i . e . t h e s o c i a l e f f e c t s of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e knowledge produced by t h o s e who a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o app ly it - is a n o b s e r v a b l e f a c t which canno t be d i smissed . Given t h e s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y , t h e pro- d u c t s o f s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s w i l l be used more by some s o c i a l c l a s s t h a n by o t h e r s , n a t u r a l l y t o t h e g r e a t e r i n t e n d e d b e n e f i t of t h e former . It i s i n g e n e r a l p o s s i b l e by r e l a t i v e l y e lementa ry s o c i a l a n a l y s i s (which even t h e " i l l i t e r a t e " oppressed p o o r a r e capab le o f do ing) which s o c i a l c l a s s w i l l b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o use a p a r t i c u l a r knowledge i n e f f o r t s t o promote i t s own i n t e r e s t s . I n t h i s s e n s e a l l r e s e a r c h whose r e s u l t s may a t a l l be a p p l i e d i n p r a c t i c e , have c l a s s b i a s , and t h i s i d e o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r e s e a r c h canno t be avoided.

I n t h e second p l a c e , t h e r e can be v a l u e - b i a s , more s u b t l e t o . observe , i m p l i c i t i n t h e cho ice of t h e l o g i c a l sys tem o f a n a l y s i s i n s o c i a l r e s e a r c h . Cons ider , f o r example, t h e system of formal l o g i c v i s - a - v i s d i a l e c t i c a l l o g i c . The former p o s t u l a t e s t h a t something t h a t i s observed t o be "A" cannot be "not-A" a t t h e same t i m e , t h e r e b y r u l i n g o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a change from "A" t o "not-A" i n c e r t a i n ways which a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e pos- s ible by t h e l a t t e r . P o l i c y c o n c l u s i o n s from r e s e a r c h o f t h e same phenomenon by t h e two l o g i c a l sys tems may t h e r e f o r e d i f f e r ,

w i t h p o s s i b l e i d e o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t may be impor tan t . Thus, f o r example, i f t h e poor a r e observed t o be i n c a p a b l e o f doing s o c i a l a n a l y s i s , formal l o g i c would t e n d t o conclude t h a t t h e y shou ld t h e r e f o r e r e c e i v e e d u c a t i o n t o do so ; b u t d i a l e c - t i c a l l o g i c , p o s t u l a t i n g t h a t t h e observed i n c a p a b i l i t y u n i t e s w i t h i t s o p p o s i t e i n t o which it may t r a n s f o r m i t s e l f i n response t o a p p r o p r i a t e s t i m u l a t i o n , miqht s u q q e s t a d i f f e r e n t k ind o f pedagogy ( t h e k ind d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 11) t o p rov ide t h i s s t i m u l a t i o n - an a c t of l i b e r a t i n g t h e thought p r o c e s s - t o t h e peop le r a t h e r t h a n f o r o u t s i d e r s t o e d u c a t e t h e poor . The profound i d e o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two c o n c l u s i o n s shou ld be obvious .

I n t h e t h i r d p l a c e , i d e o l o g i c a l b i a s i s d i r e c t i n t h e de tached o b s e r v a t i o n a l method of s o c i a l r e s e a r c h which i m p l i e s a " s u b j e c t - o b j e c t " r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e r e s e a r c h e r and t h e r e s e a r c h e d ( t h e p e o p l e ) i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e " s u b j e c t - s u b j e c t " r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p a r . t i c i p a t o r y a c t i o n r e s e a r c h . Research on t h e oppressed peop le by e x t e r n a l r e s e a r c h e r s w i t h a s u b j e c t - o b j e c t r e l a t i o n - s h i p assumes and a s s e r t s t h e myth of i n c a p a b i l i t y of t h e peop le t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e r e s e a r c h a s e q u a l s . T h i s humul ia tes t h e p e o p l e , and a l i e n a t e s them from t h e i r own power o f g e n e r a t i n g knowledge r e l e v a n t f o r t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e i r environment by t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e . Th i s makes them w a i t upon e l i t e r e s e a r c h e r s t o come and f i n d t h e f a c t s abou t them, t o w r i t e abou t them and make p o l i c y recommendations f o r o u t s i d e r s t o s o l v e t h e i r problems. T h i s h e l p s p e r p e t u a t i o n of dominat ion of t h e peop le f o r which a s w e have observed n o t o n l y t h e i r economic dependence, b u t a l s o t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l dependence on p r i v i l e g e d e l i t e s , a r e respon- s i b l e . I n t h i s way t h i s r e s e a r c h methodology h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o i n a c t i o n o f t h e peop le and has i n v i t e d a c t i o n by o t h e r s , and has had t h e r e f o r e profound a c t i o n a s w e l l a s i d e o l o g i c a l consequences. Needless t o s a y , " r a d i c a l " r e s e a r c h by t h e n o n - p a r t i c i p a t o r y method i n c l u d i n g "vanguard p r a x i s " t h a t has n o t i n v o l v e d t h e -- p e o p l e , has a l s o i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h i s m a t t e r .

F i n a l l y , t h e methodolog ica l premise t h a t knowledge must be produced by de tached o b s e r v a t i o n has a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c r e a t i o n and p e r p e t u a t i o n of a " c l a s s " of i n t e l l e c t u a l s ( e x p e r t s ; t echnocracy) d i s t i n c t from t h e masses of d i r e c t p r o d u c e r s , c o n s t i t u t i n g a s e p a r a t i o n of menta l from manual l a b o u r , a c l a s s which h a s been s e e n t o be p o l i t i c a l l y a c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g o r i n f l u e n c i n g s o c i a l power t o promote t h e i r own p r i v i l e g e s i n bo th p re - and p o s t - " r e v o l u t i o n a r y " s i t u a t i o n s . I n t h i s s e n s e non- involvement is a myth - t h e s o c i a l r e s e a r c h e r is i n v o l v e d con- s c i o u s l y o r unconsc ious ly i n h i s / h e r own b i d f o r s o c i a l power, and t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a l method of r e s e a r c h s e r v e s a s an i n s t r u m e n t t o promote t h i s i n t e r e s t .

O b j e c t i v i t y

One may q u e s t i o n a l s o a c l a i m t o " o b j e c t i v i t y " i n r e s e a r c h i f t h i s were t o mean b e i n g f r e e from s u b j e c t i v e b i a s . The method- o l o g i c a l b i a s e s d i s c u s s e d above a r e s u b j e c t i v e b i a s e s . Such b i a s i s i n h e r e n t a l s o i n c o n c e p t u a l i s i n g and c a t e g o r i s i n g most human phenomena, and f u l l communicabi l i ty of such concep t s and c a t e - g o r i e s r e q u i r e s a s h a r i n g of sensuous ( s u b j e c t i v e ) p e r c e p t i o n s - i . e . communication a t a s u b j e c t i v e l e v e l i n a d d i t i o n t o formal d e f i n i t i o n s i f t h e s e a r e s o d e f i n e d .

There i s , however, a n o t h e r s e n s e i n which r e s e a r c h may be d e f i n e d t o be o b j e c t i v e ( o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , " s c i e n t i f i c " ) , i .e . i n t h e s e n s e o f t h e methodology and p r o d u c t having passed a p r o c e s s of s o c i a l v e r i f i c a t i o n . T h i s produces s o c i a l knowledge which i s d i s t i n c t from knowledge t h a t i s p u r e l y i n d i v i d u a l , i . e . sub jec - t i v e . O b j e c t i v i t y i n t h i s s e n s e r e q u i r e s t r a n s i t i o n from t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o a c o l l e c t i v e . T h i s i n t u r n r e q u i r e s t h a t :

( a ) a c o l l e c t i v e is d e f i n e d ; ( b ) codes of communication ( l anguage) e x i s t o r a r e developed

w i t h i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e ; and ( c ) agreement be reached w i t h i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e a s t o v a l i d

methods of i n v e s t i g a t i o n , r e a s o n i n g and r e f u t a t i o n o f o b s e r v a t i o n s and arguments.

Research i n a l l w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d s c h o o l s h a s a v e r i f i c a t i o n system of t h e above n a t u r e , e x p l i c i t l y o r i m p l i c i t l y , and is o b j e c t i v e , i f v e r i f i e d w i t h i n i t s own paradigm. I n t h e more advanced s c h o o l s t h e method o f v e r i f i c a t i o n h a s by now become more o r less s t a n - d a r d i s e d , and v e r i f i c a t i o n i s o f t e n p o s s i b l e by mechanical a p p l i - c a t i o n of c e r t a i n r u l e s o r arguments s o t h a t i n t e r - p e r s o n a l communication may n o t be n e c e s s a r y f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g i t s o b j e c t i - v i t y . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i s e , however, t h a t o b j e c t i v i t y i n t h i s s e n s e i s r e l a t i v e , i n t e r n a l t o t h e c o l l e c t i v e concerned (e .g . a r e s e a r c h p r o f e s s i o n ) . For t h o s e n o t be long ing t o t h i s c o l l e c t i v e , e i t h e r because of a l a c k of communicabi l i ty o r because t h e y do n o t a c c e p t i t s premises o r r u l e s , t h i s knowledge e i t h e r has no meaning o r i s n o t a c c e p t a b l e . There i s i n t h i s s e n s e no u n i v e r s a l i t y i n any " s c i e n c e " i n s o f a r a s t h e e n t i r e human r a c e does n o t c o n s t i t u t e a c o l l e c t i v e f o r t h e purpose of s c i e n t i f i c knowledge g e n e r a t i o n . I f t h e Chinese have n o t fol low- e d t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n system o f some Western schoo l i n deve lop ing t h e i r knowledge, t h i s does n o t make acupunc ture , f o r example, a p i e c e of " u n s c i e n t i f i c " knowledge i n t h e endogenous development o f t h e Chinese medical s c i e n c e .

PAR, an emerging s c h o o l o f r e s e a r c h , a l s o g e n e r a t e s o b j e c t i v e ( s c i e n t i f i c ) knowledge i n t h e above s e n s e . I t is i n g e n e r a l t h e d i a l o g i c a l p r o c e s s o f c o l l e c t i v e r e f l e c t i o n , when peop le "with- draw" from a c t i o n f o r r ev iew and decision-making i n t h e i r a c t i o n - r e f l e c t i o n rhythm.:/ It i s a rgumenta t ive , and dependent on

consensus r a t h e r than on p r e - e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s t o be a p p l i e d mechan ica l ly . T h i s does n o t make t h i s p r o c e s s any l e s s o b j e c t i v e ( s c i e n t i f i c ) t h a n o t h e r t y p e s o f r e s e a r c h , a s long a s t h e neces- s a r y c r i t e r i a f o r o b j e c t i v i t y a r e s a t i s f i e d . The peop le a r e en- t i t l e d t o s e e t h e i r " g h o s t s " , a s p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r s s e e t h e i r s , and r e g a r d them a s p a r t o f t h e i r o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y , a s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h f o r them i n t h e i r endogenous knowledge-bui lding p r o c e s s , a s long a s t h e i r e x i s t e n c e can be c o l l e c t i v e l y v e r i f i e d , t e n t a t i v e l y a t a p o i n t of t i m e , open t o subsequen t r e f u t a t i o n .

An immediate o b j e c t i v e of PAR i s t o r e t u r n t o t h e peop le t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e knowledge t h e y a r e capab le o f p roduc ing , through t h e i r own c o l l e c t i v e s and v e r i f i c a t i o n sys tems t h e y may d e c i d e t o e s t a b l i s h themse lves , a s f u l l y s c i e n t i f i c , and t h e i r r i g h t t o use t h i s knowledge - n o t e x c l u d i n g any o t h e r knowledge b u t n o t d i c - t a t e d by them - a s gu ide i n t h e i r own a c t i o n . The r e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of t h i s r i g h t by t h e peop le and i t s a s s e r t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d by PAR t o be fundamental i n t h e promotion of i t s ideo logy o f dual- s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , f o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of a major s o u r c e o f dependence t h a t is s t a n d i n g i n t h e way of p e o p l e ' s l i b e r a t i o n i n bo th p re - and p o s t - " r e v o l u t i o n a r y " s o c i e t i e s .

REFERENCES

I/ See f o r i n s t ance : - - D e S i l v a , G.V.S. =: "Bhoomi Sena: A S t r u g g l e f o r peop le ' s Power", Development Dialogue, 1979:2. See a l s o IFDA Dossier 5. - T i l a k r a t n a , S.: Grass Roots Sel f -Rel iance i n Two Rural Locat ions i n S r i Lanka: Organ i sa t ions o f B e t e l and Co i r Yarn Producers , WEP Working Paper , I L O , 1982. - Hossain, Mosharraf: Consc ien t i s ing Rural Disadvantaged Peasants i n Bangladesh: I n t e r v e n t i o n Through Group Act ion - A Case Study of Proshika (A Study done f o r t h e ESCAP, 1981) . See a l s o IFDA Dossier 15. - Tandon, Rajesh: P a r t i c i p a t o r y Research i n Asia , Centre f o r Continuing Education, New Delhi , 1980.

21 Haque, Wahidul, e., " ~ o w a r d s a Theory o f Rural Development", Development Dialogue, 1977:2.

3/ Charles Bet te lheim: C las s S t r u g g l e s i n t h e USSR, F i r s t Per iod: 1917-1923, - Monthly Review P r e s s , 1976.

4/ "The Challenge of Act ion Research", i n M.A. Rahman (Ed) : P a r t i c i p a t i o n - of t h e Rural Poor i n Development, 1981: l .

(Viene de l a pag. 17)

THEORIA Y PRACTICA DE LA INVESTIGACION - ACCION PARTICIPATIVA

Por " inves t igac i6n -acc i6n p a r t i c i p a t i v a " ( U P ) , e l a u t o r q u i e r e d e c i r una in - v e s t i g a c i h - a c c i 6 n fundada en l a p a r t i c i p a c i h y una i n v e s t i g a c i o n p a r t i c i p a - t i v a unida a l a acc i6n. Esboza 10s elementos de una metodolog<a de l a acc i6n c a t a l l t i c a de m i l i t a n t e s i n s t r u c d o s que e s t imu lan l a au too rgan izac i6n de 10s campesinos y l a a f i rmac ihn d e l a p r a x i s aut6noma d e 6 s t o s , l i b e r h d o s e progres ivamente de l a ayuda ex te rna . Examina 10s fundamentos icieol6gicos de l a IAP como un e s f u e r z o h a c i a l a l i b e r a c i h n de 10s i n t e r e s a d o s por ed los mismos y h a c i a l a t r a n s f o m a c i 6 n ' d e l a r e l a c i o n e s de producci6n en cuanto a b i enes f l s i c o s y a conocimientos. A con t inuac i6n a n a l i z a l a s r e l a c i o n e s e n t r e 10s e spac ios l o c a l e s y nac iona le s a s i como l a s t ens iones i n t e r n a s de l a IAP ( e n t r e i n t e l e c t u a l e s y l a base ) . La Gltima secc i6n enfoca l a IAP como b6squeda que reconoce sus v a l o r e s motivados socia lmente , per0 que s i n embargo pueden l l e g a r a s e r o b j e t i v o s a t r a v g s de l a v e r i f i c a t i 6 n s o c i a l .

WORLD OUMTERLY

A unique journal of Third World scholarship and opinion on major contemporary issues

Recent articles include : Ali A Mazrui

Exit visa from the world system. Miguel S Wionczek

The Brandt report. Raul Prebisch

Capitalism: the second crisis. Luis Echeverria Alvarez

Tensions arid conflicts in the Third World. Bernard Wood

Canada's views on North-South negotiations

Ed i to r : A l t a f Gauhar Third World Quarterly, .New Zealand House, 80 Haymarket, London SWlY 4TS, England

IFDA DOSSIER 3 1 , SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1982 BUILD I NG BLOCKS

PART1 C1 PATORY RESEARCH, POPULAR KIiOKLEDGE AND POWER

by Budd L. Hall International Council for Adult Education 29 Prlnce Arthur A Toronto Ontario M5R lB2 - Canada

Original language: English

Abstract: In this article, Budd Hall, the initiator and coordinator of the International Participatory Research Network under the auspices of the Inter- national Council for Adult Education, reviews the developrnent of the theory and practice of participatory research. This development has been a collective process involving hundreds of persons in about 60 countries who are concerned with the inter-disciplinaryissue~ of research, adult education, popular knowledge and power.

Participatory Research is commonly described as an integrated activity which combines social investigation, education work and action. Much of the recent discussion of participatory research on both the theoretical and the practical levels was reviewed at the International Forum on Participatory Research which took place in Yugoslavia in 1980. Emerging from the debates and activities of particpatory research is the central question of how participatory research can be useful in shifting power into the hands of oppressed groups. The author suggests at least three possibilities:

. Through engaging in the process of demystifying social reality and ex- posing and understanding the real c~uses of oppression leading to the ultimate goal of achieving structural transformation of society.

. Through the creation of "popular knowledge" or "people's science'' through the use of such collective methods as drama, drawing, thematic photographs, videotape and meetings.

. Through organizing such popular groups as farmers' and women's groups, workers' and health committees, neighbourhoods and campesinos in order to get together to understand issues and discuss options.

L A RECHERCHE P A R T I C I P A T I V E , L E S A V O I R P O P U L A I R E E T L E POUVOIR

R6sum6: Budd Hall, llinstigateur et le coordonaieur du rgseau international de recherche participative rappelle de quelle faqon s'est d6velopp6e la recherche, en th6orie et en pratique, en tant qu10p6ration collective impliquant des centaines de personnes dans plus de 60 pays pr6occup6s par le r6sultats de la recherche interdisciplinaire sur les questions concernant l16ducation des adul- tes, le savoir populaire et le pouvoir.

La recherche est habituellement d6crite come une activit6 int6gr6e3 combinant la recherche sociale, 1'6ducation et l'action. Beaucoup des rgcents dgbats, tant au niveau th6orique que pratique, ont 6tg repris au Forum International, tenu en 1980 en Yougoslavie. Un des points fondamentaux ressortant des d6bats et des activitss de la recherche participante est de montrer comment elle peut amener 2 transfgrer le pouvoir aux groupes opprim6s. L'auteur suggsre au moins trois possibilit6s:

. engager un processus de d6mystification de la r6alit6 sociale en exposant et en comprenant les vraies causes de lroppression, afin d'aboutir 2 la transformation de la structure de la socigtg;

. cr6er un "savoir populaire" ou une "science du peuple" 2 l' aide de moyen tels que le thGtre, le dessin, la photographie thgmatique, la vidgographie et les rencontres pgriodiques;

. organiser des groupes populaires tels que comit6s de femmes, de travail- leurs, de paysans, de sant6 etc. afin de rassembler les gens pour qu'ils dis- cutent de leurs problSmes et de leurs solutions.

Resmen: Budd Hall, iniciador y coordinador de la cadena international de In- vestigaci6n Participativa, bajo el auspicio del Consejo International para la Educaci6n de Adultos, revisa el desarrollo de la teorca y prsctica de la inves- tigaci6n participativa. Este desarrollo ha sido un proceso colectivo incorpo- rando cientos de personas en alrededor de sesenta pafses quienes estan preocu- pados de 10s resultados interdisciplinarios de investigacih, educaci6n de adultos, conocimiento popular y poder.

La Investigaci6n Participativa es comunmente descrita =omo una actividad inte- grada la cual combina investigacizn social, educaciGn, trabajo y acci6n. Mu- chas de las discuciones recientes en el Programa de Investigaci6n Participativa en ambos niveles, el te6.rico y el prictico fue revisado en el for0 Internacio- nal, el cual tuvo lugar en Yugoslavia de 1980. Surgiendo de 10s debates y actividades, la pregunta central es: como la investigacih participativa puede ser btil para trasladar el poder a 10s grupos oprimidos? El autor sugiere por 10 menos tres posibilidades:

. A travgs del compromise en el proceso de desmistificacihn de la realidad social y exponiendo y entendiendo las causas reales de opresi6n del principio a1 objectivo final de conseguir la transformacih estructural de la sociedad.

. A travgs de la creaci6n de conocimiento popular o gente cientifica por medio del us0 de metodos colectivos, como drama, dibujos, fotograf<as, sistema de video y reuniones.

. A trav6s de la organizacih de grupos populares como agricultores y grupos de mujeres, trabajadores y Comitgs de Salud, Juntas de Vecinos y Campesinos para juntarlos para entender 10s hechos y discutir las opciones.

Budd L . H a l l

l/ P A R T I C I P A T O R Y RESEARCH, POPULAR KNOWLEDGE AND POWER-

In t roduct ion

The development of t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e of p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h h a s been a c o l l e c t i v e p r o c e s s . I t has b e n e f i t e d from t h e c r e a t i v e and t h o u g h t f u l work o f hundreds of peop le i n abou t 60 c o u n t r i e s . I t h a s been and w i l l remain an i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e b a t e and d i s c u s s i o n among persons concerned w i t h t h e i s s u e s o f r e s e a r c h l a d u l t e d u c a t i o n , popu la r knowledge and power. The d i s c u s s i o n h a s been c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i t s i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y n a t u r e and by a c e r - t a i n d e g r e e o f exc i t ement among t h o s e who have been i n v o l v e d . The peop le who have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of a f f a i r s have i n c l u d e d l i t e r a c y t e a c h e r s l community o r g a n i z e r s l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s l s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s from a l l t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e s l a r t i s t s , s i n g e r s l f a c t o r y workers l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s t s and urban a c t i v i s t s .

This p r o c e s s h a s been p o s s i b l e through t h e s u p p o r t and s t i m u l a t i o n o f a l o o s e and v o l u n t a r y network of i n d i v i d u a l s whol s i n c e 1977# have formed t h e P a r t i c i p a t o r y Research Network. The network h a s been encouraged and suppor ted by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Counci l f o r Adul t Educat ion because! from t h e beg inn ing l it appeared t h a t t h e concep t of p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h l w i t h i t s emphasis on ' peop le a s e x p e r t s l 1 s h a r e d a common premise wi th a d u l t e d u c a t i o n . P a r t i - c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from more t r a d i t i o n a l k i n d s o f r e s e a r c h i n i t s commitment t o t h e empowerment of l e a r n i n g f o r a l l t h o s e engaged i n t h e p r o c e s s . Along w i t h i t s o t h e r char - a c t e r i s t i c ~ ~ p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h s t r e s s e s t h e eduecztionaL a s p e c t o f s o c i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n a s c e n t r a l t o i ts c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n ( . . . )

The network of t h o s e invo lved i n such c h a l l e n g e s and problems f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h i s composed of f i v e (soon t o be s i x w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e Car ibbean) autonomous and geograph ica l ly -based groups working o r i n t e r e s t e d i n p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h . (The c o n t a c t a d d r e s s e s appear a t t h e end of t h i s a r t i c l e . ) The groups have been f i n a n c i a l l y independen t l have worked on a v o l u n t e e r b a s i s and have agreed a t annua l mee t ings on some common s t r a t e g i e s and ways o f mutua l ly s u p p o r t i n g each o t h e r . A l l r e l a t i o n s have been t h o s e o f e q u a l i t y i n t h e f a c e o f s i m i l a r problemsl wi th Canadians l e a r n i n g from c o l l e a g u e s i n Venezuelal Tanzanians l e a r n i n g from I n d i a n s l and s o o n l accord ing t o t h e v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s .

More s o t h a n i n o t h e r workl t h i s paper - and o t h e r s i n t h e f i e l d - a r e t h e r e s u l t o f t h e o r g a n i z i n g and d i a l o g u e o f many peop le . Few, i f any, o f u s can s a y we a r e t h e a u t h o r o r o r i g i n a t o r of i d e a s and i s s u e s ; s u c h i s t h e c o l l e c t i v e and i n t e r n a t i o n a l n a t u r e o f o u r work,

( . . m )

7 ,

L' Published in Convergencel Vol. X I V l No. 3 , 1981.

!!hat is gart iciDatory research? P a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h i s most commonly d e s c r i b e d a s an i n t e g r a t e d a c t i v i t y t h a t carbines s o c i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n l e d u c a t i o n a l work and a c t i o n . The combina t ion o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s i n an i n t e r r e l a t e d p r o c e s s h a s p r o v i d e d b o t h s t i m u l a t i o n and d i f f i c u l t y t o t h o s e who have become engaged i n p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h o r who have t r i e d t o u n d e r s t a n d i t . Some o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p ro - c e s s i n c l u d e :

The problem o r i g i n a t e s i n t h e community o r workp lace i t s e l f .

The u l t i m a t e g o a l o f t h e r e s e a r c h i s fundamen ta l s t r u c t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and t h e improvement o f t h e l i v e s of t h o s e i n v o l v e d . The b e n e f i c i a r i e s a r e t h e worke r s o r p e o p l e con- c e r n e d .

P a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h i n v o l v e s t h e p e o p l e i n t h e work- p l a c e o r t h e community i n t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s o f t h e r e s e a r c h .

Focus o f p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h i s on work w i t h a w ide r ang& o f e x p l o i t e d o r o p p r e s s e d g r o u p s ; immigran t s , l a b o u r l i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s l women.

C e n t r a l t o p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h i s i t s r o l e o f s t r e n g t h - e n i n g t h e awareness i n p e o p l e o f t h e i r own a b i l i t i e s and r e s o u r c e s and i t s s u p p o r t t o m o b i l i z i n g o r o r g a n i z i n g .

The t e r m ' r e s e a r c h e r ' c a n r e f e r t o b o t h t h e community o r worku lace p e r s o n s i n v o l v e d a s w e l l a s t h o s e w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g .

Al though t h o s e w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e / t r a i n i n g o f t e n come from o u t s i d e t h e s i t u a t i o n , t h e y a r e committed p a r t i c i - p a n t s and l e a r n e r s i n a p r o c e s s t h a t l e a d s t o m i l i t a n c y r a t h e r t h a n de tachmen t ( . . . )

Debate and discussion

Much o f t h e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n on b o t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and t h e p r a c t i c a l l e v e l s was r ev iewed a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Forum on P a r t i - c i p a t o r y Resea rch which took p l a c e i n Y u g o s l a v i a i n A p r i l , 1980. The F o r > m b r o u u h t t o q e t h e r a b o u t 6 0 a c t i v i s t s and p r a c t i t i o n e r s from a l l r e q i o n s and , r a r e f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e m i n a r s l n e a r l y h a l f o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s were women. The Forum ' s o b j e c t i v e s were :

. s h a r i n g and c o n s o l i d a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e s i n p a r t i c i p a r e s e a r c h ;

. development o f p r a c t i c a l g u i d e l i n e s ;

. s t r e n g t h e n i n g of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i n k a g e s among r e q i ne tworks ;

. development o f f u t u r e s t r a t e g i e s .

t o r y

o n a l

A number of key i s s u e s , o r themes, emerged from t h e d e l i b e r a t i o n s . Whether i n working group d i s c u s s i o n s o r t h e o r e t i c a l p l e n a r i e s , p a r t i c i p a n t s addressed t h e s e i s s u e s w i t h a s e n s e of e x p l o r a t i o n , s e l f - c l a r i f i c a t i o n , commitment and mutual r e s p e c t .

The Researcher a s Learner

The r o l e o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r was one i s s u e and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e ' o u t s i d e ' r e s e a r c h e r . I t was s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s pe r son must b e committed t o s e e i n g t h e p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s th rough t o t h e end , avo id a c t i o n s t h a t endanger community members, and s e e c l e a r l y , and s u p p o r t , t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e sub- o r d i n a t e groups w i t h i n t h e community. I t was recogn ized t h a t t h e s e commitments a r e l i k e l y t o run c o u n t e r t o t h e ' c l a s s ' i n t e r - e s t s o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r , b u t t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r , a l o n g w i t h t h e community, l e a r n s and deve lops through t h e educa- t i v e p r o c e s s . The r e s e a r c h e r can make a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n by b u i l d i n g new unders tand ings and r e a l i t i e s s o t h a t he o r s h e i s no l o n g e r an o u t s i d e r , by b r i n g i n g new i n f o r m a t i o n , and h e l p i n g t o f i n d funds f o r development of t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s . I n a l l c a s e s , t h e o u t s i d e r e s e a r c h e r i s invo lved p a r t i c u l a r l y i n b u i l d i n g an '.gem c a p a c i t y f o r c o l l e c t i v e a n a l y s i s and a c t i o n and t h e g e n e r a t i o n of new knowledge by t h e peop le concerned.

Th i s i s s u e l e d t o c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c u s s i o n abou t t h e development and r o l e o f t h e ' o r g a n i c i n t e l l e c t u a l ' t o p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h . The t e rm comes from Antonio Gramsci, t h e I t a l i a n p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t and t h e o r e t i c i a n who wro te from h i s p r i s o n c e l l i n t h e 1930s. I n t e r e s t i n Gramsci was s u r p r i s i n g l y s p r e a d among Forum p a r t i c i - p a n t s . Although t h e t e rm sounds awkward when n o t p l a c e d w i t h i n Gramsci ' s o v e r a l l framework, t h e i d e a is n o t ve ry f a r removed from what many a d u l t e d u c a t o r s mean by ' t h e empowerment of peop le th rough l e a r n i n g ' . The ' o r g a n i c ' a d j e c t i v e means t h a t such l e a d e r - s h i p a r i s e s from, and i s nour i shed by, t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n of wor- k e r s and p e a s a n t s ; such a pe rson i s n o t an o u t s i d e r , a l though some- one o u t s i d e t h e s i t u a t i o n can f a c i l i t a t e t h e n e c e s s a r y growth, awareness and knowledge.

One p o s i t i o n by Forum p a r t i c i p a n t s i s t h a t t h e ' o r g a n i c i n t e l l e c t - u a l ' i s r e a l l y t h e c o l l e c t i v e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e new consc iousness o f t h e working c l a s s th rough i t s own s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s - such a s p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s - and t h a t , a l though p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h may s u p p o r t and h e l p such o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i t shou ld never s e e k t o r e p l a c e them. Another p o s i t i o n views ' o r g a n i c i n t e l l e c t u a l s ' a s i n d i v i d u a l members of t h e peasant /working c l a s s whose conscious- n e s s and t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e is r a i s e d th rough a c t i v e s t r u g g l e , of which p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h may b e one means. A t h i r d p o s i t i o n a r g u e s t h a t o r g a n i c i n t e l l e c t u a l s may be midd le -c lass Intellectuals who have been r a d i c a l i z e d through a c t i o n and s t r u g g l e and who may be l o c a t e d a l o n g a continuum from t h o s e engaged o n l y i n i n t e l l e c - t u a l work - such a s p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h - t o t h o s e engaged i n a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f manual, a s w e l l a s i n t e l l e c t u a l , work. A

consensus favoured t h e f i r s t two pos i t i ons . However, t h e i s s u e was provocat ive enouqh f o r qeneral agreement t h a t f u r t h e r examin- a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p a r t i c i p a t o r y research of t h e concep t of t he organic i n t e l l e c t u a l i s of high p r i o r i t y .

Nature of P a r t i c i p a t i o n

The meaning of p a r t i c i p a t i o n was used by Forum p a r t i c i p a n t s t o cover micro a c t i v i t i e s , such a s t h e l ea rn ing of l i t e r a c y s k i l l s , t o macro a c t i v i t i e s of popular organiza t ion f o r c l a s s s t r u g g l e a t a n a t i o n a l l e v e l . The p a r t i c u l a r r o l e of p a r t i c i p a t o r y research , i t was argued, i s i n t he process of mobi l iza t ion of people f o r t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e c r e a t i o n of new knowledge about themselves and t h e i r own r e a l i t y ; aga in , p a r t of t h e educa t ive component of t h e process.

An important d i s t i n c t i o n was advanced between p a r t i c i p a t i o n and manipulat ion. Under t h e guise of p a r t i c i p a t i o n - r h e t o r i c , slogans, s t r a t e g i e s t o ' involve ' t h e people - ou t s ide i n t e r e s t s may at tempt t o manipulate communities o r workplace groups f o r purposes of domest icat ion, i n t e g r a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n . I n c o n t r a s t , p a r t i - c ipa to ry research i s seen a s a f r o n t - l i n e aga ins t such manipula- t i o n s i n c e it advocates and t r a i n s i n c r i t i c a l and c o l l e c t i v e ana lys i s of t h e kind t h a t e s t a b l i s h e s and maintains c o n t r o l and l ea rn ing i n t he hands of t h e people, and e x p l i c i t l y r e j e c t s manipu l a t i on . P a r t i c i p a t o r y forms of s o c i a l a c t i o n t h a t lead from such c o l l e c t i v e analyses were a l s o advocated. Ci ted a s a key methodological i s s u e was t he problem o f how ' c o l l e c t i v e ' a p a r t i c i - patory research process may be, given i n t e r n a l power r e l a t i o n s within-communities and workplace groups and t h e degree of new l ea rn ing t h a t i nd iv idua l s wi th in a qroup must engage i n .

Popular Knowledge

The c r e a t i o n of popular knowledge emerged a s a goa l of p a r t i c i p a - t o ry research . For many, p a r t i c i p a t o r y research is a process by which the 'raw' and somewhat unformed - o r , a t l e a s t , unexpressed - knowledge of ord inary people i s brought i n t o t h e open and incor - pora ted i n t o a connectable whole through d i scus s ion , a n a l y s i s and t h e ' r e f l e c t e d ' knowledge ga ined -wi th o r without a l l i e d i n t e l l e c - t u a l s and those who have both broader and deeper i n s i g h t s .

Some d i scus s ions h igh l igh t ed t h e dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e kind of p r a c t i c a l technology and e x p e r t i s e t h a t people who l i v e i n t h e s i t u a t i o n have and t h e kind known by ' o f f i c i a l ' technology and e x p e r t i s e . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e var ious means of controlling t h i s process of i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t can be a v a i l a b l e t o l o c a l conunun- i t y o r workplace groups was c e n t r a l t o such d iscuss ions .

Also explored was t he c r i t i c a l ques t ion of how t h e c r e a t i o n and disseminat ion of new knowledge is l inked t o s o c i a l t ransformation. One p o s i t i o n is t h a t p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e sea rch can, through succes- sivemovements of popular a n a l y s i s over t ime, move people from

l o o k i n g a t more p e r i p h e r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e l o c a l r e a l i t y of f o c u s i n g more c l e a r l y on c e n t r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t a c t u a l l y i n f l u e n c e and c o n t r o l t h e i r l i v e s . I n t h e p r o c e s s , t h e y become more aware of how power groups can d i v e r t t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o p e r i p h e r a l and s h o r t - t e r m i s s u e s s o t h a t t h e i n e q u i t a b l e s t a t u s quo can be main ta ined . Thus, t h e l i n k i n g of a c t i o n t o such ana- lys ismoves from a c t i o n t h a t a d d r e s s e s s h o r t - t e r m needs t o a c t i o n based on s t r a t e g i e s f o r b r i n g i n g abou t fundamental s o c i a l change. (.. .) Local Autonomy and Broader S t r u g g l e s

Exchanges among p a r t i c i p a n t s b rought o u t s e v e r a l t e n s i o n s ; f o r example, t h e requ i rement of l o c a l autonomy f o r a g iven p a r t i c i p a - t o r y r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s and t h e demand f o r c o o r d i n a t e d s o c i a l a c t i o n a t t h e n a t i o n a l o r r e g i o n a l l e v e l s . A n a t i o n a l s t r u g g l e must be more t h a n an a g g r e g a t e o f p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h e x p e r i e n c e s a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l ; forms o f p o p u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n s developed by s o c i a l movements a r e complex and v a r i a b l e and a r e r o o t e d i n l o c a l p o l i t i - c a l and economic c o n d i t i o n s .

I t was p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , a t c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l moments, a l o c a l - l e v e l p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s may, i n f a c t , h i n d e r t h e pro- g r e s s o f b r o a d e r s o c i a l movements by over-emphasizing t h e l o c a l - i z e d n a t u r e of t h e problems. Some p a r t i c i p a n t s expressed t h e need f o r a way t o s e t ground r u l e s a c r o s s d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f s t r u g g l e s . Again, p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h was s e e n n o t a s a panacea o r conven- i e n t ' t o o l ' ; t h e r e was g e n e r a l r e c o g n i t i o n , however, t h a t , a t c e r t a i n s t a g e s , p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h can e n r i c h b roader s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

A ques t ion o f power

Emerging from t h e d i s c u s s i o n s , d e b a t e s and a c t i v i t i e s of p a r t i c i p a - t o r y r e s e a r c h i s t h e c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n of power. P a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h can o n l y be judged i n t h e l o n g run by whether o r n o t it has t h e a b i l i t y t o s e r v e t h e s p e c i f i c and r e a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e working c l a s s and o t h e r oppressed p e o p l e s (...)

How, t h e n , c a n p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h be u s e f u l i n s h i f t i n g more power i n t o t h e hands of p o p u l a r groups and oppressed peop les? There a r e a t l e a s t t h r e e p o s s i b i l i t i e s .

1. Unmasking t h e Myths

Vio G r o s s i h a s g i v e n c o n s i d e r a b l e thought t o t h e t a s k of p a r t i c i - p a t o r y r e s e a r c h a s i n i t i a t i n g a p r o c e s s o f ' d i s - i n d o c t r i n a t i o n ' t h a t a l l o w s p e o p l e t o d e t a c h themse lves from t h e myths imposed on them by t h e power s t r u c t u r e and t h a t have p reven ted them from s e e i n g t h e i r own o p p r e s s i o n o r from s e e i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r b r e a k i n g f r e e ( . . . ) I n t h i s c o n t e x t , s t r u c t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n can be seen a s t h e s t r a t e g i c g o a l t o be reached i n t h e medium o r long term. A

p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s c a r r i e d o u t i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h p o p u l a r a roups (and under t h e i r c o n t r o l ) i s des igned t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e a n a l y s i s of s t a g e s toward t h a t g o a l .

2 . The C r e a t i o n of Popula r Knowledge

The s t a g e s of d i s - i n d o c t r i n a t i o n t h a t Vio Gross i has o u t l i n e d a r e supplemented by working p a p e r s on methods t h a t have been used over t h e p a s t y e a r s by t h e Toronto-based P a r t i c i p a t o r y Research Group. The papers d e s c r i b e a v a r i e t y of methods f o r deve lop ing and a c t i - v a t i n g c o l l e c t i v e a n a l y s i s . These i n c l u d e drama, drawing, thema- t i c photographs ( b o t h s t i l l and i n photo-novel f o r m ) , v i d e o t a p e , mee t ings , r a d i o and in te rv iew-surveys a s a means of h e l p i n g peop le t o examine t h e deeper l a y e r s of t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . Such a c t i o n can l e a d t o s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n o f new knowledge; knowledge n o t gener- a t e d by t h e dominant i d e o l o g i c a l p roducers i n t h e ' s u p e r s t r u c t u r e ' b u t g e n e r a t e d by and c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e s and world view of o r d i n a r y peop le .

F a l s Borda has c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n of p o p u l a r knowledge i n h i s paper on ' S c i e n c e and t h e Common Peop le ' ( F a l s Borda, 1 9 8 0 ) . He s a y s t h e c r e a t i o n of knowledge t h a t comes from t h e people con- t r i b u t e s t o t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f a I p e o p l e ' s s c i e n c e ' which s e r v e s and i s unders tood by t h e common p e o p l e , and no l o n g e r p e r p e t u a t e s t h e s t a t u s quo. The p r o c e s s o f t h i s new paradigm i n v o l v e s :

. Return ing i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e peop le i n t h e language and c u l - t u r a l form i n which i t o r i g i n a t e d

. E s t a b l i s h i n g c o n t r o l of t h e work by t h e popu la r and base movements;

. P o p u l a r i z i n g r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s ;

. I n t e g r a t i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a s t h e base of t h e ' o r g a n i c i n t e l l e c t u a l ' ;

. Main ta in ing a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t i n t h e a c t i o n / r e f l e c t i o n rhythm of work;

. Recognizing s c i e n c e a s p a r t of t h e everyday l i v e s of a l l peop le ;

. Learn ing t o l i s t e n .

The c r e a t i o n of popu la r knowledge i s a form of 'ant i -hegemonic ' a c t i v i t y , a n i n s t r u m e n t i n t h e s t r u n g l e t o c o n t r o l what t h e s o c i a l agenda i s . Popula r knowledge can be s e e n a s p r e v e n t i n g t h o s e i n power from m a i n t a i n i n g t h e monopoly of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e wants o f o t h e r s , t h u s , i n e f f e c t , t r a n s f e r r i n g power t o t h o s e groups engaged i n t h e p roduc t ion o f popu la r knowledge.

3 . C o n t r i b u t i o n t o Organ iz ing

P a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h i s conceived a s an i n t e g r a t e d p r o c e s s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n , e d u c a t i o n and a c t i o n . When one a d d r e s s e s t h e q u e s t i o n of Dower it i s c l e a r e r t h a n e v e r t h a t t h e f i r s t two a s p e c t s a r e empty w i t h o u t t h e t h i r d .

But a c t i o n must be e x p l a i n e d s t i l l f u r t h e r . From t h e s e v e r a l y e a r s of s h a r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and r e s u l t s it h a s become c l e a r t h a t t h e most common a c t i o n and t h e c r i t i c a l n e c e s s i t y is t h a t of o r q a n i z i n g , i n i t s v a r i o u s phases . I t h a s meant s u p p o r t i n g t h e e f f o r t s of f a r m e r s ' o r women's qroups o r workers ' h e a l t h c a t t e e s o r neighbourhoods o r campesinos t o g e t t o g e t h e r t o unders tand i s s u e s and d i s c u s s o p t i o n s . I t h a s meant b u i l d i n g a l l i a n c e s w i t h o t h e r s o c i a l movements and s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e l i n k s w i t h i n v a r i o u s p r o g r e s s i v e s e c t o r s . I t i s , however, not a s u b s t i t u t e fo r the organizing of the popular movements themselves. With i t s s t r e s s on c o l l e c t i v e a n a l y s i s and on working o u t o f o p t i o n s and s o l u t i o n s t o g e t h e r , t h e p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s r e i n f o r c e s t h e o r g a n i z i n g p o t e n t i a l of t h e b a s e groups which use it.

Power for whom? I t would be a n e r r o r - t o assume t h a t n a i v e o r u n c o n t r o l l e d u s e of p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s i n s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e power of t h e power less a t t h e b a s e of s o c i e t y . Without c o n t r o l over t h e p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s , e x p e r i e n c e h a s shown t h a t power can e a s i l y a c c r u e t o t h o s e a l r e a d y i n c o n t r o l . There has been a c e r t a i n l a c k of c l a r i t y i n some e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s on PR around t h i s i s s u e , and it h a s r e s u l t e d i n misunders tand ing and manipu la t ion .

P r o f e s s i o n a l Researchers

P a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h h a s been used by some r e s e a r c h e r s t o pro- v i d e them w i t h i n s i g h t s and views t h e y cou ld n o t o r d i n a r i l y have had a c c e s s t o o r know about . Some o f my own w r i t i n g i n 1975, w i t h an emphasis on a n i n c r e a s e d ' s c i e n t i f i c a c c u r a c y ' , have inadver - t e n t l y encouraged abuses o f o u r work, i n c l u d i n g t h e manipu la t ion of groups by r e s e a r c h e r s . PR has become t h e key by which t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s have ga ined more power f o r themselves w i t h i n t h e academic s t a t u s quo (even a d m i t t i n g t h a t t h e academic world a l l o w s f o r wide i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s . ) I n t h e s e c a s e s , PR h a s f e d t h e process of i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l by g i v i n q more power t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e s t a t e f o r which t h e y work.

I n f a i r n e s s , p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h h a s a l s o l e g i t i m i z e d t h e work o f c e r t a i n r e s e a r c h e r s i n s u p p o r t o f v a r i o u s popu la r g roups , t h e r e - by r e s u l t i n g i n a s h i f t of s k i l l s and r e s o u r c e s from t h e ins t i tu t ion t o t h e community o r workplace.

The S t a t e

Some a c t i v i s t s and s o c i a l workers have grabbed on t o p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h a s a way t o g e t peop le t o a g r e e t o a p o s i t i o n , an a c t i o n , a p o l i c y t h a t s o c i a l workers , a d u l t e d u c a t o r s , o r o t h e r s , f e e l i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e i r purposes . PR can be debased a s a more e f f e c - t i v e ' t o o l ' f o r g e t t i n g t h e predominant views of t h e s t a t e i n t o t h e h e a r t s and minds o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r l y meddlesome o r o p p o s i t i o n p a r t s of t h e p o p u l a t i o n .

We a r e a l l f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e use by o r g a n i z a t i o n s of a s t u d y o r a commission a s an excuse f o r n o t t a k i n g a c t i o n , and u s u a l l y promo- t e d a s ' t a k i n q t h e p u l s e of t h e p e o p l e ' . Hours of d e b a t e , s c o r e s of w i t n e s s e s , p i l e s o f money can go up i n smoke - and t h e r e a l problems a r e n o t d e a l t w i t h . I n Canada a few y e a r s ago, t h e Beruer I n q u i r y was launched; an i m p o r t a n t l a r g e - s c a l e participatory r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t i n t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an o i l p i p e l i n e i n an e c o l o g i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e a r e a where Canadian I n d i a n s have l i v e d s i n c e b e f o r e t h e days of t h e w h i t e man. D e s p i t e ( o r because o f ? ) t h e i m a g i n a t i v e and i n t e n s e l y p a r t i c i p a t i v e way t h e Commissioner c a r r i e d o u t t h e i n q u i r y , t h e r e s u l t was, a f t e r c o n s i d e r a b l e w a f f l i n g , o n l y a merely temporary d e l a y f o r t h e government ' s i n - tended a c t i o n .

A q u e s t i o n remains , however, a s t o what happens a f t e r peop le have spoken up on such i s s u e s , have made a l l i a n c e s , o r had a t a s t e of c o u n t e r i n g t h e dominant f o r c e s o f t h e day? Is t h e r e a 'memory' of power which w i l l r e - s u r f a c e a t a l a t e r t ime? Is one r o l e o f a d u l t e d u c a t i o n t o n o t l e t such memories f a d e and t o b u i l d on t h e momen- turn, t h e l e a r n i n g , t h e c o l l e c t i v e a n a l y s i s t h a t i n q u i r i e s can g e n e r a t e ?

Popular Groups and Links t o S o c i a l Movements

Under c i rcumstances of c o n t r o l by p o p u l a r g roups , p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s e s have produced i n c r e a s e d power f o r some groups. The r e c e n t l y completed Appalachian Land Use S tudy , c a r r i e d o u t by a c o a l i t i o n of c i t i z e n groups w i t h some s u p p o r t from t h e Highlander Research and Educat ion C e n t e r , h a s produced d r a m a t i c ev idence of unequal t a x a t i o n p o l i c i e s - and i s l e a d i n g t o l e g i s l a t i o n and a c t i o n i n s e v e r a l s t a t e s .

I n Big Trou t Lake i n n o r t h e r n O n t a r i o , a p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s enab led t h e I n d i a n Band Counci l t o t h w a r t a t t e m p t s by government t o i n s t a l l a sewage l i n e t h a t was env i ronmenta l ly darnaging and t h a t would s e r v e b u t a m i n o r i t y . I n Norway, p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h methods were used by workers i n t h e Norwegian Chemical Workers' Union t o p r o t e c t and c o n t r o l t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of new technology i n t o t h e p l a n t .

One o f t e n f i n d s t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r and t h e base group a r e n o t t h e o n l y p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d ; u s u a l l y t h e r e is a t h i r d : t h e f u n d e r . I n s some e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e funder h a s p r e s e n t e d t h e most d i f f i c u l t y i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i n t e g r i t y of t h e work. Funding p o l i c i e s o f governments can , f o r example, expand i n t o p rocedures t h a t r e g u l a t e c e r - t a i n groups i n t h e s o c i e t y , such a s immigrants and n a t i v e peop les . Research w i t h p o p u l a r qroups t h a t i s funded by t h e s t a t e w i l l o f t e n be s u b j e c t t o such i n t e r v e n t i o n and i n f l u e n c e . Also, what happens when independen t r e s e a r c h e r s app ly f o r funds a s an i n t e r m e d i a r y group f o r popu la r o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s n o t e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y . Th i s h a s l e d , a t t i m e s , t o an unsavoury s i t u a t i o n where t h e needs and weakness of some p a r t s of t h e p o p u l a t i o n a r e p r e s e n t e d t o f u n d e r s f o r ? r a n t s , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e funds g o t t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r s and t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y group b u t n o t always t o t h e a c t u a l base groups t h a t t h e work i s t o s e r v e .

We come back t o t h e q u e s t i o n of c o n t r o l of t h e p r o c e s s and t h e l i n k s t o s o c i a l movements. A t p r e s e n t , t h e most p romis ing r e s u l t s f o r work might be found th rouqh b e t t e r i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h groups t h a t r e p r e s e n t b a s i c p r o g r e s s i v e i n t e r e s t s and which can be char- a c t e r i z e d a s s o c i a l movements. Th i s means working i n c o n d i t i o n s where t h e movement h a s an a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l and shape t h e l a r g e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s , independent of p o s s i b l e p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s . Working wi th such s o c i a l move- merits g i v e s a n a t u r a l channe l f o r t h e m o b i l i z i n g and c r e a t i v e e n e r g i e s of p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h t o f e e d t h e l a r g e r s t r u g g l e . I t would mean, f o r example, working u i th in t h e framework o f t h e women's movement, l a b o u r un ions , n a t i v e p e o p l e s ' p o l i t i c a l organ- i z a t i o n s , p u b l i c i n t e r e s t r e s e a r c h q roups , t e n a n t a s s o c i a t i o n s o r groups of l a n d l e s s l a b o u r e r s .

An invitation repeated I n a complex world t h e r e a r e no s imple s o l u t i o n s . S i x y e a r s a f t e r t h e o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e s on p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h were p u b l i s h e d i n Convergence we a r e n o t a b l e t o p r e s e n t a s imple fo rmula t ion o f t h i s work, nor would we wish t o . We a r e , however, more convinced, r a t h e r than l e s s , o f t h e v a l u e and importance of t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d by t h e concep t and p r a c t i c e o f p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h . A s we w r i t e now i n l a t e 1981, new groups of s o c i o l o g i s t s , p s y c h o l o g i s t s and t r a d e union r e s e a r c h e r s a r e o n l y now coming a c r o s s t h e work i n p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h and making l i n k s w i t h a d u l t e d u c a t o r s . Such s u p p o r t and en thus iasm i s re-encouraging a l l o f u s t o c o n t i n u e - a n d move forward.

I n 1975, we ex tended an i n v i t a t i o n t o Convergence r e a d e r s t o j o i n i n t h e d i a l o g u e and d e b a t e . The response gave p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h i t s c u r r e n t shape , ~ e r s p e c t i v e and network. A s i m i l a r i n v i t a t i o n is r e p e a t e d s o t h a t more o f us can work t o g e t h e r . Some work i n c l u d e s :

. S t r e n g t h e n i n g l i n k s between f e m i n i s t s t u d i e s and p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h . How can P R b e f u r t h e r human-centred and n o t man-centred?

. T r a n s l a t i o n o f i d e a s and e x p e r i e n c e s i n t o eve ryday l anguage s o t h a t w e o u r s e l v e s a re no t g u i l t y of l anquaqe c o n t r o l . The d i s c o v e r y o f new t e r m s e n r i c h e s t h e i n t e r n a l d e b a t e s b u t t h e u l t i m a t e t e s t i s whe the r - and how - o r d i n a r y p e o p l e c a n r e l a t e t o t h e s t i m u l a t i n g i d e a s and u r g e n t q u e s t i o n s b e i n g p u t fo rward . The re i s room f o r a g r e a t d e a l of p o p u l a r m a t e r i a l s .

. T r a i n i n g , and how a more s y s t e m a t i c way c a n be found f o r p e o p l e t o have some hands-on e x p e r i e n c e s i n p a r t i c i p a t o r y r e s e a r c h methods. Not o n l y th rough t h e u s u a l k i n d s o f f o r m a l s e m i n a r s o r workshops b u t a l s o t h r o u q h exchanges o f p e o p l e engaged i n t h e i r own work- p l a c e w i t h o t h e r s i n s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s and working on s i m i l a r c r e a t i v e approaches .

. Extend ing t h e ne twork. I n many ways t h e network s t i l l r e p r e - s e n t s a s m a l l g roup o f p e o p l e . T h i s i s n o t i n t e n t i o n a l ; i t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e t i m e and ene rgy r e q u i r e d t o make and m a i n t a i n con- t a c t s i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e wor ld . There i s work t o b e done t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e p r a c t i c e i n t h e f i e l d o f a d u l t e d u c a t i o n and t o make more l i n k s t o v a r i o u s s o c i a l movements t h a t e n r i c h o u r under- s t a n d i n g and o u r work . . . t h e women's movement, p e a c e movements, human r i g h t s , o r g a n i z i n g t h e r u r a l p o o r , w o r k e r s ' e d u c a t i o n . . . The network con tac t s

AFRICA

Kemal M u s t a f a , P.0, Box 5267, Dar es Salaam, Tanzan ia .

ASIA

R a j e s h Tandon, A-2/172 S a f d a r j a n g Enc lave , New D e l h i , I n d i a 110029.

CAR1 BBEAN

P a t r i c i a E l l i s , Women and Development U n i t , U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e West I n d i e s , E x t r a - M u r a l Depar tment , Barbados, West I n d i e s .

EUROPE

J a n de V r i e s , S t u d i e c e n t r u r n NCVO, Pos t b u s 351, A m e r s f o o r t AJ3800, N e t h e r l a n d s .

LATIN AMERICA

F r a n c i s c o V i o G r o s s i , C a s i l l a 6257, C o r r e a 22, S a n t i a g o , C h i l e .

NORTH AMERICA

P a r t i c i p a t o r y Research Group, Room S417, 252 B l o o r S t . W., T o r o n t o , Canada M5R 1V8

LADR I LLOS

LA DIMENSION CULTURAL D E L DESARROLLO Por Serg io Spoerer CCFD 4 rue Jean Lan t i e r 75001 P a r i s - France

Idioma o r i g i n a l : ~ s p a n o l

Resumen: Tomando como case ejemplar, el otorgamiento del premio nacional de cultura en el per& a un artesano, premio que no consigui6 arrancarlo a su ritmo cotidiano de creaci6n y de trabajo, el autor nos muestra c6mo la "dimension cultural del desarrollo" no se reduce a la preocupaci6n por la calidad de la vida durante el tiempo de no-trabajo. Ella concierne la vida entera del hombre, su trabajo, sus relaciones personales, sus actividades de ciudadano, el conjunto de su cotidianidad. La dimension cultural solo puede ser garantizada a1 interior de un mode10 de desarrollo en que se recon- cilian la atencion prioritaria prestada a la satisfaction de las necesidades esenciales de toda la poblaci6n con las mas amplia participation del pueblo mismo comoactor privilegiado de ese proceso. Son 10s hombres concretes 10s sujectos de todo desarrollo integral.

THE CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT

Abstract: Giving the example of an artisan who was awarded the Peruvian national prize for culture, who did not let the distinction interfere with his daily rythm of work and creativity, the author shows that the "cultural. dimensions of development" cannot be reduced to the rationalizing on the quality of life during non-working time. It concerns the entire life of a human being, his work, his personal relationships, his civil activities, his daily life. The cultural dimension could be guaranteed only within a model of development which combines the priority satisfaction of the basic needs of the entire population, with the fullest participation of the people as privileged actors in the process. Men and women, in a concrete sense, are the subjects of an all-integral development.

L A D I M E N S I O N CULTURELLE DU DEVELOPPEMENT

Resume: Partant de l'exemple de l'attribution du prix national de la culture du Perou 2 un artisan, distinction qui n'a pas trouble son rythme quotidien de travail et de creation, l'auteur montre que la "dimension culturelle du developpement" ne se reduit pas 2 la pour la qualite de la vie durant le temps de non-travail. Elle concerne toute la vie de 1'Ctre humain, son travail, ses relations personnelles, ses activites civiques, son vecu quotidian. La dimension culturelle ne saurait Etre garantie qu'au sein d'un modsle de developpement qui combine la satisfaction prioritaire des besions fondamentaux de toute la population avec la participation la plus ample du peuple come acteur privilegie de ce processus. Les homes et les femes concrets sont les sujets de tout developpement integral.

Sergio Spoerer

SOBRE LA DIMENSION CULTURAL DEL DESARROLLO

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mento.-&~ente fa p~~Â¥t<c- ipdcd irtd-iuidwsJi y de toif, gupoif, de d i vemu rwtu-

-taieza que. -ie.an 4u-4 age&^, ^.upeto.ltdo ~u L c b ~ t a d , ptuAaÛimo y auto-

nom-oi". Pet mhmo modo, hacemoif, -tonbi& nuutAa to. "Aecornendacion M t a t i v a

a ia. p&cipacion y a to. con-tiibuuon de ta>i mau popuHaAU en to. vida

cuUuial", adoptada p34 i a con{ ,e~encia gene,@& de to. UNESCO en if,u decwio-

novena ieunidw.

Ponemo~ upec.-iat ~ n f i a ~ h en to. necuiidad de. uno. v& p m ~ c i p a t ^ i ~ popu-

iaA poique eVia. no4 pmece. e t 4e.quLtiitc haîco de un ptoyecto de d u m ~ o U o

if,~~^.tenta.do f~ i inc ipdmente en {iU.e~za^ ~oUJoJiu, y fieciiAAo<s noûAoû

de cad2 nacion y poique *on to* hombfi~s c o n m e t m .to ~uje.to-4 de todo

d u m o U o 4 d ~ g i d . P M O tambien poque e& peAm-cte e-v-itaA U.e~zk.4

de.fioimac-Lone4 \xiêUita^ i n to. compieluiion de t o que d e n t i d a d cofctuAo

q L u e d e c h en Ai<s cond ic ione~ de hoy. Eif, d e c h , dewbidad ciLUnA&

entendida menoif, como ll-leif,cate" o Â¥pr,e/&e~uactio de WI ~ ~ a ~ ~ o n i o ui&co,

que como p ~ o c u o h-Lit6iico dinhnico, como w n 6 i g u h a ~ ~ n ptogiui iva de

un p e ~ { . H . naciowii, como memoi-ia colecAtua, como 4ueE0-4 cornpah-ttdoif,, como

d d o g o f,ecundo qne ~ 6 t o e t & cmtLnt~,co piuAaLLt,rno hate poif,ibte.

La impoato.nc'ioi que 04i.g-04 a i-a. pmticipac'ion popu&M no-fi u tarnbipn d'ic-

tada p04 Az p o p i a idea que no-fi hucwo<s de ta (liittuAa ; 'idea yue expaua-

fiemo-4 a@ con paâ.bm~ de M-eCan Kundvia : "h uUuA.a ~i to. me.mon.ia de l

puebto, Az con^c'iencia co tec t iva de ia. cowLinuidad h&&ica, e./ mod0 de

p e w y de u i v h ; f . 0 ~ fib'i .0~ if tci^ cuad^.o-fi no m n &no e l e ~ p e j o en que

uta. cu/C-tuAa paofiunda he ~ e d t e j a , <se concenÂa, he con^fclua".

S i acep-tonioh noCioneA, no podemo~ no concûAA que to. pa^.tlu.pacion

en ia uida cu'LtuX.oJi debt ASA entendida menoh como dupe-ttaJl o eme~genc.ia

de nue.vm, e.xpu'ie.nc-i.r'^ mt-Lt,tici~i que como -lemoc&n de t oh ob-fi&o-4

UViuLCfwialu -econ~mico<s, educac-Coiia-Ce-4, p o a ~ c o - f i - que exduyen o mm-

ginan del e ~ p a c i o phbfico ("&gal" J ia p ~ ~ c ~ cu t t i i f i du de d e t m i -

d o h hec-to-lu ~oc-co/ fu . Dude a t e punto de v-Li-ta. no hag mo-6 efSicaz

po!&ca cat-tuAat que aqueifa d u t i n o d a a cAem idii cond'icioneh de una

arnplia &butad de ex.p'i.ui6n y de. una aeceptiva "ucucha ' i~~s- fcc tuc iono!~~

o~ieyvtada hac-ia icu> p ~ c t i c a ^ c u U u A a t u que 4ectarnan la. pf.en^tud de 4u

c - i i t d a d d . En u t e , w n t i d o , pmece necaaAi.o valoi'izivi to. dimenîidn

<sodot de utm, pahatlccus c u U u A a i u , t o que. bien puede AÂ£ ~ i - t uado en

e! cow-tex-to de 10 p e UNESCO [Doc CC/MD/441 ha denominadc "act iv^da.du

encam'inadtu, a. a4eguAoA at mtdlto. toda to. paoteccion y ta go~cufvLi0.4 <so-

c-mfe-4 necuaAia-4 pma e f . ptcno d u m o U o de bu -taên-toP1.

La dime1~4'ion CLLUuAoJi d e l dua^ôUo adqu iue a menudo 6oama ope~a^ i va

bajo h notion de ar~na.c i& mUuAa^.. NOCL&. que aecub-ie, 0-f meno-4, doh

h'ig~'icac.ione-i pa' incipale~. En p ^ i - U n ~ & g m , aqueUa. que M-& to. a h a -

&&I p4edom.ina.ntemei^te en e t u p a c i o de no-aabajo , en c f . tiempo LibM

comiaghado a tcu, ac t ^v idada ~ec~ecLtt.ua-s ( l o h - ( A d o cuUMAdeh ; On-una-

cion entend'ida como ptornoci6n de t a c c u o phbtico ai pat~imonio mÂ¥fccitic

a(~im1iiado y d-Uponibte. (mo<seo<s, c o n c - t e ~ t o ~ , c ine , up icdmt .o<s , e t c . . . l . En uta. concepc-t6n, ta animacî& cuUUAal tviene pm f,u.ncion &ncipaJi

4educi4 to. dhta.ncA.a (" i"cc~t~~1 exhta.nte en-fcie e t mtusta if 4 ~ ~ 4 ob- iu ,

p o ~ una pm-te, y e l pubLic.o "coiîun'ido-i" po'i. otAa 1Tht.SitAe-Public no 33,

JoOi 19801.

U n a ~ e g w u f a At-gnih'icaci6n de h animac'ion cuUUAaf. a q u U a . que mcoge

ia. huenc-td de Az educac'cdn poplitm y qae. 4e concibe come pact ica . ~ c i a l ,

cmo e.xme-~idn de Â¥? c.ie.atividad de l 0 5 ' i ec to- ie~ ratginadoh d i to, edueaci~r.

6 o h d y de t a cu-fctuAa "cuUa", m c t o ' l ~ 4ocioJLe~ p e uiven "to. education como piact^,ca de to. U b u t a d " (Pauto F-tehej y & cut-tuâ como "comcien-

Hiaciort' Libe~adoha. En ute. 4e-n-f'ido to. noc& de aVmrn.C^-& apmece Li-

g& u>Viechamentt a tafi de p4ornoci6n co&ct^.ua, t~anîf .on.maci~n 4oc<Af y

cu t ima poputoA.

QU& no ^ta ~ u p e ~ 6 l u o wvwJLa.~ que e-n e t mundo de hoy hag &gm leg;-

tun0 y n e c u m i o pma omba~ concepcione-i, p e ~ o que & uocaci6n del

C C F D e~ inte^-to'c hacm ~ u y a ia. ~egunda de eUcUi.

E - 6 . t ~ bhque.da de "ewcac^.nementrl -corn0 io. hub& ticunado Shone Wi-ii-

no debe, -iin ernbmgo, I l e u m al e-~to.bâ‚¬ecw^.en de una d-icotomh -6aha-

e-nae cultuAa popuâ‚¬ y Ltadic'Lon poi una paAte- y cutoiAa " ~ u t t o . ' ~ y rno-

dunidad p04 ofyia. Toda cUiituAa viva e4 necucuiiamente- deuenh . Y en

u-ta mateAia don Joaqdn Lopez An- no no-i hub&& uenido a de^rnentAi.

Huede.40 actAvo de una -ttadicidn, -411-4 4u i c .u hiere pueden hemontaA4e a

aqueÛoi cuien-torn-ie-nto-i hiirnano~ de- l a 4e0idn de Huamanga que dgunoi'i hacen

dat-aA de 20.000 aiio-4. Region queante-i de 4e-t con^qu-Ctada p04 e l . i m p ~ i o

Inca i n if. 44gLo X I V u io dlohecm -Â£ ciuiLizaci6n i t t ~ i en que de^to.ca~on

AU c ~ & i c a y mqu'ctectuAa. La conqu-c-4.ta e~pakota. p o n i o u e a una cu.UuAa.

mestizo, de ampt-UJ. bo-ie- oA tuawi t que d u d e e-l h g l o Will hub&& d i

duto.on-ie hobhe todo p04 4114 manifiUta.cionu p i c t & . L c ~ . ; ~u!.<in podA&

.io-iteneA que don J O ~ ~ U ~ I u rnen0.i fu jo de 4u t w i A a cmndo AU aAte expêâ

ju-4tarnente cue -iinue-t^rno ? ' coma ignoficvi que to-i ante.cedenteî hh&icoi ,

rnh c l a A o ~ de- ALL! .-saw Mmco-4 no Â£ en l04 Andu que 4e encuen-fcian, >i-i

îiquA.~ia en Amhica, hino i n to. Viadic-~bn iconogkfs-ica. d d medioe.vo c ~ h -

iâno, m a ~ p&tcÛiamente i n aqueUa de Â£0 hommo-4 de Santiago ?

F A quLzCL&, hoia de. d e c h que -hobfie todo en Amuica Latim- l o p o p i o de

urn cuUim.a na&-(.onaJL u p~oduc-tA una ^-inte^h u,pe(n-6ica. E-i Educvido Galeano

q L e n Â¥ie que "ta cuUuAa nacional he dedine poh 4u conten-id.0, no p04

e f , ohigen de ALL! (Sac-to-'ieî y cuando e d v i va cambia &I c a m , -ie d e ~ a 6 i a

a. 4 i VUJWCL, 42 confyiadice y &be infltu.enc-uUi e x t u r n que a vecu, to. taîtiman y a v i c u ia. muit ipf ican y cue. -'sueten o p e ~ m 4-unu-fcteneame.nte como

pefigho i f corn0 &dor1 . V <u>to e-4 U / -ag-tega W e a n o - pohque "nuuVia

i d e d d a d u.d en to hÂ¥u>tnîia no en ia. biolog'ia., {.a. h e n ifUs cuLhto-4,

no tiUi hazcu,".

Hacu po&bte uta. ob4a d~ ~ A n t a h ex<.qe un -CAAe~tA-icto t a p e t o de to^ rna-

tuieJLe-4 que to. 6oirnan y de .Co-i manoh y to. v-ida de to^ hornb~e~ y pueMo-~

que. to. eta.bo4an : fie-speto de to. tib&tto.d, del ptuAcLiiiirno y d i to. autono&,

d&a Fetipe H w i e ~ a . en p&b4a CA,tada rncus aviiba.. P ~ A O e-6& 4-oi-tu-Li entendida como u e a c i ~ h coteckiva, corn0 rnuU-Ltudi~~lia obm de m-UuAa,

m q u i u e tarnbi<?n de t a ex-Citenc-ta. de tm> cond-icionu rnatg~tillu, de

in64aut^.uctuAa, de teCuA40-4, otganizOikivm>, dcn~.aaî y de p2~honaX

que to. hacen pohibte. CumpLui con mboh heqo-G4ito'f, Ui en f ~ i b e ~ h g a i i

luponâb-iLidad de mda punbio, de mda â ‚ ¬ d â‚ W' que t U e t o

pfiinc-ipal d i i u6uuz .o . Puo eh evideytte que to. coop&tau6n in te~rnc iona l -

que no-io-fcioh pi4e~imo-i M m wtidahidad- tA.ene tambien un impottanf.e

pupit que jugm.

Que he no4 p e ~ m h k expt imno-i en ecita rno^gAâ en boê a una expe~iencia

que -entAe, rnuchc~l otiiiu- e t C C F V ha te.nido to. oco-ii6n de v h h . No4 ti-

6uhnoh a Camboya y d p4oghma de q u d a a kh tutauAacion de ôh tem-

p.Co.6 de Angko~. E l d i m a vivi.do p04 ii puebio cicmboyano u ~i ( ( i c i en te -

mente conoc,Cdocorno pma podu dhpen4mno~ de euocfucto aqui. E t CCFD

-en acue~do con t o d a o4gan^.zac-ionu que con((o4rna.n &. CIUSE ( 1 1 ha d o p4uewt.e en Cmboya dude. qui e t &ama de u e puebto ((ue cono-

cido p04 to. oPini6n phbt-ica i n t e ~ n a c i o n d . E t de^wi-'ioUo de una vcu>ta.

campaka de Â¥(-ndo-'ima.c.i~ y ~o t - ida~ idad -p^n.ncipatmente en Eu~opa- p ~ m ~ 6 a ia. CIVSE rnob-Ll-i-tm h a c k u e p& ~ ~ C U J L A O A f.^.ncw.c,Ce~o~ ds-i. o4de-n de

to^ 10 m^ttoneci de doicmu e n a e 1979 g 1 9 g l . La pue.ncia peArnanente.,

du~ante todoh &oh anoh, en Phnom Penfc de urn t i~.ue.nta.nts. de to. CIVSE

ha peAmi-fct.do acumuJijOA uno. fiica up&tienc-Cfl. t u p e c t o de io u-c - t e~ ioh y

mLfodoh con que h a c a e((ec.t^va to. .fioLido~,Cdad iVlteAnac-ionaJi t q u e ~ i d a pot

nt pueblo de Camboya.

E-i decide ii i n t e ~ i o t de u a expeniencxil que mice ia. ccmpak~ pot d v m

fo-i t e m p i o ~ de Angkoh, E h ~fle/itO. Cmpene, tefw.eAeyita.nts. peAmane.de d d

CCFU y de ia. CIVSE en Phnom Penh, que exptic.a a& iH. ~ e w u d o do. e to cam-

pak :

(1) Cooperation International para el Desarrollo y la Solidaridad, reagru- pa 24 organizaciones de ayuda a1 desarrollo -entre las cuales el CCFD-, reconocidas por 10s Episcopados de sus respectivos paises.

'' En media de. g-tande.~ d i ^ c u U a d u , e i puebio Khrna comienza a -teuivÂ¥(A

La w i i d a t i d a d i n tanac iona t ha ~ k i o un e i m e n t o dec-cîuo de ute. fie-

nacim-iinto if dibe p-to-f ieguhe.

â‚¬A puebio fiico de una hLf>to4& m-cênat4a, q i u u e h b h fieencoivtAm

AUA hdce-4 pata e'n.-UstAA como pueblo {xm.dico y hacm AU cotiit~ibuc-do'n

oJL d u m o - U o de AA&. â‚ q a i a e voivm a h a b k e l kngua je que i.i. &-

gmon A L L ~ u n c u t ~ ~ ~ . Pma e i c o n j u n t ~ de ute. puebio 'unp~egnado de

cuJLtuAa, 10.4 ^ { m b o i o ~ de a t e ienguaje ton , en pl-une~ & i g o ~ , Â£0 mo-

nurnevito~ de Angko-t, c&?eb-ta en c l mundo e n t a o .

Pu~ante. una u-u>ito. de tAabajo en to-tno a f . g-tan iago TonS'.& Sap, -0.4

o c d o n de. u-UiitaA A n g h donde no^ enconfyicunoh con Pich Keo, e l actuoJ',

c o ~ 4 ~ ~ u a d o - t . En AU compakia, u-c^fJtamo~ d i { , m e n t u twpio- f i entA.e i o ~

cuaCeî Angko-t Vo-? q to4 de l c-iAcu-ito pequefic, duiuib-tiendo U/ 4u4 m-

4avit&4 y tomando comiciencia de AU vaf.ofi de ~&nboS'.o paha ia. h-Uito-tia

dat pueblo k h e ~ y pcuia ,in -tenacimiento u iUuAal . Ningun puebio puede

uiu-ct b i n - l a i c e ~ .

E l AenOfi Pich K&o 1104 hizo un emocionante. Ucmado a to. i i o f i da~ idad . Pueh

ia. -taAea de ~ o - f w a ~ Angfeo-t ~ o b f i e p a a de tejo-f i Â¥Â£a p o ~ ~ b i t l d a d u actual^

del puebto khmvi.

Equip0 en un p-tinia~ memento 10-4 ta f . t i n . e~ de ~~-4 tauAac ich apatece. como

una toAea p~irno~dioJL q a f . d cance de t-m, ofigam-zacionu no gubavmmentoJLu.

P e ~ o to. obfia de fie~tauAac^.6n dvJi conjunto h-Uit&ico de Angkofi - tequiae

i a i n t ~ ~ w e . n c v ~ d n de &A Cn~<ancÂ4 m.ci0naf .u e i n t u n a c i o n a t e . ~ a w e u a -

LizadcLi en utr dom-im-of'.

E l CCFU y Â¥t C I U S E lmn que-tido pomoue-t u-to u w p a k p04 S'.a -te~-tauâc.idn

de 10-4 a2mpio~ de Angko-t p a ~ a tu,t-Unonâ~. que &n un l o ~ momento~ m&

d~cmat^.co~ de ia. vida de un puebio, i a d ime i~ i i i n cuUUAai de AU h c h a y

u p u a n z a no puede - i e ~ igno-tada. Pofirjue no h q cout'luccihn m u o n a t ^Â¥i

mencuenit0 de l &do cote.c.-tcuo que hc.e fa. h-u>toâ de una nat i&. Y

Angko4 U e.i oAna de i pueblo khme~.

No* hemoh deten-ido en to. p ~ u e v i t a . ~ ~ n de un poyec to de d m ~ i o U o cut%-

n d en ute. doLido p& del h u d - u t e cu,&co a ~ a b i e n d u que no podA-t^nno-~

h b h de to do^ to-i d o & . Volga e n t o n c u e t himple m c u v ~ d o de o A t o ~ pio-

yec-to.4 i n d u m o U o a tAaw& del mu~do q que e t C C F U ha Zeddo e t p&-

tegio de h0-4tenu en que & dimen^ôn calttiAaf. u e t eye de hu quehaceh.

Pe-0-4 en e-i. TMDEC de Guaddajwta, ~ l x i c o , en e t GRAAP en A6tica del

O e A t e , o en todoh LOA ptoyeCJt.04 que Acenen a iradigena^ o habito.n.iu de

b m i o ~ ~ u b - i ^ [ b a n o ~ como (~o- togonAten , , en(S-ten<ado~ uno-4 y o b o h a Az

toAm de ~ V I U H A W O A ,504 taice-4 c ~ i i t u A a t u como p m t e de AU h c h po-t â

w h e v i v e n k a . Pen4amoh, en {.-in ere c l CAUA (Cot ic t ivo de a c c i o n u de

at&) de Sa.ntAJO.go de Chile , gulmdoneado Â¥hat poco con e t m& impo4to.nte

pemio otoîgado pot e l ~ec-t.04 p-ivado de AU paLfi.

Hoy, en que nuewcu, iniciat iucu, AuAgen en tiu .eS'^.konu int.ehna.u.0naJS.u

intentando una heconc^~'.iac&n de l oh o b j e t i v o ~ de to. paz y de l d u a ~ ~ . o U o ,

vJL mumdo de to. cuituAa -que no e-4 " o t t o mundo", ni un mundo apmte -

time un papel centAol que aîmiA. M& que de ~ 0 0 ~ v A a c ^ ~ n eî de co-dua-

MO tj de c o n t t a t o ~ de ~ o f i d a ~ i d a d que hoy he pê.!iiue. h.abf.aA.; Cdmo

en-tender uno y oAto b in conoc'w-iento mutuo, in d-iaôgo de c u U i m a ~ ?

;C& no m e e ~ que. it apte.d-izaje de t uombto U tequ-c4Lto de l mpe . t o a

ia. ideivUdad de l 0 x 2 0 ? 2 C&O i g n o ~ m que d o {,undado en e^>e tehpefo

u, &bte un encuenAto weAdadvio de cuUuAa-f, i<e.eunaWo mutilamcnte poi

t o que cada c a d ha. apoitado a l patft.imonio corn& de to. humanidad ?

En utcLS, rncttuiiu, ~ O A E~-tedo4 han ten-ido y t i enen urn gtan te~poluabiii-idad.

UÂtoito - y c-ie~tarnente. compteme.nttU-io- u e t t emeno en que -lie h i x h to. ac& de.t C C F U . Eh-te U e t de ia , otgarU.zac.-Conu no-gube~nmentaJLeh.

U& AU expu-ienc-ia. de 20 ~ E O A y con to. ~'Lqueza que popotcionan AUA ac-

tuaiu t e t a c i o n u con m h de 500 p-toyecto~ de d u c ~ ~ i o U o en e t T e h c e ~ Mundo,

e t CCFV ud d-Uspu~sto a d-uLEoqo~ y c o o t d i n a ~ ~ ( S u e ~ z o ~ con todoh aqaeUoh

que. he -4-ten-ten concehnido~ p04 eL l u p e t o a dimem,idn m.UuAd de l d u a -

m o U o ; u dec-it pot e t h ~ p e t o debido a Az voz y a -to ~obeAanLa de loh

puehio-i. â‚¬- ha q u e ~ i d o VJ~ e t ê.nAcdo de nue-iaa p ~ u e n c ^ a a q d .

D04 pizAxb4o-4 t o d a v h a n t u de. t u inba~ . PodA-Ca m e w e . qua. hem04 abandonado

a don ~ 0 a ~ u . h e.n mitad de.!. cm-ino. P U O no, no ha ~ i d o ( ~ 4 , aunque te.ne.rnoA

4; que 4epma.t dguno-i o!.v-ido-i.

E t ptvn\uo, u. no h a b ~ phec-c~zdo que ma . a^& de 4u4 pa^<i.aje~ a n d ~ n o ~ , to. Huumanga imtc,; de don ~caqu<n u, m i ~ bien conocida corno Ayacucfw. ..

Pox. qu6 entcncm, v e h i b - L i ~ f , ~ e c c t d a A aqd a t f i b u t a d o t Eoti-vm y a

4u p 6 d h de ~ c b - t e to. indepe.nde.ncAa, to. u d a d y ia. ~epu.bâ‚¬ic 1.

Y pox. v 6 no -?ece?AM u a p ~ i d i c a en &u pciia.bicu> de s h i n RodAiguez,

AU mautô, QUC. don At-tu-?c ILi-Cut Piet i l i no4 ha dado to. ocaîihn de

d u c u b - t h en " h l& de Rcbirîonn ? :

Que. 4abe-i de. ~e.$btica. ? ~crê. to. hsu, v d a , Munueh ~ 6 m e z ?

O.tu accuse u, an , & j a ~ o % f o , f f e n o de c o . t o ~ i n ~ o urn beAtia

extxaha. y nur-ca tincontAada., corno -4-0 -te habiivian d e l unLco^m-0, d e l hipo-

g 4 0 y de to. CLicu-dta 1 P u o r i b u ^ w &u d o n c e m p1~>11~-4, n i v i v e

en e,i huego, r i fîe.ne a Lf, if coia. de &aghn. E A ana. mejot mancta de

u i u h p a ~ a t c J a ia. aunts,. P m fc-i ~ e E o / i o n ~ i , p m a ~ O A pe.tad0-4 y paha

ti t a m b d n , b 1 ^ - n . d ~ Gcmez. E A ia. RU PGbt^ca, no if. buey pubiico, ni

to. vaca p h b / - L ~ , -i-Tio to. ccâ de t c d o ~ , e.t b ien de todoh , ia ~ocûtdud

~ U J i i z a d a er. Â£c -5u p ~ f i c c i 6 n w .

IFDA DOSSIER 31 , SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1982 BUILDING BLOCKS

ON THE INTERACTION BETWEEN CULTURAL ELEMENTS, P O L I T I C A L INSTITUTIONS, AND LIFE STYLES

by Gurinar Adler-Karlsson Roskilde University Center P.O.Box 288 4000 Roskilde , Denmark

Original language: English

CULTURE, INSTITUTIONS POLITIQUES ET STYLES DE VIE

Resume: L'auteur perqoit la culture ouest europgenne comme un "jeu" entre dirigeants agressifs d'institutions toujours plus grandes. ces styles de vie aboutissent 2 considerer les enfants comme objets, et les objets come enfants. La croissance de la richesse objective est en contradiction avec le recul de La satisfaction subjective. Ainsi se perpgtue un processus materialiste sous 1'6gide de dirigeants dont l'intelligence rappelle celle de la souris faisant tourner un moulin. L'auteur examine les implications de cette evolution sur les institutions politiques occidentales et craint un dgclin de la democracie: pouvoirs executifs toujours plus forts, pouvoirs legislatifs depasses, pouvoirs judiciaires soumis 2 l'arbitraire administratif, media manipulgs.

CULTURA, INSTITUCIONES POLITICAS Y ESTILOS DE VIDA

Resumen: El autor percibe la cultura europea occidental como un "juego" entre dirigentes agresivos de instituciones cada vez mss grandes. Sus estilos de vida llevan a considerar a 10s niilos como objetos y a 10s objetos como niilos. El crecimiento de la riqueza objetiva se contradice con la disminu- ci6n de la satisfaction subjetiva. Asf se perpetua un proceso materialists bajo la egida de dirigentes cuya inteligencia recuerda la del raton intentando hacer girar un molino. El autor examina las consecuencias de esta evoluci6n en las instituciones polfticas occidentales y teme la decadencia de la demo- cracia: poderes ejecutivos cada vez m2s fuertes, poderes legislativos cada vez menos poderosos, poderes judiciales sornetidos a la arbitrariedad adminis-. trativa y medias cada vez m5s manipuladas.

Gunnar Ad le r -Kar l s son

ON THE INTERACTION BETWEEN CULTURAL ELEMENTS, P O L I T I C A L INSTITUTIONS, AND LIFE STYLES

1. The W e s t European c u l t u r e o f gambl ing- /

The i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r e s s r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d an i n t e r e s t i n g s t o r y . Saud i A r a b i a was t o buy a t e l e p h o n e sys t em. The o r d e r was wor th some 1 5 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s . One European and one American g roup were compet ing . The Europeans g o t i t , p a r t l y by p a y i n g t h e son o f a p r i n c e 500 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s i n "commiss ion" , i t was r e p o r t e d . The Americans , who had p u t t h e i r money on a b r o t h e r o f t h e p r i n c e , l o s t . . Bu t , t h e s t o r y s a i d , t h i s b r o t h e r g o t h i s w inn ing nephew t o lower h i s commission t o 500 m i l l i o n , from an o r i g i n a l l y demanded sum o f 1 ,300 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s .

T h i s i s one c o n c r e t e example o f t h e l i f e s t y l e of Western Europe , s p r e a d i n g o v e r t h e uppe r c l a s s e s i n t h e Sou th .

A second one r e l a t i n g t o c u l t u r e i s t h e f o l l o w i n q : I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d what t h e p o l i t i c i a n s were t a l k i n g a b o u t when t h e y spoke a b o u t c u l t u r e , I w r o t e t o Sweden's C e n t r a l Bureau o f S t a t - i s t i c s two y e a r s ago and a s k e d them what was i n c l u d e d unde r t h e c o n c e p t o f " c u l t u r e " . The answer in fo rmed m e t h a t t h e l a r g e s t e l emen t o f Swedish c u l t u r e was l o t t e r y , b e t t i n g and bookmaking. Second was r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n , t h i r d e n t e r t a i n m e n t , f o u r t h pho tography , f i f t h s p o r t s c o m p e t i t i o n s , and s i x t h v e t e r i n a r y ser- v i c e s .

I w r o t e b a c k , s a y i n g t h a t t h e y must have m i s u n d e r s t o o d my ques - t i o n . No, no , t h e y s a i d , even i f t h e y c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d my h e s i - t a t i o n t o a c c e p t t h i s e n u m e r a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n , it was b a s e d upon a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n . A l l o f Western Europe , t h e y i m - p l i e d , a d h e r e d t o t h i s same c o n c e p t o f c u l t u r e . When t h e " f i f t h a n n i v e r s a r y of Swedish c u l t u r a l p o l i c y " was o f f i c i a l l y c e l e b r a - t e d i n 1979 , w i t h b i g s p e e c h e s by t h e Prime M i n i s t e r and t h e o p p o s i t i o n l e a d e r , t h i s was t h e o n l y d e f i n i t i o n o f c u l t u r e i n e x i s t e n c e . Now t h e y have changed i t i n t o someth ing somewhat less a b s u r d .

I/ Paper prepared for the conference on "The future of political institutions - as seen by different regional cultures", Gottlieb Duttweiler Institute and World Future Studies Federation, Zurich, February 1982.

What do t h e s e two s t o r i e s r e v e a l , and what do t h e y have t o do w i t h one a n o t h e r ?

Assuming t h a t w e a r e h e r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l con- c e p t o f c u l t u r e , r e l a t i n g t o " t h e whole way of l i f e " , and n o t i n t h e narrower humanis t i c one , r e l a t e d t o t h e Muses, I would sug- g e s t t h a t t h e Swedish " c u l t u r a l " s t a t i s t i c s u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y r e v e a l t h e d i v i s i o n s of t h e West European s o c i e t i e s . We have one group of v e r y a c t i v e p e o p l e , d e v o t i n g themse lves t o games, t o l o t t e r y , b e t t i n g , bookmaking, s p o r t s c o m p e t i t i o n s , and b u s i n e s s which, o f c o u r s e , i s a form o f b e t t i n g . Then w e have a p a s s i v e m a j o r i t y l i s t e n i n g t o r a d i o , l o o k i n g a t t e l e v i s i o n , t a k i n g a p i c t u r e o r two f o r t h e f a m i l y album, and e n j o y i n g a l o t of en- t e r t a i n m e n t . F i n a l l y we a l s o have t h e v e t e r i n a r y o r h e a l t h ser- v i c e s f o r t h o s e who break down because of t o o ha rd a c o m p e t i t i o n , i n t h e f i r s t g roup , and t o o l i t t l e e x e r c i s e , i n t h e second.

The a c t i v e group i s t h e one t h a t c o u n t s , i f we want t o under- s t a n d West European behav iour . O r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , t h e behav- i o u r of Europe ' s two grand-daughte r s , a s de Gaul le c a l l e d them, t h e Uni ted S t a t e s and t h e S o v i e t Union.

The a c t i v e group i n Western Europe i s today l e d by businessmen. They a r e t h e t r u e h e i r s t o t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l and miss ionary r e l i g i o n t h a t h a s dominated European n a t i o n s f o r a lmos t 2000 y e a r s . They have r e a l i z e d t h a t God does n o t e x i s t , t h a t human l i f e i s a one-time chance, and t h a t i n o r d e r t o l e a v e a f o o t - p r i n t i n t h e sand of h i s t o r y books you have t o gamble, b i g and i n t e n s e l y , i n t h e o n l y game g i v e n t o you.

T h i s i s t h e l i f e s t y l e t h a t we a r e e x p o r t i n g from Western Europe, f o r i n s t a n c e t o Saud i Arabia .

The l e a d e r s of t h e Dutch P h i l i p s and t h e Swedish L.M. Er icson w e r e n o t b e t t i n g on h o r s e s , b u t on p r i n c e s , when t h e y g o t t h e t e l e p h o n e o r d e r i n Saudi Arab ia . But gamble, t h e y d i d ! Tha t t h e p l a y f u l game i s c e n t r a l t o Western c u l t u r e , h a s been shown by e . g . Johann Huizinga and Roger C a i l l o i s . Tha t it i s e q u a l l y c e n t r a l t o b u s i n e s s a c t i v i t y , i n d e e d , t h e most c e n t r a l c a r a c - t e r i s t i c s o f t o p managers, h a s been conf i rmed i n an impor tan t s t u d y of " t h e gamesman" by Michael Maccoby.

What is t a k i n g p l a c e i n Western Europe can be s e e n a s a huge game, where i n t e n s i v e l y a c t i v e males a r e b e t t i n g a g a i n s t each o t h e r , w i t h e v e r growing s t a k e s , i n v o l v i n g e v e r more p e o p l e , over e v e r growing g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s .

The Russian noblemen i n P u s h k i n ' s s t o r i e s open ly gambled away t h e i r s e r f s . With t h e h e l p o f a set of l e g a l m y s t i f i c a t i o n s , l i m i t e d companies, s h a r e s , bonds, e t c . , w e have h idden t h e f a c t t h a t a l s o t h e l e a d i n g gamesmen of today a r e b e t t i n g w i t h human

b e i n g s , w i t h p e a s a n t s , workers , m i n e r s , a s w e l l a s w i t h unem- ployed w e l f a r e r e c i p i e n t s i n t h e r i c h n a t i o n s and d e s t i t u t e ou t - c a s t s , t h e s o - c a l l e d " a b s o l u t e p o o r " , i n t h e South.

The m e n t a l i t y behind - o r t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e - may n o t be ve ry d i f - f e r e n t today from what i t was i n t h e Roman Colosseum. The r e - sultsmay n o t be ve ry d i f f e r e n t from what prompted t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e " t r i b u n e of t h e p e o p l e " , chosen by t h e p l e b e i a n l e g i o n s i n 4 9 4 B.C. t o de fend them a g a i n s t t h e Roman p a t r i c i a n s , a s p e c i e s of gamesmen of West European o r i g i n . But t h e i n d i s p u t a b l e t e c h n o l o g i c a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n g e n u i t y of t h e Europeans h a s c o n t i n u o u s l y i n c r e a s e d t h e s i z e o f t h e game, o f t h e p o t e n t i a l g a i n s and l o s s e s a s w e l l a s of t h e r e s o u r c e s and human b e i n g s invo lved .

2 . C h i l d r e n become consumer d u r a b l e s

The e s s e n c e of c u l t u r e i s t h e t r e a t m e n t of man by man. Le t us f o r t h e moment f o r g e t t h e 50 m i l l i o n i n d i v i d u a l s who unneces- sa r i ly d i e b e f o r e t h e i r t ime i n t h e poor n a t i o n s , and a s k how we t r e a t each o t h e r i n s i d e t h e West European c u l t u r e . Pushk in ' s noblemen openly looked upon t h e i r s e r f s a s c a t t l e . How do we look upon each o t h e r i n t h e game of l i f e ?

One r e v e a l i n g answer may be found i n t h e t h e o r y o f p o p u l a t i o n growth. Among Western economis t s , one l e a d i n g t h e o r y f o r ex- p l a i n i n g t h e f a l l of f e r t i l i t y r a t e s is t h a t c h i l d r e n c a n be looked upon a s a form of consumer d u r a b l e s . J u s t a s we do n o t need more t h a n one o r two c a r s o r t e l e v i s i o n s e t s i n a modern f a m i l y , we do n o t need o r want more t h a n one o r two c h i l d r e n .

I t can a l s o be shown t h a t t h e more consumer d u r a b l e s o r c h i l d r e n we have, t h e l e s s t ime can we devo te t o e a c h o f them. I t is a n economic law t h a t a h i g h c a p a c i t y u t i l i z a t i o n i n i n d u s t r y demands n o t o n l y a low, b u t a f a l l i n g c a p a c i t y u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e consumers ' consumer d u r a b l e s . I f c h i l d r e n a r e p r o p e r l y t o be looked upon a s c a r s , b o a t s , o r k i t c h e n equipment , it f o l l o w s t h a t c h i l d r e n become i n c r e a s i n g l y n e g l e c t e d . A wave o f r i s i n g c h i l d s u i c i d e r a t e s a s w e l l a s i n c r e a s i n g u n r u l i n e s s o f t h e young g e n e r a t i o n can more e a s i l y be unders tood i n t h i s menta l l i g h t .

A t t h e same t i m e a s we g e t more consumer d u r a b l e s t o stress u s w i t h i n l i m i t e d h o u r s , we may a l s o g e t less t i m e f o r o u r wives and husbands, f o r o u r s t u d e n t s , workers , and neighbours .

The West European l i f e s t y l e l e a d s t o a n e g l e c t of f e l l o w men g e n e r a l l y , making it e v e r more e a s y t o look upon them s imply a s s m a l l change f o r o u r own gambling purposes .

3 . Consumer d u r a b l e s become c h i l d r e n

The " s c i e n t i f i c a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d " way o f l o o k i n g a t c h i l d r e n a s a

form of consumer d u r a b l e s can be t u r n e d u p s i d e down. We can a l s o look upon consumer d u r a b l e s a s c h i l d r e n .

Malthus opened h i s famous e s s a y by t a l k i n g abou t " t h e c o n s t a n t tendency i n a l l animated l i f e t o i n c r e a s e beyond t h e nourishment p r e p a r e d f o r i t " . I n Mal thus ' s d a y s , a s i n t h e poor n a t i o n s o f t o d a y , t h i s " i n c r e a s e " c o n s i s t e d of c h i l d r e n . I n t h e Western Europe o f t o d a y , i t c o n s i s t s i n a r t i f a c t s . We m u l t i p l y , n o t o u r c h i l d r e n , b u t o u r a r t i f a c t s , o u r consumer d u r a b l e s , beyond t h e env i ronmenta l nour ishment p r e p a r e d f o r us . Our " m a t e r i a l c h i l - d ren" consume a s much, o r even more r e s o u r c e s , than c h i l d r e n o f f l e s h and blood. But t h e Mal thusian r u l e s app ly t o o u r modern form of o f f s p r i n g a s w e l l .

An e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e of a l l c u l t u r e is t h e d e s i r e t o overcome d e a t h . By having c h i l d r e n , we do overcome d e a t h i n a way. P o s s i b l y t h e d e s i r e t o have many a r t i f a c t c h i l d r e n is , a s some s o c i o l o g i s t s have s u g g e s t e d , a s i m i l a r way o f t r y i n g t o escape t h a t most b r u t a l o f t h e b r u t a l f a c t s of l i f e . I f we can d r i v e a c a r w i t h a speed of 100 m i l e s p e r hour , i f we can f l y l i k e t h e b i r d s , i f we can p l a c e a man on t h e moon, perhaps technology w i l l one day a l s o h e l p u s t o overcome d e a t h .

I would s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s d e s i r e t o overcome d e a t h may w e l l be one e lement a t t h e bot tom of o u r m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e . W e look upon a r t i f a c t s a s m a t e r i a l c h i l d r e n . They a r e , a t l e a s t , e q u a l l y impor tan t t o u s a s o u r own r e a l c h i l d r e n and more i m p o r t a n t , even , t h a n food f o r t h e r e a l c h i l d r e n of o t h e r s .

For an i n c r e a s i n g number o f mora l ly s e n s i t i v e c i t i z e n s t h i s l e a d s t o a r e v u l s i o n a g a i n s t t h e system.

4 . L i m i t s t o Western m a t e r i a l c l imbing?

Between 1870 and 1976 t h e l e a d i n g Western n a t i o n s have a s an average i n c r e a s e d t h e i r r e a l m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n s i x f o l d . A s t h e y were s e v e r a l t i m e s r i c h e r , when t h e y s t a r t e d t o grow, t h a n t h e p o o r e s t n a t i o n s o f t h e wor ld a r e today , one might t h i n k t h e y cou ld be s a t i s f i e d w i t h m a t e r i a l gadge t s .

But i f we look upon t h e development, i n c u r r e n t p r i c e s , s i n c e t h e 1973 o i l c r i s i s , we f i n d t h a t w h i l e t h e OPEC group, a s cou ld be expec ted , h a s i n c r e a s e d a lmos t s i x f o l d i t s GNP p e r c a p i t a , t h e o t h e r t h r e e main groups have rough ly t r i p l e d t h e i r s .

The West h a s i n c r e a s e d by 6,740 d o l l a r s t o 9,940. The E a s t h a s i n c r e a s e d by 2,830 d o l l a r s t o 4 , 2 3 0 . The South h a s i n c r e a s e d by 425 d o l l a r s to 675.

I n f l a t i o n h a s n o t been l e s s i n t h e South t h a n i n t h e West. Real r e s o u r c e s a r e moved by " e f f i c i e n t monetary p u r c h a s i n g power", t h a t is , by c u r r e n t d o l l a r s t r eams . Some c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t who

i s t h e r e a l Mal thusian danger i n t h e world , t h e r e a l o r t h e m a t e r i a l c h i l d r e n , fo l low by themselves .

W i l l t h e West e v e r be s a t i s f i e d ? The answer i s most l i k e l y : No! And s i n c e t h e E a s t , ( h e r e meaning t h e communist n a t i o n s of Eur- o p e ) , h a s e s t a b l i s h e d t o " c a t c h up w i t h and o v e r t a k e " t h e most i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c a p i t a l i s t n a t i o n s i n p e r c a p i t a p r o d u c t i o n a s i t s pr imary g o a l , i t i s e q u a l l y hooked on economic growth.

Why won ' t t h i s c i r c u s e v e r s t o p ? I f we assume, f o l l o w i n g s o c i o - l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s of r e l a t i v e d e p r i v a t i o n and economic ones about t h e r e l a t i v e income h y p o t h e s i s , t h a t s u b j e c t i v e m a t e r i a l s a t i s - f a c t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o o u r r e l a t i v e , and n o t t o o u r a b s o l u t e p l a c e i n t h e income pyramid, t h i s i s easy t o unders tand . I f everybody i n c r e a s e s h i s m a t e r i a l s t a n d a r d by, s a y , 3 p e r c e n t i n a y e a r , o r even by 600 p e r c e n t i n a hundred y e a r s , b u t i f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of income does n o t change, everybody has o b j e c t i v e l y become r i c h e r , bu t nobody h a s become s u b j e c t i v e l y b e t t e r o f f , a s t h e i r r e l a t i v e p l a c e i n t h e income pyramid has n o t changed.

Even worse , i f t h e a b s o l u t e d i s t a n c e between r i c h and poor a t a l l i n f l u e n c e s t h e s u b j e c t i v e f e e l i n g o f m a t e r i a l s a t i s f a c t i o n , o u r s u b j e c t i v e f e e l i n g s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n may even d e c r e a s e d u r i n g an o b j e c t i v e qrowth p r o c e s s . Equal growth i n p e r c e n t g i v e s t h e r i c h much more t h a n t h e poor i n a b s o l u t e number of d o l l a r s . While t h e South g o t an i n c r e a s e of about 425 d o l l a r s , t h e E a s t e r n Europeans g o t 2,830 and t h e West 6,740 d o l l a r s , i n t h e p o s t - o i l - c r i s i s - p e r i o d . The a b s o l u t e gap i n c r e a s e s even when r e l a t i v e growth i s e q u a l .

I t may, i n d e e d , be s o bad t h a t when everybody g e t s o b j e c t i v e l y s i x t i m e s r i c h e r , as Western Europe h a s become i n t h e l a s t hun- d red y e a r s , everybody, e x c e p t p o s s i b l y t h e ve ry t o p , becomes s u b j e c t i v e l y worse o f f i n m a t e r i a l t e r m s ! !

Th i s s u b j e c t i v e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n may be e s p e c i a l l y i n t e n s i v e when it is r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e income on t h e h i g h e s t s t e p of t h e l a d d e r is 500 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s f o r a s e r v i c e t h a t r e q u i r e s n e x t t o no l abour !

T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n between an o b j e c t i v e economic growth and an unchanged, o r even decreased m a t e r i a l s a t i s f a c t i o n , may be an- o t h e r e lement a t t h e c e n t r e of o u r Western c u l t u r e , e x p l a i n i n g o u r l i f e - s t y l e s , and o u r seemingly u n s a t i a b l e g r e e d f o r e v e r more m a t e r i a l c h i l d r e n . But t h e s e c h i l d r e n , l i k e t h e r e a l o n e s , g e t e v e r more n e g l e c t e d , e v e r more disharmonious - a s was shown i n s e c t i o n 2 - t h e r i c h e r we become.

5. The breakdown of Western v a l u e s

So f a r , I have s u g g e s t e d (1) t h a t t h e c u l t u r e o f Western Europe is one of gambling between a g g r e s s i v e l e a d e r s o f e v e r growing i n s t i t u t i o n s ; ( 2 ) t h a t o u r l i f e - s t y l e l e a d s t o a view of c h i l -

d r e n a s a r t i f a c t s and o f a r t i f a c t s a s c h i l d r e n ; ( 3 ) t h a t t h e r e i s a c o n t r a d i c t i o n between t h e i n c r e a s e i n o b j e c t i v e w e a l t h and t h e d e c r e a s e i n s u b j e c t i v e m a t e r i a l s a t i s f a c t i o n ; and ( 4 ) t h a t t h i s seems t o keep t h e same m a t e r i a l i s t i c p r o c e s s e t e r n a l l y go ing , mot iva ted by an i n t e l l i g e n c e of o u r human l e a d e r s h i p t h a t i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h a t of mice on a t r e a d m i l l .

What may be t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h i s way of l i f e and o u r Western p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ? I n h i s c h a l l e n g i n g b o o k l e t , "Western p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y i n t h e f a c e o f t h e f u t u r e " , John Dunn sugges ted t h a t today everybody c o n f e s s e s t o b e l i e v e i n democracy, now t h a t democracy has become imposs ib le .

Th i s may w e l l be t r u e . But l e t us s p e c u l a t e where t h e c o n d i t i o n s s o f a r d e s c r i b e d a r e l i k e l y t o t a k e us i n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r power i n Western Europe.

P i t i r i m A. Sorok in had t h e bo ldness t o compare 1.,629 domes t i c c r i s e s from Athens 600 B.C. t o t h e adven t o f H i t l e r . H i s main c o n c l u s i o n was t h a t s o c i e t i e s break down from w i t h i n , n o t because o f economic f a c t o r s , b u t because dominant v a l u e systems b reak down. I n s o c i e t i e s where c h i l d r e n a r e looked upon a s t h i n g s , and t h i n g s a s c h i l d r e n , and where t h e a c t i v e m i n o r i t y t r e a t s t h e p a s s i v e m a j o r i t y l i k e s e r f s t o be s t a k e d a t t h e economic gambling t a b l e , t h e dominant v a l u e system i s bound t o be exposed t o ser- i o u s c r a c k s w i t h i n a r a t h e r s h o r t f u t u r e . Indeed , i t a l r e a d y is!

Going back t o Montesquieu, what can we i n t h e b r i e f e s t of t ime s u g g e s t f o r t h e f u t u r e of h i s t h r e e powers, t h e l e g i s l a t o r , t h e e x e c u t i v e , and t h e j u d i c i a r y , adding t h e f o u r t h , t h e p r e s s , which h a s been a dominat ing f a c t o r i n Europe a t l e a s t s i n c e t h e French Revolu t ion?

6 . The Execu t ive

John Passmore has s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e "Problem o f Problems" i n t h e W e s t i s how t o i n t r o d u c e t h e n e c e s s a r y s o c i a l d i s c i p l i n e w i t h o u t f a l l i n g i n t o ty ranny .

No doubt , o u r governments i n Western Europe a r e bound t o become much f i r m e r i n t h e i r e x e r c i s e of power t h e more i n t e n s e t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e p r e s e n t c u l t u r e grows. The r u l e r s a r e t h e ones who b e n e f i t from t h e p r e s e n t v a l u e systems and t h e y a r e bound t o defend it. when l a w l e s s n e s s and t e r r o r i s m r i s e , s o d o e s l e g a l coun te r -v io lence .

A few weeks b e f o r e m a r t i a l law was d e c l a r e d l a s t December, a French o p i n i o n - p o l l i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n managed t o a s k some 600 P o l e s what s o r t o f p a r t y t h e y would v o t e i n t o o f f i c e i f f r e e e l e c t i o n s were h e l d i n t h e i r coun t ry . 4 3 p e r c e n t "vo ted" C h r i s t i a n Democrat, 20 p e r c e n t vo ted S o c i a l i s t , a n o t h e r 20 p e r c e n t L i b e r a l . L a s t on t h e l is t came t h e Communists, w i t h THREE p e r c e n t .

By t h e use of f o r c e t h e s e t h r e e p e r c e n t now r u l e t h e o t h e r 9 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e P o l i s h p o p u l a t i o n . The West European t e n d e n c i e s a r e towards c o r p o r a t i v e governments where p o l i t i c a l p a r t y l ead- ers, i n c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h l e a d e r s of employers ' o r g a n i z a - t i o n s and unions , r u l e t h e n a t i o n s . These t h r e e groups w i l l e a s i l y be a b l e t o g a i n t h e v o l u n t a r y back ing of a t l e a s t 30 p e r c e n t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n .

I f t h e Communists can handle t h e P o l i s h s i t u a t i o n w i t h o n l y t h r e e p e r c e n t of backing i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n , how much more w i l l n o t t h e Western e x e c u t i v e s be a b l e t o hand le t h e i r masses , i f t h e y have t e n t i m e s a s much s u p p o r t ? But t h e y w i l l do i t , p a r t l y , w i t h measures t h a t a r e borrowed from t h e Communist a p p a r a t u s of s u p p r e s s i o n .

7 . The l e q i s l a t i v e power

The c o n f l i c t between t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i v e t e n d e n c i e s from below and t h e w i l l t o r u l e a t t h e Top shou ld become somewhat more n o t i c e a b l e i n o u r l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l i e s , i n o u r P a r l i a m e n t s . But will , they? Three t e n d e n c i e s can be e a s i l y e s t a b l i s h e d .

I n t h e f a c e o f growing c u l t u r a l v a l u e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n governments w i l l s t r i v e t o n u l l i f y t h e i n f l u e n c e of p a r l i a m e n t s . P a r t y machines, w i t h t h e i r c e n t r e i n t h e e x e c u t i v e , w i l l whip t h e i r p a r l i a m e n t a r y members even h a r d e r , i n t o e v e r more conformi ty w i t h t h e c e n t r a l d e c i s i o n makers. Oppos i t ion from t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e p e o p l e might be calmed down w i t h laws abou t i n e f f i c i e n t " p a r t i c i p a t o r y democracy". T h i s w i l l , however, l a r g e l y be l e g i s l a t i v e cosmet ics , p e r m i s s i b l e o n l y when power is s o cen- t r a l i z e d t h a t a l o t of t a l k i n g d o e s n ' t m a t t e r much, e x c e p t a s a u s e f u l emot iona l r e l e a s e . P a r l i a m e n t s w i l l , i n r e a l i t y , be reduced t o decis ion-making machines f o r t h e e x e c u t i v e s . Tha t is t h e f i r s t tendency.

A second tendency i s t h a t l e g i s l a t o r s w i l l be less and l e s s a b l e t o cope w i t h s e r i o u s problems. The e s s e n c e o f l e g i s l a t i o n i s t h a t p o l i t i c i a n s t r y t o a c h i e v e c e r t a i n e f f e c t s by c o n t r o l of human behav iour w i t h s t a t u t o r y norms. T h i s a c t i v i t y p resupposes knowledge of r e l a t i o n s between behav iour and e f f e c t s . It i s my h y p o t h e s i s t h a t w i t h t h e growth o f o u r p o l i t i c a l gambling t a b l e s and t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l s t a k e s used i n t h e economic gamesmanship, such knowledge i s i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o g a i n . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r p o l i t i c i a n s , who normal ly a r e l o n g on r h e t o r i c and s h o r t on knowledge.

Most l e g i s l a t i o n i s b u i l t upon t h e assumption of v i s i b i l i t y , c l o s e n e s s , and i d e n t i f i a b i l i t y of e f f e c t s from a c t i o n s . The t r e n d t h a t is emerging from t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s is t h a t e f f e c t s w i l l become i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v i s i b l e ( r a d i a t i o n , or b r e a d p r i c e s i n Bangladesh a s e f f e c t s o f budget d e f i c i t s i n Europe) , d i s t a n t i n t i m e and l o c u s ( c a n c e r from r a d i a t i o n ) , and

s t o c h a s t i c (cancer from a sbes to s , a f f e c t i n g X pe r c e n t of t h e a sbes to s workers bu t no t , ex a n t e , , i d e n t i f i a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s ) .

A l l t h i s w i l l l e ad t o a f a c t u a l impotence of l e g i s l a t o r s t o understand t h e processes t h a t they should l e g i s l a t e about . Exper t s and m e r i t o c r a t s w i l l t ake over more of r e a l power.

When t h i s occurs t h e ques t i on a r i s e s , who w i l l be ab l e t o buy up t h e b e s t e x p e r t s , t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r and t h e l e g i s l a t o r s , o r t h e l e a d e r s of t he p r i v a t e s e c t o r wanting t o cont inue t h e i r reck- less economic gambling.

The more t h i s p rocess cont inues , t h e more t h e contempt f o r t h e p o l i t i c i a n s w i l l grow, a s w i l l t h e oppos i t i on t o t h e p r e sen t t endenc i e s , and t he need f o r t he execut ive t o become e v e r more involved i n t h e enforcement of s o c i a l d i s c i p l i n e .

8. The j ud i c i a ry powers

A t h i r d tendency i n l e g i s l a t i o n w i l l be t h e r i s e of t h e number of paragraphs enac ted i n each, s ay , f ive-year per iod , and t h e corresponding f a l l of t h e average l i f e - l e n g t h of each paragraph. This is another development t h a t can be deduced from t h e genera l p rocess of gambling wi th new and f a s t e r t e chno log i ca l s t akes .

This l e ads t o a d e t e r i o r a t i o n of both t h e a b i l i t y and t h e pres- t i g e of our j ud i c i a ry powers. More and more l e g i s l a t i o n w i l l assume t h e na tu re of caoutchouc. Less and l e s s people can be assumed t o know t h e law. More and more u l t i m a t e dec i s ions of j u s t i c e w i l l no t be l e g a l , bu t a r b i t r a r y admin i s t r a t i ve f i x i n g s by bu reauc ra t s , who i n r e a l i t y a r e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e execut ives . The democrat ic t r u s t i n t h e j u d i c i a r y system w i l l con t inue t o f a l l .

9 . The f o u r t h e s t a t e

Already i n 1789 Abbe S ieygs s t a t e d t h a t " t h e p r i n t i n g p r e s s has changed t h e f a t e of Europe; it w i l l change t h e f a t e of t h e world .. .". Today " the p r e s s " i nc ludes a l s o t h e o t h e r mass media. The importance of them can be imagined by connect ing two simple f a c t s . Between 1870 and 1976 t h e average working hours p e r yea r f o r an employed person i n Europe have f a l l e n by some 1,400 hours. Today t h e average Swede devotes 1,400 hours t o mass media every year .

The s t a b i l i t y of s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s b u i l d upon a mixture of v io l ence and va lues . The l e s s va lue consensus e x i s t , t h e more v io l ence must be used. Vice ve r sa , it can be assumed, t h e more t he va lue b a s i s is coheren t i n s o c i e t y , t h e l e s s open v io lence must be used.

That is c e r t a i n l y t h e d o c t r i n e behind t h e S o v i e t and Communist t o t a l manipu la t ion of t h e i r mass media, p l u s a r t and e d u c a t i o n . I n Western p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y t h e s t a t e is o f t e n d e f i n e d a s t h e s o v e r e i g n r u l e r over t h e means of v i o l e n c e i n s o c i e t y . I f v io- l e n c e is one of t h e p i l l a r s of power, and mass media i s t h e o t h e r one , would it n o t be r e a l i s t i c t o assume t h a t i n o r d e r t o keep down t h e growing o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e p r e s e n t inhuman t e n d e n c i e s i n West European l i f e - s t y l e s and c u l t u r e , t h e e x e c u t i v e s w i l l s t r i v e t o c o n t r o l a l s o v a l u e m a n i p u l a t i o n , t h a t i s , mass media i n a l l i t s forms.

C o r p o r a t i v e s t a t e s w i l l pe rmi t d i s c u s s i o n s which s u p p o r t one of t h e t h r e e r u l i n g i n t e r e s t s . They might c r e a t e conscious- c a t c h i n g nonsense d e b a t e s abou t pseudo c o n f l i c t s between t h e t h r e e . But t h e y w i l l c l o s e o u t a l l o p i n i o n s which t h r e a t e n t h e b a s i s of t h e c o r p o r a t i v e power e l i t e . We migh t , s l i g h t l y l a t e r t h a n i n 1984, come t o l o v e our West European m a s t e r s , a s i n t e n - s i v e l y a s t h e C h r i s t i a n s loved C h r i s t and Mary under t h e indoc- t r i n a t i o n of t h e Church and t h e t h r e a t of t h e I n q u i s i t i o n , and a s devo ted ly a s t h e young P i o n e e r s d e f i l e b e f o r e Lenin i n h i s mausoleum' today .

10. Conclusion

I n sum, t h e imminent f a l l - w i t h i n one y e a r - of t h e c a p i t a l i s t sys tem was p r e d i c t e d by Marx and Enge l s y e a r l y d u r i n g a decade some 130 y e a r s ago and by t h e i r f o l l o w e r s e v e r s i n c e . The system has shown a s u r p r i s i n g r e s i l i e n c e .

Today, t h e i n h e r i t e d v a l u e system, e x p r e s s e d i n a thoroughly m a t e r i a l i s t i c c u l t u r e and a r a t h e r unhuman l i f e - s t y l e , i n which c h i l d r e n have become consumer d u r a b l e s and a r t i f a c t s c h i l d r e n , is mee t ing more and more o p p o s i t i o n from w i t h i n .

T h i s v a l u e system i s s lowly b r e a k i n g down, l e a d i n g t o t e n d e n c i e s t o i n c r e a s e d o p p o s i t i o n a g a i n s t t h o s e groups who gu ide o u r p r e s e n t p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and who g a i n from them. The s t r e n g t h o f t h e West European system h a s been i t s a d a p t a b i l i t y t o overcome c r i s e s of t h i s s o r t , sometimes w i t h democra t i c change, sometimes w i t h r e p r e s s i o n , v i o l e n c e and wars . T h i s s t r e n g t h h a s been somewhat r e i n f o r c e d by t h e f a c t t h a t wherever Communism h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d it h a s been even more s u p p r e s s i v e of freedom and l e s s a b l e t o produce b read .

That o u r West European p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e i n f o r some s e v e r e problems canno t be doubted. Wars a r e r u l e d o u t a s s o l u t i o n s today , by a l l r a t i o n a l c o u n t s . Then t h e q u e s t i o n remains , i f t h e Western p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w i l l be a b l e t o ach ieve domest ic r e fo rms , b e f o r e t h e r e p r e s s i o n o f p r e s e n t t en - d e n c i e s t o d i s i n t e g r a t i o n l e a d s e i t h e r t o a n i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e Soviet-German CO-dominion o v e r a subdued Europe o r t o an e x p l o s i o n i n t o L a t i n American s t y l e v i o l e n c e . T h i s is a ques- t i o n I do n o t d a r e t o answer.

IFDA DOSSIER 31 . SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1982 MARK1 NGS

SOUTH - SOUTH OPTION

THE 1982 THIRD WORLD LECTURE D E L I V E R E D BY J U L I U S K, NYERERE L' The establishment and annual award of the Third World Prize does, by implication, make a number of controversial statements; First, it asserts that there is such a thing as a Third World. Secondly, it asserts that the Third World is conscious of its existence as a diverse unity, and of its condition as a victim of exploitation. And, thirdly, this Prize is an assertion that the Third World is involved in the affairs of mankind, and has rights within the larger community. The Third World Prize is thus a declaration of pride in ourselves, and gives notice of our intention to become controllers of our own destiny.

On this basis of belief about the significance of the Third World Prize, I can only pay tribute to those individuals who established it, and those who have accepted the onerous responsibility of deciding who shall receive i t year by year. I accept it today with feelingsof humility, and, indeed, some inadequacy.

If countries were like companies, a number of the poor - and even the ambitious but not so poor - would by now be declared bankrupt. Within the poor states millions of people face the risk of starvation; even where health and educational services existed for the masses there is a shortage of drugs and books, and their transport and distributive systems are in danger ofgrinding to a halt. In the developed industrialised states on the other hand, there is mass unemployment, public services are being cut and reinvestment has been drastically reduced. All nations are experiencing severe economic problems, but the gap between the rich and the poor is wider than ever before.

World inequalities are nothing new; they have been increasing steadily for most of the twentieth century. But there has been a change. The complaint of the poor countries up to the early 1970s was that the international economic system resulted in nearly all their advance being appropriated by the rich. The reply of the rich countries was that growth was taking place everywhere, albeit slowly, and that this world growth showed that the international system was in the interests of all. That reply can no longer be made. Since about 1972 the poorest have become, and are daily becoming, poorer - absolutely as well as relatively. More recently the rich countries have seen their own growth rate decline while they face increasing uncertainty about the repayment of their past overseas loans. It is in fact becoming increasingly clear that an unjust and exploitative international

I / The Third World Prize has been established b y the - Third World Foundation for Social and Economic Studies. The rec ip ien t of the Prize de l i vers the Annual Third World Lecture.

economic system is in the process of falling apart , and n o arrangements for its orderly replacement are in sight. The Law of the Jungle is returning.

In the face of these events there have been very many conferences and reports. The main result is vague promises, the calling of new meetings and mounting resentment. We in the Third World complain most, for we are the ones who are suffering the most extremely, and whose need for relief is greatest and most urgent. There are many countries in the Third World for which disaster is imminent.

But what is this 'Third World', this 'South',(for I am using the wordsinterchangeably), about which we talk so much? '

Various definitions can be - and are - given of the 'Third World'; even those who agree that there is such a thing d o not always agree about which countries belong to it. By any definition, however, the term 'Third World' is synonymous with underdevelopment and technical backwardness; it almost always means poverty also. As a result of history its membership virtually covers the geographic South excluding Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. Yet there is an important sense in which a country has to decide for itself that it is a member of the Third World. For some Third World countries are richer, or more industrialised, than others; and in segregated societies a man who is trying to 'pass' into the dominant community distances himself as much as possible from his relatives and traditional friends.

Whatever marginal countries are included or excluded, however, the Third World consists of the victims and the powerless in the international economy. Consequently, although we Third World nations have united in calling for a New International Economic Order we have not been able to force any noticeable progress towards it. We are not able to ensure that serious attention isgiven to the restructuring of the existingsystem, o r of its major international institutions. Together we constitute a majority of the world's population, and possess the largest part of certain important raw materials; but we have no control and hardly any influence over the manner in which the nations of the world arrange their economic affairs. In international rule-making we are recipients not participants.

It is, of course, true that the oil-exporting countries, grouped together in OPEC, have been able to affect the world economy. But I suggest that what they have really achieved is t o show the basic instability and injustice of the present arrangements. In the process they have demonstrated their power, temporarily, to intensify world economic disorder, but their lack of power to cause any constructive change in the system itself. Thus, world inflation was well under way before the end of 1973; the oil price rises then merely gave a further sharp twist t o an existing spiral, and the present world recession has damaged the development plans of almost all oil producers, regardless of OPEC. Thus, OPEC membership does not disqualify a country from membership of a group designated by its powerlessness in relation to the institutions of world economic management. It merely means that, by living upon their non-renewable resources, the countries concerned can for a time redistribute world income in their own favour.

It has been on the basis of their separate powerlessness, and in the belief that by speaking together they can reduce it, that the Third World countries have come together and entered hopefully into a series of North-South discussions and negotiations. We have achieved some positive results; in historical terms these are not insignificant. In particular, world poverty is now on the agenda; everyone at least finds it expedient to pay lip-service to ending it.

Unfortunately, the achievements are not enough even to protect the poor from a worsening both of their terms of trade with the developed North and their already appalling conditions. It is not only that the changes leave the basic structures of the world intact - which they do. It is also that the ameliorations conceded to the South have not been put into practice. Thus, only four countries - and these among the smallest - now devote at least 0.7 per cent of their GNP to Official Development Assistance. The average level is about 0.37 per cent, and two major powers have given notice that they intend to cut their contributions still further. There has recently been a growth in protectionism directed against the processed and manufactured goods of the Third World, and there are still barriers against the free entry into developed countries of some agricultural primary commodities. The Common Fund, established after years of negotiations, threatens to become a ghost of the original concept. The international financial institutions are no longer even talking about making their 'loan conditionality' terms more appropriate to developing countries. The long-awaited Cancun Conference concluded by - most probably - having some educational value, but without any commitment even to constructive Global Negotiations through the medium of the United Nations.

In his Inaugural Third World Lecture, 'The Politics of Affirmation', Michael Manley talked about the problems of development and concluded 'The developed world has the resources to make a serious start possible. What is needed is a great act of collective imagination, a quantum leap in statesmanship'. The Brandt Commission Report, published about one year later, made a series of practical proposals about how progress could be made towards the 'One World' which it demonstrated is in the interests of both rich and poor.

However, there is - to say the least - no evidence of any imminent 'quantum leap in statesmanship' by the world community. The major industrial powers of both the Eastern and the Western blocs have made clear their lack of practical interest in an organised attack on world poverty, and their imperviousness - for the present - to any rational arguments for international economic change. Smaller members of their alliances do not necessarily share their lack of concern, o r their ideological hostility to discussion aimed at constructive change in international institutions. But few, if any, of these other states are likely to find it appropriate - or perhaps possible - to go forward with us alone; they feel constrained to limit their activities to bilateral trade and aid arrangements. Progress in the North-South dialogue is going to be minimal in the desperate years ahead.

This does not mean that the Third World should stop arguing, discussing, and educating. Pressure on the North must be maintained. We are part of the world, and are involved in its economy. Economically and technologically we Third World countries are

locked into the economies of the North and into the maze of international economic relationships which are controlled by the North. Our whole economies, and especially our urban areas, depend upon the continued working of imported technology and require continued importation of the spare parts, machines, fuel, etc., which that technology implies.

The attempt to improve the terms of North-South trade and economic relationships must continue because the trade itself has to continue if our economies are to keep running. To that end the continued unity of the Third World is vital. For it is only that unity, and the power of a united South to make the maintenance of Northern control over the world economy increasingly costly, which causes the North to negotiate at all. If we allow ourselves to be divided from one another, or one group from another, then we shall all be weakened and the present injustices will continue unchecked.

But unity is strength only when it is organised. If, in the present hostileatmosphere, we are to be ab le to maintain the pressures for a New International Economic Order, and meanwhile to gain marginal improvements in our economic relationships with the North, then we have to organise ourselves. For if genuine negotiations d o become possible at all, they will be about highly complex and detailed questions, with larger implications. For dealing with these, rhetoric is not going to be sufficient.

We want justice in international economic affairs; but what justice consists of will sometimes be different for different circumstances, different times, and different types of economies in the Third World. Thus there are certain ingredients of a New International Economic Order in which the whole Third World has a common interest; a change in the governing structure of the international financial institutions is a case in point. But the priority which countries give to other ingredients will vary in a manner which reflects the different sub-groupings of the South - that is, the newly-industrialised countries (NIC); the landlocked or the island nations; the least developed countries; and so on. Our purpose in the immediate and middle-future must be to secure whatever advance is possible on any of these fronts, whether or not the major Third World demands are blocked for the time being.

No such advances will now be secured by a statement of demands collated at a Group of 77 meeting. Such a joint meeting, and the preparation of an overall position, is an essential beginning. But it is not enough. On the basis, and within the framework of, these defined Third World objectives, our negotiators have to be technically equipped to deal with detailed problems, and to d o this in many different fora at the same or different times. When doing so, each one of them needs to be supported by the strength of the whole Third World, and to act in a manner which contributes to that total strength. Liaisonand coordination between different negotiating groups and individuals is therefore essential. My conclusion is that there is no longer any alternative to a technically efficient and highly dedicated Permanent Secretariat - a Technical Support Group - for the Group of 77.

The Third World, in its relations with the North, is like a trade union in its relations with employers. It is trying to make unity serve as a compensating strength so as to create a greater balance in negotiations. And every trade union sooner or later discovers that, both

before and during any discussions with the other side, its skilled negotiators need the support of relevant research done by experienced technicians.

The North is strong and powerful. But it is not omnipotent. If we want our negotiations with the North to succeed we shall benefit greatly by having a Technical Support Group, staffed by highly-qualified and dedicated personnel who will - over time - accumulate experience in the necessary fields. One of the jobs of that Secretariat will be to seek out areas of possible negotiation for the attainment of greater justice, and always to service our negotiators. Such a Support Group will have to be small, and managed on the [principle] of maximum cost-effectiveness. For it will have to be financed by the Third World it is intended to serve. He who pays the piper calls the tune!

~ a c i l i t a t i n ~ North-South negotiations, however, is not the sole task of a Third World Secretariat. It has another of equal importance.

Negotiators are ultimately as strong as the group on whose behalf they are working. North-South negotiations are possible because the dependence is not entirely one-sided. But the slow progress which the Third World makes in them reflects the existing adverse balance of our dependence. The obvious Third World task, therefore, is for us to reduce our dependence on the North as much as possible, and, in particular, to see that it does not increase as we develop our economies. The Third World and its individual members need to look at present development strategies to see how far they are leading to a worsening of our dependence balance, and, if so, how they can be changed.

Nearly all Third World countries have at one time or another declared their national objective to be the elimination of destitution, hunger, ignorance, and preventable disease in their state. We have said - almost all of us- that we want all our people to be able to live in dignity, with adequate food, clothing, and shelter available to them in return for their daily work. Those are very simple and basic objectives. Fulfilling them should be what we mean by development.

Development in this sense requires increased consumption - therefore, necessarily increased production - of food, clothing, and shelter. It requires the public availability of clean water, of basic knowledge, and basic health services. And it means that all resources are devoted to expenditure o r investment which can be shown to contribute - directly or indirectly - to the provision of these basic needs for everyone.

In practice, however, it appears that the Third World has been thinking of development in very different terms. Judging by our actions, our national objective seems to be to 'catch up with the North', and development seems to mean buying the most elaborate building and the latest invention in every field, regardless of our capacity to pay for it - even to maintain it. Thus we have created a continuing dependency on the importation of technology and spare parts, which then requires us to produce for export regardless of our people's present hunger and present needs. All too frequently an adverse turn in the terms of trade, o r a drought, or a simple miscalculation, then causes a major balance of payments crisis. This we try to deal with by urging our people to work harder for the same return, and by borrowing from the North (if we can) in order to invest in the production of greater exports which we hope will pay the old and the new debt! Thus we further increase

our dependence and our weakness. In the process we create a so-called 'modern sector' which we point to as a sign of development. But it exists in a sea of poverty, ignorance and disease. Eventually we are unable to provide even this modern sector with its ever- increasing need for imports from the North, and much less to assuage the demand which its example has created among the surrounding masses. Our economy - modern and traditional sector alike - becomes less and less efficient. Our final position is worse than the first.

Defining development to mean catching up with the North means that development is impossible for the countries of the Third World. The United States of America, with about 6 per cent of the world's population is now said to use 40 per cent of the world's raw material and energy output. Between 1959-68 America used more of the world's resources than all the earth's people consumed in all previous history. Western Europe and the USSR both have a similar population, and both have the declared or implicit objective of 'overtaking America'.

Three times 40 per cent is 120 per cent, before Japan or any Third World country is considered! Two problems arise - quite apart from the obvious risk of war as the competition for resources gets intense. First, the world's resources are finite; the faster the rate of depletion, the quicker the end is reached. Secondly, the Northern levels of consumption are based on the use of an unfairly high proportion of the world's resources. Yet a world in which every nation gets an unfairly high proportion of its resources is an impossibility.

It is a recognition of these two problems which is causing some people in the North to question the rationality of the consumerist philosophy, even for the North. It is that same recognition, combined with a desire to continue along the present path, which causes other Northern people to urge the integration into their world system of selected individual countries from the South, so that these can be tied more securely to the periphery of the existing economic centres and the unity of the South be broken.

But aiming to catch up with the North has more serious consequences than failure to arrive at the goal. It means that we will not abolish poverty in our countries, and that we will remain dependent and therefore weak in our relations with the dominant North. It also means that there will be very little South-South cooperation, because we shall all be trying to get entry into the rich man's club, if necessary at the cost of each other.

Defining development as the provision of basic needs for all our people has very different implications. First, it provides us with an objective which can be reached- in the future if not immediately. Secondly, as we pursue this kind of development we shall be gradually reducing the misery of our people's lives at the same time as reducing our dependence on the North. For we shall be concentrating on the kind of economic production and investments which can be sustained by our own resources and our own capacity. And thirdly, we shall be able to increase South-South cooperation to our mutual benefit and with consequential strengthening of the Third World as a whole.

Working towards the goal of 'people-oriented development' means adopting a more self-reliant approach than we have been doing. It does not mean ignoring human

knowledge and the advances of modern science. But it means looking at the whole of world knowledge and not just its latest caprice; it means allowing our national objectives to determine what type of technology we adopt or adapt from the North. Of necessity, we shall have to look at the experience, the productive capacity, and the knowledge of other Third World countries. For the technology needed for the purpose of eliminating poverty will not necessarily be the same as that which would be required if development meant catching up with the North.

Let me repeat: moving towards the self-reliance of the South, or of any member of it, does not mean pretending that the North is not there, or ignoring the harsh facts of our present dependence on it. We have to face the consequences of our past. That past has tied us to the North with strong ropes. Our urban areas exist; our so-called modern sectors exist. We cannot abandon them. What we can d o is deliberately and carefully to re-direct our future development activities so that they lead us towards ever-greater Third World self-reliance, based on the culture and the real needs of our own peoples - our own masses. This requires that we shift the emphasis of our development plans, and in future decide to base them on our own roots and our own resources. In doing so we can benefit by cooperating on the basis of equality with others similarly engaged in the struggle against poverty. For the self-reliance of any member of the Third World can only be made really effective in the struggle against poverty when it is being carried out within the context of the wider collective self-reliance of the Third World as a whole.

Some South-South cooperation already exists. It has grown up even while most of our attention was directed at North-South relationships. Indeed its quantity and its quality should not be under-estimated, for it provides a solid foundation on which we can build. But we cannot continue to rely upon chance knowledge about each other, or upon the initiatives of transnational corporations, for there is no guarantee that this kind of knowledge and action will serve our people's needs. South-South trade and cooperation must be quite deliberately promoted, with the purpose of overcoming weakness and poverty. That is the second task of the Third World Technical Support Group.

The mutual advantage, and the feasibility, of such deliberately organised South-South cooperation cannot be doubted. But it will require from us - from the Third World- that kind of 'great act of collective imagination, a quantum leap in statesmanship' which Michael Manley called for from the developed world. For it needs confidence in ourselves and our own abilities, as well as a definite commitment to go ahead, on our own, in areas where the North is now unready or unwilling to work with us in the attack on world poverty. It requires, in other words, an act of political will. We have to make a deliberate commitment to development directed at meeting the needs of the people, and based on our own, Third World, resources and capacity. Without such an act of political will, every effort a t cooperation, and every joint undertaking, will collapse when difficulties occur - as they always have done, and always will do.

Further, South-South cooperation cannot be developed along the pattern of past North-South interactions. Within the Third World there are the poor and the less-poor; there are the large and the small; the land-locked and the littoral states. If, within the Third

World, those with advantages seek to exploit the weaker ones, then weshall simply repeat, among ourselves and at a lower level, the kind of dependency imbalance which now exists between the South and the North. And if we try to establish systems of Third World cooperation which would produce reasonably balanced results only on condition that all started equal, then we shall intensify the inequalities which now exist between us. The result of such practices would be the gradual build up of mutual resentments and a further division - perhaps between the Third World and a Fourth World - to the disadvantage of us all.

Political will for a positive South-South economic orientation is essential. But it must be married with realism. The individual states of the Third World, and the Third World as a whole, must only undertake what they believe they can actually do- and must then d o it. A country's failure to fulfil a commitment is just as devastating to a joint undertaking, whether the failure comes froma lack of foresight about its capacity, o r from a lackof will. Care, and thorough preparation, before undertaking commitments is not the same as a refusal to go forward with South-South cooperation: on the contrary, it is essential. We have to be like a tight-rope walker, who undertakesa high-wire walk only after assessing it in the light of his skill, and continues to ensure his balance at every step along the rope.

The benefit of Third World cooperation is likely to be greater the larger the number of countries involved. Yet if we wait for all the 120 members of the Group of 77 to go forward together, then we shall not move at all. Our capacity varies; our political commitment to the well-being of our people and to the concept of self-reliance will also vary. South-South cooperation has therefore to be organised in a manner which will accommodate and encourage the participation of the less committed while allowing the more committed to proceed together as their capacity allows. It therefore means not one Third World plan, but many; not one agreement, but a multitude; not one Third World organisation, but as many as are necessary to fulfil the functions any of us undertake together. South-South cooperation can involve bilateral agreements, regional agreements, or agreements involving all those Third World countries which are ready and able to move in aparticular direction. The important thing is that we should take the deliberate decision to move in this direction of 'South-South', and that our internal as well as external policies should reflect this new emphasis in our international economic relations.

The problem is not that we lack any knowledge of what has to be done. In May 1981 we had the Caracas Conference on the subject of South-South cooperation. That Conference was a new departure, it was serious, and it made a great number of positive suggestions. But little progress has been made since. This was, I believe, partly because our different countries have still not faced up to the need to change the emphasis of our development planning. It may also have been partly because we are not organised to implement the resolutions we pass about South-South cooperation. So many aspects of cooperation are interlinked that there is a lack of clarity about where and how to start.

Perhaps we should learn from our experience on North-South matters. In the 1960s we had the Pearce Commission, and in the 1970s we had the Brandt Commission. Both of these commissions moved the world some way forward; it was not their fault if their

constructive and clear proposals were not implemented by the world's political leaders. Indeed, the Cancun Conference did provide an opportunity for the crystallisation of that political will which would have enabled progress to be made on the Brandt proposals. Even now, some political leaders in both North and South are still trying to find a way to convert those proposals into action.

A South-South Commission, with the same kind of broadly-based, high-calibre membership and technical staff, could provide a similar service for Third World cooperation. It could examine the many different ideas which have been discussed over the years, the current and probable future organisational needs, and the priorities of intra- Third World action which are appropriate to a serious attack on world poverty. I would hope that it could, in the end, come up with a definite programme of action, with the question of 'how to move' given emphasis.

Let me try to sum up what I have been saying. I have claimed that the Third World does exist, and has a meaning which can be used for the betterment of the masses of poor people in the world. I have suggested that we need to reject the notion that the world's goals, or our goals, have inevitably been set by the technological and social patterns of the North. Indeed I have argued that only disaster can befall the Third World if it continues to try to 'catch up with the North'. Instead, I have urged that through self-reliance, and organised cooperation on a South South basis, we can - even in the existing adverse economic circumstances - promote our own declared national objectives.

The war against poverty has still to be won. Let us re-engage ourselves, armed with the experience of our past endeavours.

IFDA DOSSIER 31 SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1982 INTERACTIONS

The

of fixion Women w r i t i n g on women in Asia i s very much like the Chinese yin-yang. There i s the

dark and bright side of the Asian mystique.

First the yin. Just as cosmological forecasts describe what i s feminine as dark, cold, and wet, so too are accounts o f the cultural roots, political machinations, and current socio-economic conditions that affect the Asian women rather depress- ing. The general impression i s oftentimes a black world of yin.

From birth to death, like females the world over, Asian women are also at a disadvantage. Growing up in t h e cultural milieu of the great Asian religions, the women of the region have centuries of mores, practices, customary laws weighing on them.

* / Pages 7 2 t o 76 from BALAI Fe l lowsh ip , 768 Aurora Boulevard , Quezon C i t y . Mani la . P h i l i p p i n e s .

Still very feudal, Asian societies are now shattered by the onslaught of capitalist exploitation. Twirled by the finger of the World Bank-IMF schemes and pressed down by the thumb of transnational corporations, a good number of Asian women are further transformed into objects of profit and pleasure.

Female brawn for instance i s abundant and very cheap. Asian eyes and fingers are there to make Seiko watches tick, to cut and sew Levi Jeans, to smile and lure buyers of the products of their sweat and blood.

And when super profits are made from human cost' savings, bonanzas can be tossed around in industrialized countries. The mighty currency of t h e affluent can easily buy anything from the Asian market- And that includes the women themselves.

Asian flesh trade is a booming business. Airline seats are sold because of it, hotels get occupied, and agencies are kept busy. Asian beauty has exotic and vita- min effects. I t helps relax the nerves of servicemen and keeps them f i t for any eventuality, including nuclear first strikes. I t i s cheaper to avail of than to pay the costs of labor unrest.

In t h e style of Western capitalism, Asian women have become commodities in the international market. The white man4 can order a chink-eyed or brown- skinned mate as easily as one orders from a Sears-Roebuck catalogue. As for enter- tainment, one does not have to go to t h e East; the East can come to the West in the import trade of Asian ago-go dancers.

In spite of the black mass of yin, the core of Asian women i s of sterling quality - lustrous and steel-like. Deep within shines the brilliance of inner strength, creativity, and a daringness to break barriers when rock bottom i s hit- Chinese cos- mology calls t h i s yang and refers t o it as a masculine prerogative. That distinction in itself i s a culturally-based sexist discrimination.

Asian history belies the myth that the Asian female is nothing but yh wet and weak. All over Asia, women-power has been felt at one time or other, not in t h e style of bra-burning Western feminism but in movements touching crucial issues o f life and death. The struggle for sheer survival has been an impetus for women of t h e region to break cultural and structural barriers.

Though far from t h e final goal, a taste of significant victories has been relished enough to goad Asian women to unite as together they create a new Asia.

THIRD WORLD MOVEMENT GAINST THE EXPLOITATION

The power of solidarity has been the living experience of W-MAE-W (pro- nounced tee doubIe you, may double you).

Before the movement as such came to be, the international chain of linkages began with the South Korean women calling on allies among the Japanese women to protest against the Kisaeng parties, a form of Japanese "sexploitation".

Then when organized sex tours affected the Philippines, the Asian Women 's Asso- chtion of Japan called on some Filipino women to do something about the matter.

On Human Rights'.&, 10 December 1980. the first formal protest was filed at the Japanese Embassy 'in Manila. This vms followed by synchronized demonstrations in Southeast Asia during Prime Minister Suzuki's ASEAN t o w in January 1981. It was then that W-MAE-W got constituted as an action-oriented, net-working women's movement.

Letters of affiliation from Scandinavia, Europe, the heart of Africa, from the Americas, Australia, and the rest of Asia solidified W-MAE-W membership. Atten- tion was called to issues regarding marriage bureaus, migrant workers, intem6tional beauty contests, child prostitution, women workers, Islamic oppression of women, whoredoms created by US bases, nudist resorts, the importation of Third World entertainers.

Through TW-MAE-W. women's groups in industrialized countries joined hands with Third World women to confront these challenges. In a short while, linkages have become operative the world-over.

Tasting some measure of success, the Third World Movement Against the Exploi- tation of Women has found the transnatio~lized approach t o women's issues an effective means for women to liberate themselves from the clutches of modern slavery and exploitation.

Present day problems being phenomenal, the movement realizes the immensity of the work still to be done and urgently calls on more individuals and groups to close ranks.

For those interested, write: W-MAE-W, P.O. Box 1434. Manila Philippines. You may subscribe to the W-MAE-W Action Bulletin, a b i - m o n w . and secure materials on women issues from the W-MAE- W office, room 405 Arcega's. 769 Aurora Boulevard, Cubao, Quezon City.

nus c M e TO BE SO- C^LLED*WN-AWY

SHOPSu- CORPORATIONS LEAVlNb ?U6 INWSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES, C% PORTIN& JOBS TO T b k ?

THE WHO INTERNATIONAL CODE OF MARKETING OF BREAST-MILK SUBSTITUTES

A T IME FOR REEVALUATION

by Ted Greiner

In recent years, the problem of poor health and high death rates among infants and young children has finally attracted the attention it deserves, particularly the commerciogenic malnutrition caused by the promotion of bottle feeding by infant food and feeding bottle companies. This has led to the World Health Organization (WO) International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes, recommending that governments restrict some of the more blatant of these promotional practices.

This is a remarkable development. It sets a precedent in terms of coordinated world-wide action in trying to solve a serious problem in which non-governmental organizations played a key role. It sets an important precedent in attempts to regulate the marketing practices of transnational corporations. Considering the efforts of the infant formula industry and the United States government to weaken the Code, its provisions are surprisingly strong. This is testimony to the importance placed on the Code by many countries in Europe as well as in the Third World and to the courage and integrity of a number of individuals within WHO and UNICEF.

Ironically, nearly a year after formally coming into existence, there now appears to be a risk that the WHO Code may unintentionally result in more harm than good. Several points can be made in support of such a strong statement:

(1) The Code is a compromise document. It does not include many of the minimum measures recommended in the WHO/UNICEF Background Paper to the 1979 Meeting on Young Child Feeding which recommended the creation of the Code.

(2) It appears that the Code as it is now worded is allowing infant food companies to shift the advertising budget they had for infant formula over to other products which are widely used for bottle feeding. The Code does try to prevent this by stating that it covers all "breast-milk substitutes" meaning "any food being marketed or otherwise represented as a partial or total replacement for breast milk, whether or not suitable for that purpose". However, it is clear that the infant food industry is interpreting this to include only infant formula. For example, Nestle issued instructions to its agents and distributors dated February 1982, in which it stated that the WHO Code applies to none of its products except infant formula.

It is bottle feeding which is causing the problem, not just infant formula. In industrialized countries mothers often rely solely on infant formula for bottle feeding, but this is seldom the case in Third World countries. Probab- ly the most common commercial products used for bottle feeding there are full cream milk powders and gruels (which often contain milk powder). In many

* / SIDA, Birger Jarlsgatan 61, 105 25 Stockholm, Sweden.

Third World countries, Nestle's Nido full cream powdered milk is by far the leading product used in bottle feeding. Apparently Xestle now feels that the WHO Code allows such products to be openly advertised. While the Code would clearly forbid their being advertised as breastmilk substitutes, this is not very relevant in countries where people already believe that such products are meant for use in bottle feeding. In many places, for example West Africa and Indonesia, there is no other culturally known use for milk, particularly powdered milk.

If the Code is to fulfil its stated aim, some way must be found for it to encompass all commercial products promoted as infant foods or widely used for bottle feeding.

(3) Ten or twenty years ago, in many Third World countries, mass media were important for the diffusion of awareness of the "innovation" and for confer- ring status on it. At that time the WHO Code might have had a powerful effect in hindering the spread of bottle feeding. But the infant food industry stalled efforts along these lines throughout the entire decade of the 1970s to the point where further market development no longer depends on mass media advertising. Residual effects of past advertising, word of mouth, and the spread of Western health care availability will continue the process. The infant formula companies themselves have in recent years increasingly oriented their marketing and promotional efforts towards the health professions and away from public advertising. The reason for this is financial, not ethical: promotion to the health professions has increasingly proven to be cheaper and more effective in increasing sales.

(4) Much of the demand for infant formula and other bottle-fed products in the Third World is legithate. But part of it is artificial, created by the marketing efforts of companies who profit from it. Is that artificial demand somehow less reprehensible when the companies use health professionals as intermediaries in this demand-creation process?

The WHO Code places the entire burden for preventing commerciogenic malnutrition on the health care services in the Third World countries. The Code assumes they will be able to deal with advertising, free gifts and services, and free supplies and samples of infant formula. The already overworked health professionals in Third World countries have never been trained to cope with these responsibilities. Their training rarely if ever includes much information on breastfeeding, the dangers of bottle feeding, or even on the social and economic aspects of life for the majority of their patients. Often their personal financial situation is too precarious to allow them to cope in an objective professional manner with the "educational" efforts of the infant food companies. (This, as with many other points made in this paper, holds true in industrialized countries as well, where the WHO Code is also meant to apply.) The problem of financial insufficiency is even more salient at the institutional level, even with respect to Ministries of Health.

(5) Thus the WHO Code leaves intact many of the more dangerous (andeffective) methods of promoting bottle feeding to and through the health professions. What is more serious is that the failure to change this i;: the near future may institutionalize such practices and raise them above the level of criticism.

Whereas the Code was intended to be a first step towardssolving the problem, it is already being used by the infant food industry to legitimize its efforts to create, increase and stabilize a demand for its products throughout both Third World and industrialized countries via the health care systems.

(6) The passage of the WHO Code appears to be leading to a widespread feeling of complacency that the problem is solved. Many health care officials, aid agencies, etc. seem to feel that the problem is being taken care of "at higher level". Much of the general public no longer feels the need to contribute money to activist organizations, support boycotts, etc. This feeling of complacency, though unjustified even with respect to conunerciogenic malnutrition, seems to be spreading to the'entire breast/bottle feeding issue.

(7) There seems to be a sort of "development set" which, like the "jet set" incessantly moves from one fad to another. Attention and funding are lavished on a topic for a few years and then move on, irregardless of how much has been accomplished in solving the problem that once was considered "in". Thus ways need to be found to institutionalize problem-solving mechanisms, as for example the ecology movement has been successful in doing. It is important that the WHO Code - at least in its present form - not be viewed as the sole necessary means of doing so.

While the above points are perhaps oversimplified for brevity's sake, it is clear that the breastfbottle feeding- issue requires more,not less,attention as a result of the passage of the WHO Code. A first glance at the professional literature may suggest that the issue has been researched in great depth. Breastfeeding promotion projects seem to abound. But those who have taken a thorough knowledge of the literature to the field know the falsehood of these impressions. While recent research has given scientific credibility to an ancient wisdom on the superiority of breastfeeding, very little has been done to examine practical issues surrounding its protection and promotion. Almost no work has been done to determine what can be done about the still growing fashionable image and status-appeal of bottle feeding in much of the Third World. These issues demand a combination of research and action rarely achieved on any issue.

There is a critical need at this time for aid agencies and other concerned organizations to examine their own activities addressing these issues and to determine ways in which they may be able to make further contributions. They may be able to develop further ways to help (1) strengthen the WHO Code and to ins- pire other WHO/UNICEF efforts with respect to infant feeding problems; ( 2 ) contribute to strengthened education of health professionals, especially primary health care workers, in nutrition, infant feeding, the economic and social situation of their patients, the practical aspects of breastfeeding, and appropriate relationships with commercial firms; (3) support organizations involved in this issue and encourage them to build contacts with individuals and groups in Third World countries to help in efforts to build strong codes of marketing and to develop appropriate measures to regulate the promotion andfor availability of commercial infant foods or feeding bottles; ( 4 ) encourage the development and testing of efforts to promote breastfeeding and discourage bottle feeding.

LAUNCHED! A MOVEMENT TO RIGHT WRONGS WITH RIGHT PRODUCTS

Widespread organized adulteration of food in India, malpractices of transnational corporations in the Philippines, the infant food scandal, social and ecological crises that have loomed as a result of unsuitable technology and products, shocking and shameful statistics like:

. Americans spend more on cosmetics than the combined budget of all African countries;

. an estimated 12 million people are poisoned by pesticides and 30'000 die, three-quarters of them in the Third World;

. as much as 40Z of income in many Barbados households could be wasted due to inefficient use of products.

These were some of the subjects of discussion during the International Organi- zation of Consumers Unions' (IOCU) seminar on appropriate products, organized in collaboration with the International Labour Orgnanization (ILO) and supported by the International Development Reasearch Centre (IDRC), Canada.

Thirty people from 13 countries, representing every continent, attended the four-day meeting from March 9, 1982, at Penang Hill, Penang, Malaysia. Among them were consumer leaders from the IOCU network and researchers and repre- sentatives of the ILO and IDRC.

Basic needs - basic issues Participants spent a considerable amount of time discussing how to define an appropriate product, and came to the conclusion that though some products are universally inappropriate, many others are only relatively so - depending on the environment in which they are used. One of the basic issues in Third World countries for example, is the satisfaction of basic needs, hence it is necessary in such nations to judge the suitability of a product in the light of the issue.

The link between appropriate products and appropriate technology was also explored. Many participants felt the consumer movement should be more than a remedying force; it should also become actively involved in the formulation of product policies.

Other basic questions asked and discussed: does the rapid depletion of natural resources urge a more critical look at unrestrained economic growth? What is the relationship between the consumer movement and labour movement? Should the consumer movement, realising that the consumption pattern of a group of consumers may adversely affect that of another group, consider the need for income redistribution and work towards that end?

The intense debate during the "think tank" seminar, which underlined the urgen- cy to deal with the issue, culminated in the drawing up of a set of recommendations on appropriate products.

The t ime is now! and i t has t o be appropr ia te

Recognising that the waves of wasteful, harmful and useless products hitting markets the world over have to be stemmed (and stemmed fast!), the participants endorsed the need for immediate, informed, concerted and sustained action to reorientate production and consumption.

It was also asserted that inappropriate products should be treated as a socio- economic problem of phenomenal scale, especially in Third World countries where they affect survival, safety and indigenous ways of life and means of livelihood.

Act ion . . . a c t i o n , . . a c t i o n

The following, among others, are what the participants asked IOCU to arrange for:

. the setting up of APRAN or an Appropriate Products Research and Action Network, an informal grouping of organizations, institutes and researchers working on the subject of appropriate products with the objective of exchring- ing experiences and enlarging cooperation;

. a pilot project on the development of a national appropriate products policy in one or two countries;

. development and documentation of test methods which are appropriate to the low-income groups in Third world countries;

. international hearings or other activities to highlight a selective list of grossly inappropriate products or practices;

. the preparation of a Whole World Appropriate Product - Do It Yourself manual.

Consumer groups were asked to take social and ecological considerations into account when making recommendations to members on products and services. Those in Third World countries were requested to urge the use of indigenous products where appropriate, while groups in developing countries should make members more aware of how their way of life and their countries' policies affect other countries.

It is the belief of the participants that national and international governmental and non-governmental bodies should:

. put curbs on inappropriate products through import and investment policies, legislation on marketing and quality control, introducing measures to regulate the quantity and content of the promotion of inappropriate products and enforcement of the laws;

. draw on the experience of consumer groups when planning and carrying out research on appropriate products and technology.

Anwar Fazal, President of IOCU, has this to say about the seminar:

' It has been estimated that we can save the lives of one million infants if we protect and promote breastfeeding - the appropriate product par excellence. If we take what is wasted on pharmaceuticals, pesticides, tobacco, cosmetics, junk food, zero nutrition drinks, if we recognise how the poor pay more and often pay with their lives, we have a scandal of immense proportion. It is intolerable and unconscionable, and the world consumer movement must respond to it with action.''

A report

An 80-page report, containing summaries of papers and discussions at the seminar, was published in May 1982. Available from IOCU, 9 Emmastraat, The Hague, Netherlands or P.O.Box 1045, Penang, Malaysia.

THE LAW AND THE CONSUMER

The Pahang Association of Consumers ( P A C I L organized in A p r i l 1982 a qrass- root seminar on "the L a y and the eonsurner".

The objectives of the seminar were:

. to create an awareness and understanding amongst consumers of the various consumer protection laws;

. to instil, in the consumers a confidence in the due process of law, that it can be utilised for their benefit and hence become an instrument for bringing about justice.

This seminar, whereby aspects of consumer protection laws were discussed amongst people from the grassroot level and who had never been exposed to legal concepts, represents a new and unique approach by PAC in reaching out to the consumers. From the evaluation sheets handed back to us, it is evident that the aims of the seminar had been achieved. It was observed that:

. an intense awareness was created amongst the participants in the due process of law in defending their rights;

. the participants had become more aware of their rights under the consumer protection laws; and

. there was a desire amongst the participants that more of such seminars he organized, especially in the rural areas.

l/ Persatuan Pengguna-Pengguna Pahang, Pahang Association of Consumers, A 1984 - East Coast Garden, Jalan Beserah, Peti Surat 273, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia.

ETHNIC DIVERSITY OF MONO-CULTURALISK - THE STRUGGLE FOR A F R I C A

by Jimoh @mo-~ada ka

A deeply rooted desire for freedom in lie the roots of today's troubles, from their colonial rulers, together for the rulers of these newly inde- with unbounded faith in the glorious pendent African countries must now future that would surely follow, il- face the consequences of the unrest luminated the struggle for indepen- and hostility inherent in this situ- dence in African countries. What ation. Although there are still some went wrong? Why have their legiti- external threats, the real enemy lies mate hopes of peace, progress and within their own boundaries. prosperity turned to bitter strife? Why has independence so often The reasons for this need to be become but the prelude to a new understood for they have an irnpor- form of military or civilian dictator- tant bearing on the future of Africa. ship, in which the people enjoy no Although the colonial powers con- more freedom, and often have tinued to use the traditional struc- endure greater hardship than they ture of ethnic government for certain did under the colonial powers? Why jobs like tax gathering and minor is it that parliamentary-type institu- local administration, they were on tions, inherited from the colonial the whole hostile to ethnicism, regimes, have been unable to with- because it represented a potential stand the pressures imposed upon rival to their authority. They there- them by the new forces of African in- fore sought to subvert it, and where dependence? Why have they proved possible nominated their own ethnic so unsuitable to the African way of chiefs or 'warrant chiefs' who were life? granted privileges, so long as they

The answer lies very largely in the did as they were told. One far ruthless breaking up of the tradi- reaching result of this policy of frag- tional structure of African society. mentation of ethnic groupings has Under colonial rule people of widely been that when the time came for the differing cultural and religious back- people to throw off the burden of grounds were often lumped together colonial domination, their leaders in highly artificial centralised states. were unable to build the new in- Tribes were arbitrarily divided bet- dependence movements within the ween two or more states, without ethnic structure. In its absence they regard to their ethnic heritage. Here- were compelled to promote their

*/ 2A Alaka S t r e e t , Ogbe, Benin C i ty , Nigeria . -

cause within the framework of the heritage. Governments have there- artificial colonial divisions, and thus, fore found it increasingly difficult to by a cruel irony, to further ~ d w n maintain their authority, a situation ethnic bondings. Although they made more difficult by the lack of a claimed to speak for all the ethnic common indigenous language. groups in their countries they were Monocentral government has also in fact quite unable to do so and signally failed to cure economic ills, found themselves bound to accept and dreams of prosperity have been the valuation of the ethnic system wrecked on the rocks of increased placed upon it by colonial adrnin- poverty. istrators - that it is outmoded and A glimmer of hope rises in the dis- represents a h idrance to progress. tance, however, as some of the new Their concurrence with this philo- leaders are beginning to understand sophy was indeed a victory for col- that lasting stability can only be onial thinking. reached by accepting and respecting

Thus the new leaders who emer- the traditional ties of kinship, culture ged after achieving independence, and religion. Nigeria, the most popu- sought to govern on the monocentra- lous and richest state in Black Africa, list principles introduced by their is one example. Some recent esti- former governors. It is to this that mates suggest that her population the chronic instability of modern has already reached one hundred African states can be attributed. million, which means that one out of Ethnicism may be tolerated so long every four Africans is Nigerian. as it is not troublesome, but for the One lasting result of the 1967- most part it is regarded with sus- 1970 Nigerian Civil war, in which the picion and contempt as something Ibos fought unsuccessfull~ secede belonging to the past and totally un- from the Nigerian Federation and suitable in a modem progressive establish the new state of Biafra*, state. has been a radical change in the

Since independence many states structure of the Federation. Before have been politically unstable as civil the Civil war Nigeria was artificially strife has increased and the demands divided into four states - North, of different ethnic groups have been East, West and mid-West, which heard. Deprived of the dignity and bore no relation to ethnic groupings joy they were promised, they seek to in the country. The Federal Govern- break away from the new oppressors ment in Lagos had far too to form independent states, or join power, and could and did issue up with other peoples with whom orders to State Governors - orders they share a common cultural which were frequently ignored - so

that friction and dissatisfaction were This was not achieved without rife. Today there are nineteen states three years of bitter civil war, with in Nigeria, roughly corresponding to both sides being supplied with aid various ethnic groups in the country, from countries with a vested interest and none is big enough either to in Nigeria's future. To learn the ele- dominate or to threaten any of the mentary truth that ethnic differences others. Moreover the states enjoy must be respected, many thousands considerablepoliti~d autonomy. had to suffer and die. OtherAfrican

The Governor and members of countries such as Zaire, Ethiopia, each State Assembly are elected by Uganda, Kenya, Burundi, Rwanda, all the voters in his state, and the Angola and Chad, who are currently President of the Federation can faced with civil strife, either because intervene in the State's affairs only ethnic UouPs wish to secede, 'or at in exceptional circumstances. least to gain greater political auto- Although the states depend for 80 nomy, would do well to study the per cent of their revenue on federally Nigerian experience. collected funds, most of these funds What is at issue, then, is in what are guaranteed under the constitu- direction African politics should tion, and the Federal government move to put an end to the internal cannot withold them. The nineteen strife that is tearing apart so many of states, regardless of their size or the newly independent countries and population are represented equally threatens to engulf the whole con- in the Senate. Senators are also tinent. The frontiers inherited from democratically elected, as is the colonial rule must be changed to President, who must submit for reflect ethnic realities, and these Senate approval, any major policy groups should wherever practicable decision, and the names of people he be granted political autonomy and proposes to appoint to certain key freedom from the fear of domination jobs, including Federal Ministers by another group. If this is done full and Heads of Federal Civil Service economic, social and military co- Ministries. operation between ethnic groups

What in effect the Nigerians have should become feasible, and would achieved is a system that accords lead eventually to the unity and stab- with the realities of political and ility that has so far tragically eluded cultural life in their country. By de- them. centralising the power structure they p

have made possible a degree of * Omo-Fadaka, J., 'Does Nigeria peace and unity among the ethnic Exist?' The Ecologist Vol.1. No.5. groups, that offers much hope for the 1970. future.

THE M I N O R I T Y RIGHTS GROUP

Discrimination against ethnic, religious and cultural minorities (or majori- ties) underlies some of the gravest and most widespread problems facing the world today. Human beings may form a vulnerable group in a community through numbers, or status, or both. Their ill-treatment can not only involve suffering and disability on a massive scale, but has often led to communal vio- lence and bloodshed. Throughout the world there are minority situations involving a waste of human resources besides the denial of human rights, which represent threats to peace as well as a challenge to the conscience of man. Hence - particularly because minorities as yet have no forum at the United Nations - the need for an independent, international and non-governmental body to work in this difficult but vital field.

To meet this need an international specialised research and information unit called the Minority Rights Group has been founded by a number of concerned individuals connected with public life, the press, the academic world, religions and the law. La S t m p a said in December 1973: 'Since most minorities have no means of expression at the centre of political power, it will bring some relief to our consciences to know that there is an organisation, politically independent, with a high reputation internationally, devoted to these problems'.

MRG has three principal aims:

. to secure justice for minority or majority groups suffering discrimination, by investigating their situation and publicising the facts as widely as possible, to educate and alert public opinion throughout the world;

. to help prevent, through publicity about violations of human rights, such problems from developing into dangerous and destructive conflicts which, when polarised, are very difficult to resolve;

. to foster, by its research findings, international understanding of the factors which create prejudiced treatment and group tensions, thus helping to promote the growth of a world conscience regarding human rights.

The aims of MRG are remedial, preventive, and educative.

The main methods which MRG employs are:

1. MRG maintains a continual survey of current events throughout the world to monitor developments in minority situations. It selects specific problems on which to focus attention, on the basis of criteria such as the severity of the persecution or discrimination to which the victims of group prejudice are being subjected, the extent to which it is possible to obtain reliable information, and the prospect of securing an improvement, in the treatment of the people concerned by making known the facts of their situation. In choosing priorities MRG aims to maintain an international balance, to remain politically impartial, and to include some of the lesser known instances of discrimination as well as

*/ Benjamin Franklin House, 36 Craven Street, London WC2N 5 N G , United Kingdom. --

the more publicised cases.

2. It conducts detailed research into the selected situations, usually by commissioning suitable experts to prepare impartial reports on them in depth. This often involves their conducting first-hand investigations in the countries concerned. MRG then submits these reports to verification by different autbr- ities on the subject. Ascertaining the correct facts is an essential pre- requisite for any remedial action: MRG believes in the intrinsic value of making the truth known in the many cases where accurate publicity leading to an informed public opinion is the best hope of redress.

3. MRG's reports are sent to several hundred leading newspapers as well as television and radio throughout the world. They are also made available to universities, libraries, schools and other interested individuals. MRG has established contact with the main newspapers in most countries. Its findings have been used in radio and television broadcasts, for study in schools and universities, by the UN and by civil servants and community relations organisations. More than one hundred and seventy thousand copies of its reports have been sold to members of the public and libraries in over one hundred and ten different countries throughout the world.

4. MRG also holds meetings, lectures, seminars and conferences on minority issues. In addition, subject to the availability of funds, MRG intends to commission multi-disciplinary research into the root-causes of minority problems and their possible solution. > *

MRG thus urgently needs further funds to carry on its work and to extend its effectiveness. Please contribute what you can. Being a charity, MRG is eli- gible to receive a covenant if you prefer.

* * *

Gandhi said that civilisation is to be judged by the treatment that is shown to minorities. Given the necessary support, MRG can make a valuable contri- bution by providing reliable and impartial information, and by building up knowledge and experience about victims of group prejudice - thus helping to secure greater respect for human rights everywhere.

Any advances in this field will be gains for the world's civilisation as well as peace in our age.

THE MYSTERIOUS WHISTLING LANGUAGE OF THE MAZATECA I N D I A N S

an Inter Press Service Feature by Alberto Morgan - */

After thirty years of trying, linguists are still unable to unravel ie mystery of the whistling language of the Mexican Mazateca inJians. This curious method of communication is similar to those used by groups in Trrkey, the French Pyrenees, and on Gomera in the Canary Islands. Linguists icom the National University of Mexico (L'NAM) and from Europe have all failed Lo dis- cover the origins of this unusual language, which the Mazatecas use for short distance communication. Nor have they been able to work out why native peoples who live under similar geographic conditions have not developed a similar means of communication.

The 50,000 Mazatecas, one of Mexico's 82 ethnic groups, live in the forested mountains of the South Eastern State of Oaxaca. They speak the Mazateca language, belonging to the ~ixteca-zaFoteca linguistic family.

According to a study by UNAM researchers, the whistling variant of the Maza- teca language developed as a response to the geographic conditions of their remote habitat - the mountainous countryside, the dense vegetation and the narrow, deep vallies. Unlike the shepherds of Gomera, the Aas region in the Pyrenees, or Kuskoy in Turkey, the Mazatecas use their whistling language to communicate at the relatively short distance of several hundred metres. To communicate over greater distances, or in the case of special group gather- ings,they use a seashell whose sound travels up to ten kilometres.

Since Mazateca is a tonal language, the Indians are able to duplicate the pitch of words exactly by their whistles. In some cases they have even been known to whistle Spanish words. Mazatecas use four different whistling techniques, according to linguists. For distances up to 200 metres, they make a common whistling sound through which they actually "talk". For distances between 600 and 1,000 metres, they use their teeth and lips combined with a leaf (usually from a coffee tree) to make whistling sounds.

Interestingly, Mazateca women have rarely been observed using the whistling language even though many of them are known to be as proficient as the men. There are apparently cultural prohibitions against the women demonstrating in front of outsiders.

Researchers have been unable to explain another mystery of the Mazateca whistlers: the astounding ability of some, at a distance of up to one kilo- metre, to distinguish,by sound alone,the sex of the person whistling, their approximate age and even their state of mind.

* / Inter Press Service, Calle Paris 10, Ofic. 501, Colonia San Rafael, Mexico D.F. Mexico.

US Admiral Rickover ; I WOULD SINK ALL MY WCLEAR-POWERED SHIPS

Senator Pron i r e : Iv'tiat do you think the appropriate role for government is in civilian nuclear power?

Adm-rat Rickover: 1 do not believe the government should spend money fostering nuclear power. Government should have people checking on their operation. I do not believe the government should subsidize the development of commercial nuclear power. They have done enough now.

Senator P r o m i r e : Admiral, civilian nuclear energy has nearly come to a stand- still in this country. Will it ever become a viable source of energy in the future? In our state, for example, 30 percent of the electricity is provided by nuclear power and yet I'm told they don't have any plans at all, any pros- pects, of building any further nuclear facilities.

Admiral Rickover: Well, you're asking me two different questions. I'll try to answer them. One, I think that ultimately we will need nuclear power because we are exhausting our non-renewable resources; that is, coal and oil. I think they will go far more rapidly than we think they will and the cost is already going up. I believe that nuclear power for commercial purposes shows itself to be more economic, but that's a fake line of reasoning because we do not take into account the potential damage the release of radiation may do to future generations.

I'll be philosophical. Until about two billion years ago it was impossible to have any life on earth- That is, there was so much radiation on earth you couldn't have any life - fish or anything. Gradually, about two billion years ago, the amount of radiation on this planet and probably in the entire system reduced and made it possible for some form of life to begin and it started in the seas, I understand from what I've read, and that amount of radiation has been gradually decreasing because all radiation has a half-life which means ultimately there will be no radiation.

Now when we go back to using nuclear power we are creating something which nature tried to destroy to make life possible. Now that is the philosophical aspect, whether it's nuclear power or using radiation for medical purposes or whatever. Of course, those are not bad because they don't last long, but every time you produce radiation, you produce something that has life, in some cases for billions of years, and I think there the human race is going to wreck itself, and it's far more important that we get control of this horrible force and try to eliminate it.

I do not believe that nuclear power is worth it if it creates radiation. Then you might ask me why do I have nuclear-powered ships? That's a necessary evil. I would sink them all. Have I given you an answer to your question?

I/ Reproduced from the New York Review of Books, l2 March 1982 -

Senator P r o m i r e : You've certainly given me a surprising answer. I didn't expect it and it's very logical.

Admiral Rickover: Why wouldn't you expect it?

Senator P r o m i r e : I hadn't felt that somebody who's been as close to nuclear power as you have and who's been so expert in it and advanced it so greatly would point out that, as you say, it destroys life ... Admiral Rickover: I'm not proud of the part I've played in it. I did it because it was necessary for the safety of this country. That's why I'm such a great exponent of stopping this whole nonsense of war... attempt(s) to limit war have always failed. The lesson of history is when a war starts every nation will ultimately use whatever weapon has been available. That is the lesson learned time and again. Therefore, we must expect, if another war - a serious war - breaks out, we will use nuclear energy in some form. That's due to the imperfection of human beings.

Senator P r o m i r e : What do you think , i the prospect, then, of nuclear war?

Admiral Rickover: I think we will probably destroy ourselves, so what differ- ence will it make? Some new species will come up that might be wiser.

Senator P r o m i r e : With that knowledge, it would seem to me that we could control, limit,reduce nuclear weapons. Everybody loses.

Admiral Rickover: I think froma long-rangestandpoint - I'm talking about hu- manity - the most important thing we could do is start by having an international meeting where we first outlaw.nuclear weapons to start with, then we outlaw nuclear reactors too...

Senator P r o m i r e : So you think if we have the commitment, we can limit and reduce our arms?

Admiral Rickover: Yes, yes. I remember the 1921 disarmament conference. That's the one Charles Evans (Hughes) went to. The United States called that conference and it came to very significant results. There was an arms race going on. England and France and Italy were building a lot of ships and we were building a lot and it was decided and it worked and resulted in the limi- tation of arms. The treaty expired in 1935.

I think it would be the finest thing in the world for the President of the United States to initiate immediately another disarmament conference where we at least stop that. It can be done. They did it then. They did it for a pe- riod of fifteen years. It expired in 1935, and then by that time Hitler had come to power in Germany and there was no choice of continuing it. Had it not been for him, probably the disarmament would have gone on and decreased the amount of armaments even more. But I think this is a very propitious time, when the military expenses are eating up so much money and it's completely un- productive, and using so much of the people's taxes. I think this is a fine thing for the President to do and I urge you, in your capacity as a Senator, to try to do so and make me a member of it. I'll do something. Put me in charge of it and I'll get you some results ...

RISKS OF UNINTENTIONAL NUCLEAR WAR

The current arms race gives rise to nightmares of a nuclear holocaust even though no Government may want a nuclear war or deliberately plan to unleash a nuclear war. Can a nuclear war be triggered off unintentionally?

This is the question being dealt with in a new UNIDIR book "Risks of Unints- tional Nuclear War", published as UN Sales Publication No. E.82.0.2. The authors of the book are Daniel Frei, Professor of Political Science at the University of Zurich, Switzerland, with the collaboration of Christian Catrina of the same University, who prepared this study for the United Nations Insti- tue for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) within the programme of research work approved by UNIDIR's Advisory Council.

The book is a critical evaluation of the available scientific literature, including some 500 titles. The knowledge gathered from this literature was supplemented by information collected at official sources and academic institutes in Washington, D.C. and in Moscow.

Brief Outline

The authors suggest that the danger of nuclear accidents, which could trigger off a nuclear holocaust, is only a minor cause of concern. It is the tendency of strategic systems becoming unstable combined with situations of time pressure in acute crises situations that would involve more serious risks.

If,there are incentives to initiate the use of strategic nuclear forces, one side might launch a preemptive strike in order to gain a decisive advantage. In an acute international crisis, a tendency of strategic instability could constitute a serious danger. Misunderstandings, misinterpretations, miscalculation and other kinds of mistakes may occur in the process of decision-making during an acute international crisis leading to a nuclear war even though no government may want it or deliberately plan to unleash it.

Although, they argue, such risks are rather small at the present moment, the danger will increase rapidly unless measures are taken to achieve a cessation of the arms race and unless politics of force are no longer used. Energetic efforts at all levels - unilateral, bilateral and multilateral - are required to prevent an international crisis from escalating into an unintentional nuclear war.

The arms race progresses on a step-by-step basis and lacks proper national, let alone international, control. Thus arms race instability undermines strategic stability. Additional arms control issues should be included in the agenda of international negotiations dealing with arms control measures in order to cope with the arms race. The measures mentioned as examples by the authors are the prohibition of the use of anti-satellite and anti-submarine systems and the prevention of further technological developments of such systems. There should be more emphasis on dealing with the qualitative aspects of the arms race, and more efforts should be undertaken to elaborate appropriate verification and inspection procedures. Efforts should also be aimed at achieving strategic stability at the lowest possible level.

The "mismatch of strategic doctrines" is another source of risks.

The authors define "strategic doctrines" as "sets of operational beliefs, va- lues and assertions that guide official behaviour with respect to strategic research and development, weapons choice, acquisiton policy, force deployment, operational plans, force employment, arms control, etc."

The authors make this point about strategic doctrines. "Notwithstanding their high degree of sophistication, they ultimately rest on complex and indissoluble political judgement and are thus subject to all kinds of fallacies, distortions and misjudgments". To deal with the destabilizing consequences of strategic doctrines, say the authors, talks are needed among the military experts of the major powers on strategic doctrines with a view to finding areas of common understanding. Negotiations should be held on possible solutions of the dilemma of extended deterrence, and it should be attempted to reach an agreement on the prohibition of first use for offensive purposes of nuclear weapons.

Thirdly, nuclear proliferation may undermine strategic stability.

Efforts so far undertaken to halt nuclear proliferation may eventually prove to be insufficient. This situation could arise if, in the very near future, a considerable number of countries might acquire nuclear weapons, and the presently existing nuclear weapon States do not in an effective manner start the process of nuclear disarmament. No matter whether more nuclear powers sould mean more nuclear wars or whether more nuclear powers would mean a greater risk of international crises leading to a nuclear conflagration, nuclear proliferation in any case would have destabilizing consequences for the international situation. In order to counteract such destabilizing consequences, non-nuclear means should be used to satisfy the legitimate security needs of "threshold countries". Regional arms control measures should be given more priority than approaches toward universal arms control measures.

9 3

MATERIALS RECEIVED

LOCAL SPACE

. Leonard Henny, International development education through audio visual &, and Using films in international development education (Sociological Institute, Utrecht, Holland), 12pp., llpp.

. Ross Kidd, From outside-in to inside-out: the benue workshop on "theatre for development" (International Council for Adult Education, 29 Prince Arthur Ave., Toronto, Ont,, Canada M53 182), 20pp.

. Florian Steinberg, The urban housing question in Sri Lanka (Technische ~niversit'at, Strasse des l7.Juni 135, 1000 Berlin 12), 3pp.

. Olivier Godard, Decentralisation et planification du d6veloppement endogsne (C.I.R.E.D., 54 Boulevard Raspail, 75270 Paris Cedex 06), 18pp.

NATIONAL SPACE

. Ian Miles, Statistics for the people? (9, Poland Street, London W1V 3UG, United Kingdom) 2pp.

T H I R D WORLD SPACE

. Diana Tussie, Latin american integration: from import substitution to market efficiency (London School of Economics & Political Science, Dept. of International Relations, Houghton Street, London WC2A ZAE, U.K.) 23pp.

. R. Coster, State Trading Organizations and Producers' Associations as instruments to expand South-South co-operation (ESCAP, P.O.Box 618, Bangkok, haila and) , 4pp.

GLOBAL SPACE

. Subrata Kumar Mitra and Claudia ~erde-~rauni~er, Towards a new international economic order - which one? (~uhr-~niversitat Bochum, Zentrales Sozial- wissenschaftliches Seminar, Postfach 102148, 4630 Bochum 1, FRG), 43pp.

. Herb Feith, A dialogue between fear and hope (Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia), 13pp.

. YSjana Sharma, The disarmament-development bandwagon - How to kill two birds with one stone (115, Rue de Lausanne, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland), 4pp.

, Abdallah Elfaleh, La culture, enjeu strategique dans les relations inter- nationales (28, rue St-Jacques, 75005 Paris, France), 20pp.

. Silvia Boba, L'imrnigration vers les pays industrialises, facteur structu- re1 d'appauvrissement des pays dr&igration (Confederazione Generate Italiana del Lavoro, Corso dr1talia 25, Roma, Italia), 7pp.

LOCAL SPACE

. Ami t Bhadur i , Md. An i su r Rahman (eds. ) , S tud ies i n r u r a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n : (New D e l h i : tlohan P r im lan i , Oxford & IBH P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1982), 229pp.

. S. T i l aka ra tna , Grassroots s e l f - r e 1 iance i n S r i Lanka: Organ i sa t i ons o f B e t e l and C o i r y a r n producers (Geneva: ILO World Employment Programme Research Working Papers, January 1982), 53pp.

. Lim Teck Ghee and Tan Phaik Leng, Grassroots s e l f - r e l i a n c e i n i t i a t i v e s i n Malays ia : A case s tudy o f Kampung B a t u ' s s t r u g g l e f o r l a n d (Geneva: ILO World Employment Programme Research Working Papers, January 1982), 60pp.

. Rura l Employment P o l i c y Research Programme, The s t r u g g l e toward s e l f - r e l i a n c e o f o rgan ised, r e s e t t l e d women i n t he P h i l i p p i n e s ( ILO World Employ- ment Programme Research Working Papers, February 1982), 31pp.

. M a r i l y n Car r , App rop r i a te techno logy and r u r a l i n d u s t r i a l i s m (London: I n te rmed ia te Technology Development Group, Occasional Papers 1) ( 9 K ing S t r e e t , Covent Garden, London WC2 8HN) , 23pp.

. "Workers ' self-management and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s " , P u b l i c E n t e r p r i s e , vo l . 2 , no.3, 1982, pp.7-36.

. Henk Thomas and Chr i s Logan, Mondragon: An economic a n a l y s i s (London: George A l i e n & Unwin (Pub l i she rs ) , 1982), 218pp. The group o f coopera t ives .

centered on Mondragon i n Spa in ' s Basque Provinces has achieved wide- rang ing success and wor ld-w ide fame. Th is book summarises i t s h i s t o r y and organ isa- t i o n , and makes an in -depth a n a l y s i s o f i t s economic aspects, i n c l u d i n g employment c r e a t i o n and manpower p lann ing, t h e r a i s i n g o f f i n a n c i a l resources and p l a n n i n g o f investments, problems o f earn ings d i f f e r e n t i a l s , and t h e incen- t i v e s t h a t can be d e r i v e d f rom worker-ownership. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e authors examine t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e self-management system and Mondragon's p roduc t i on e f f i c i e n c y .

The book extends f a r beyond t h e narrow con f i nes o f ' c o o p e r a t i v e t e r r i t o r y ' , however, and p laces these phenomena i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a comple te ly new system o f i n d u s t r i a l and l a b o u r r e l a t i o n s . The book ' s f i n d i n g s a r e o f d i r e c t s i g n i - f icance t o p r a c t i t i o n e r s and p01 icymakers who search f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y forms of work o r g a n i s a t i o n which e n t a i l n e i t h e r t h e n a t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i e s , n o r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f c a p i t a l i s m .

. Jean Lamoure, Les r e l a t i o n s i?ducat ion/emploi ( P a r i s : Unesco, D i v i s i o n o f Educat iona l P o l i c y and Planning, Reports S tud ies S.92, l 9 8 l ) , 170pp.

. Stan Windass (ed.) , Loca l i n i t i a t i v e s i n Great B r i t a i n (1981) (Ox fo rdsh i re : Foundat ion f o r A1 t e r n a t i v e s , The Rookery, Adderbury, Banbury, Oxon., 1981 ) , 126pp.

. G. B e r t o l i n i , "Emplois d ' i n i t i a t i v e l o c a l e , econcinie s o c i a l e e t t i e r s - sec teu r " , Economic e t humanisme (no. 264, M a r s / A v r i l 1982), pp.47-58.

. Terrains';vagues e t t e r r e s promises: Les concepts d 'eco-developpement e t l a p r a t i q u e des geographes (Presses u n i v e r s i t a i r e s de France - P a r i s , Cah iers de 1'IUED - Geneve: 1982), 299pp.

. L' independance gnerget ique de l a maison. Ce volume r e u n i t ce q u ' i l f a u t s a v o i r s u r I e m ic ro -c l ima t , l ' h y d r a u l i q u e , 1e vent , l e s o l a i r e e t l a biomasse. Une p r e s e n t a t i o n syn the t i que de ces q u a t r e sources d ' e n e r g i e permet de d e f r i - cher un t e r r a i n s u r Sequel 1e " f l o u e c o l o - l i t t e r a i r e " remplace t r o p souvent l e s donnees techn iques, economiques e t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s . Ce l i v r e a e t 6 e labo re cornme un o u t i l de t r a v a i l e t de synthese a 1a d i s p o s i t i o n des p a r t i c u l i e r s e t des concepteurs ( a r c h i t e c t e s , themic iens, m a i t r e s d 'ouvrage, amenageurs de t o u t e s o r t e ...), a f i n q u ' i l s i n t s g r e n t , dans l e u r s preoccupat ions e t dans l e u r s p r o j e t s de c o n s t r u c t i o n ou de r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , 1a dimension v a l o r i s a t i o n de tou tes l e s energ ies d i s p o n i b l e s s u r un s i t e . ( E c r i r e ?I M. J-M. V i e i l l a r d , T u r r i e r s , 04250 La Mot te du Cai re , France) .

NATIONAL SPACE

. Stan Wtndass, P o l i t i c s th rough t h e l o o k i n g g l a s s (Banbury, OX17 3NA: New Foundat ions, 1981), 188pp. Human r i g h t s a r e what government i s about - n o t o n l y c i v i l and p o l i t i c a l l i b e r t i e s , b u t t h e r i g h t t o work, t o a home, t o f r e e - dom f rom want. A l l r i g h t s a r e r o o t e d i n freedom and s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n ; government shou ld 'enab le ' r a t h e r than p rov ide , b u t i t must f o rmu la te c l e a r human r i g h t s aims and pursue tough p o l i c i e s t o ach ieve them. The human r i g h t s movement i s now s t r o n g enough t o g i v e a 'new l o o k ' t o n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s and c r e a t e t h e beg inn ings o f a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rde r based on j u s t i c e .

. Chr i s tophe r Clapham (ed. ) , P r i v a t e patronage and p u b l i c power: Loca l c l i e n t - e l i s m i n t he modern s t a t e (London: Frances P i n t e r ( P u b l i s h e r s ) : 1982), 222pp.

. T. Bergh, T.J. Hanisch, E. Lange, H.@. Pharo, Growth and development: % Norwegian exper ience, 1830-1930 (Os lo : Norwegian I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , 1980), 166pp. Study undertaken i n t h e c o n t e x t o f IFDA's T h i r d System Pro jec t ; summary papers pub l i shed i n IFDA Doss ier 19 - September/October 1980.

. Jl i rgen Hartmann, "La p o l i t i q u e s o c i a l e en Suede: Un b i l a n (1945-1980)", T r a v a i l e t S o c i e t e ( vo l . 7 , no.1, Janvier-Mars 1982), pp.101-110.

. Bernard Roux, e t a1, "Reforme e t conf re- re forme a g r a i r e au P o r t u g a l " , Revue Tiers-Monde (Tome X X I I I , no.80, Janvier-Mars 1982), 231pp. ( P a r i s : Presses U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de France) .

. Hugo.Neira, " In forme: Los 500 d i a s de Po lon ia" , Soc ia l i smo y participation (110.17, Marzo, 1982), pp.51-79.

. J.C. Kapur, W: An uncommitted S o c i e t y ( D e l h i 110 002: Vikas P u b l i s h i n g House, 5 Ansar i Road).

. Jan P i e t e r s e , "Rawlings and t h e 1979 r e v o l t i n Ghana", Race and Class ( vo l .XX I I1 , Sp r i ng 1982, no.4), pp.251-273.

. L.O. A f r i c a , Income d i s t r i b u t i o n i n L e s o t h o (Maseru: I n s t i t u t e o f Labour S t u d i e s , N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y o f L e s o t h o is cuss ion Papers ; P r i v a t e Bag, Maseru 100, L e s o t h o ) , 30pp.

. Dans l a s e r i e I t i n e r a i t - e s : No tes e t Travaux de 1 ' I n s t i t u t u n i v e r s i t a i r e d ' e t u d e s du deve loppement , 24, r u e R o t h s c h i l d , 1202 Geneve):

- C a r l o s Lopes, E t h n i c , e t a t e t r a p p o r t s de p o u v o i r en G u i n e e - B i s x , (Mars 1982) , 117pp.

- G r a c i e l a L i z a r a z o , L ' i n d u s t r i e du c a f e e n C o l w , e , 1976-1979 ( O c t o b r e 1981), 63PP- - J e a n - P i e r r e Jacob, Simon P e r r e i r a B a r r e t o , Ressobrces n a t u r e l l e s e t c*- t i o n s s o c i o - 6 c o n m i q u e s en H a i t i - : Ur] b i l a n des p r o b e (Decembre l 9 8 l ) , 120pp. -

- L. Guye, D e s t r u c t i o n ~ o ~ e p r o d u c t i o n de l i ~ c o n m i e paysanng? Le d 6 b a t au Mex ique ( O c t o b r e 1981) , 28pp.

. C laes B r u n d e n i u s , Econon~ ic g r o w t h , b a s j c needs and 2ome d i s t r i b u t i o n i~ r e v o l u t i o n a r y Cuba (Lund : Research P o l i c y I n s t i t u t e , d e r s i t y o f Lund, 1 9 8 1 ) , 232pp.

. P e t e r Peek, A g r a r i a n r e f o r m s ~ n L ~ u r a 1 d e v e l b g ~ ~ . e n t i n N i c a r a g u a (1979-81) (Geneva: ILO ~ o r l d Employment Programme Research Work ing Papers, March 1982) , 50PP.

THIRD P!ORLD SPACE

. A b d e l l a t i f Benachenhou, Le T ie rs -Monde en j e u [ A l g e r : A s s o c i a t i o n des Economis tes du Tiers-Monde, 20, r u e Chah id K h a l e f Mustapha - Ben Aknoun, 1981), 217pp.

. Khushi M. Khan, V o l k e r M a t t h i e s , R e g i o n d l k o n f l i k t e i n d e r D r i t t e n W e l t (Munchen, We1 t f o r u m V e r l a g , 1981 ) , 772pp.

. Sandor L i g e t i , S e l e c t i v e c r e d i t p o l i c y i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s (Budapest: I n s t i t u t e f o r Wor ld Economics o f t h e H u n g a r i a n Academy o f Sc iences , S t u d i e s on D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s , no.109, 1981) , 78pp.

. R i c h a r d G e r s t e r , r a l l s t r i c k e d e r Verschu ldung : Der I n t e r n a t i o n a l e Wahrungs- d j 2 E n t w i c k l u n g s l a n d e r (Base1 : Z-Ver lag , 1982) , 328pp.

. Frances S teward and J e f f r e y James ( e d s . ) , The economics o f new t e c h n o l o g y i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s (London: F rances p i n t e r ( P u b l i s h e r s ) , 1982) , 282pp.

. J.-C. Hourcade, " E n e r g i e e t T iers-Monde: Dangers e t i l l u s i o n s d u mimet i sme t e c h n o l o g i q u e " , Economie a t humanisme (no.265, M a i I J u i n 1982, pp.41-48.

. L a s z l 6 Lang - J u d i t K i s s , The p o o r ri*: An i n q u i r y i n t o t h e d i a l e c t i c s o f c a p i t a l abundancy and underdeve lopment i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t (Budapes t : I n s t i t u t e f o r W o r l d Economics o f t h e H u n g a r i a n Academy o f S c i e n c e s , 1981 ) , 130pp.

. F a s s i l G. K i ros , "What i s i n a New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order f o r t h e l eas t developed 1981 ) , pp. 16-34

c o u n t r i e s i n A f r i c a ? " , Af r i q u e e t developpement (CODESRIA, B.P. 3304, ~akar, Senegal ) .

GLOBAL SPACE

. Ivan I l l i c h , "The d e l i n k i n g o f peace and development", A l t e r n a t i v e s ( v o l . V I I , no.4, Sp r i ng 1982), pp.409-416 (Center f o r the Study o f Developing S o c i e t i e s , 29 Rajpur Road, De lh i 110054, I n d i a ; I n s t i t u t e f o r World Order, 777 Un i ted Nat ions Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA).

. Jozef G o l d b l a t , Agreements f o r arms c o n t r o l : A c r i t i c a l survey (London: T a y l o r & F ranc i s (on b e h a l f o f Stockholm I n t e r n a t i o n a l Peace Research I n s t i t u t e (S IPRI ) , 1982), 387pp.

. Bhupendra Jasan i , Outer space: A new dimension of t h e arms- (London T a y l o r & F ranc i s (on b e h a l f o f S IPRI) , 1982), 425pp.

. "Les vo ies du desarmement: Le mouvernent de p a i x europ6en", A1 t e r n a t i v e s non v i o l e n t e s (no.44, Pr intemps 1982), ( C r d i n t i l l e u x , 42210 Montrond, France) .

. " S t r u g g l e f o r disarmament", S t r a t e g i c a n a l y s i s (Spec ia l Issue, v01 . V I , no. 1-2, Apr i l -May 1982), ( I n s t i t u t e f o r Defence S tud ies and Analyses, Sapru House, Barakhamba Road, New D e l h i 110001, I n d i a ) .

. The0 van Boven, People m a t t e r : e w s on i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s p o l i c y (Amsterdam: Meulenhof f , Postbus 100, 1982), 186pp.

. Max Liniger-Goumaz, "Nat ions-Unies e t regimes au toc ra t i ques - Un exemple a f r i c a i n : La Guinee E q u a t o r i a l e " , Geneve-Afrique, vo l .X IX, no.2, 1981, pp. 13-71.

. J.-C. Sanchez Arnau (coordonateur ) , De t te e t developpement --p (Mecanismes e t consequences de l ' ende t temen t du T i e r s Monde (Ed. PUBLISUD, 25 rue de 1 ' ~ s p e - rance, 75013 Pa r i s , France) , 207pp. L 'e tude a e t 6 r 6 a l i s 6 e dans l e cadre du P r o j e t t i e r s systeme de l a FIPAD; deux a r t i c l e s o n t e t @ p u b l i e s dans l e s Doss ie r FIPAD 14 e t 16 (Juan C. Sanchez Arnau, "Debt and development" (D.14); Samuel L i c h t e n s t e n s z t e j n and Jose M. Q u i j a n o , " T h i r d World deb t and the i n t e r - n a t i o n a l p r i v a t e banks" (D. 16 ) .

L 'endet tement des pays du T i e r s Monde n ' e s t pas un phenomene nouveau. A i n s i que 1e s o u l i g n e un des essa i s de c e t ouvrage, 1es pays arabes e t l a t i n o - amer ica ins e t a i e n t de ja t r e s endet tes au l g e s i e c l e . Soucieux de se moderniser a f i n de pa re r aux c o n v o i t i s e s c ro i ssan tes des pays d 'Europe, 11s f i r e n t massive- ment appel aux cap i t aux 6 t range rs . P r i v e s souvent de l a m a i t r i s e des l e v i e r s du developpement, ces pays (Egypte, Turqu ie , e t c . ) s l i n s t a l l @ r e n t dans une s i t u a t i o n permanente d 'endet tement q u i d e v a i t a b o u t i r a une r e d u c t i o n progres- s i v e de l e u r souve ra ine te e t pour c e r t a i n s d ' e n t r e eux a l ' o c c u p a t i o n co lon ia le .

Depuis l a gue r re de 1939-45 1es p o l i t i q u e s de developpement menees dans une bonne p a r t i e du T i e r s Monde o n t condu i t a un nouveau processus d 'endet tement . Mais dans ce cas, ce ne f u r e n t p l u s l e s cannonieres mais 1es mecanismes du systsme mone ta i re i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r@s a B r e t t o n Woods, e t notamment l e Ponds

mone ta i re i n t e r n a t i o n a l , q u i s e r v i r e n t a a f f a i b l i r 1a capac i t e de r e s i s t a n c e des pays concernes aux nouvel l e s formes de p e n e t r a t i o n des pays i n d u s t r i a l i s & .

Ce l i v r e analyse l e s causes e t l e s mecanismes condu isant au c e r c l e v i c i e u x de l ' ende t temen t . Le systeme moneta i re e t f i n a n c i e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l en v igueu r , e t notamment l a p o l i t i q u e de c o n d i t i o n n a l i t e du FMI, l a p a r t i c i p a t i o n c r o i s s a n t e des banques p r i v e e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s dans l e f inancement du T i e r s Monde e t l e s mecanismes de r e n e g o c i a t i o n de d e t t e s p o r t e n t une l ou rde p a r t de responsabi- l i t 6 dans c e t t e s i t u a t i o n . Des p o l i t i q u e s a l t e r n a t i v e s penne t tan t d 'echapper a l a s p i r a l e de l ' ende t temen t s o n t cependant presentees, e t l e s d i f f i c u l t & even tue l l es de l e u r a p p l i c a t i o n sou l ignees.

. Frances S tewar t and A r j u n Sengupta, I n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l coopera t ion : A framework f o r change (Frances P i n t e r ( P u b l i s h e r s ) , 1982), 204pp.

. Salah AI -Sha ikh ly (ed . ) , Development f i n a n c i n g : A framework f o r i n t e r n a - t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l coope ra t i on (Frances P i n t e r ( P u b l i s h e r s ) , 1982), 183pp.

. Robert Ca r t y and V i r g i n i a Smith, Pe rpe tua t i ng pove r t y : The p o l i t i c a l economy o f Canadian f o r e i g n a i d (Toronto , O t a r i o : Between The L ines, 427 B loo r S t . W . , 1981), 212pp.

. Paul S t ree ten w i t h Shahid Javed B u r k i , Mahbub u1 Haq, Norman Hicks , Frances Stewar t , F i r s t t h i n g s f i r s t : Meet ing b a s i c human needs i n deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s (Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press ( f o r t h e World Bank, Washington, D.C.), 1981), 206pp.

. Giuseppe S c i d i , Pover ta e b i s o g n i umani fondamenta l i : Vecchie e nuove s t r a -

. Tony Jackson, Aga ins t t h e g r a i n : The dilemma o f P r o j e c t Food A i d (Oxford: OXFAM, 274 Banbury Road, OX27DZ, UK, 1982), 136pp.

. Obje ts chers e t f unes tes : Dimensions m a t e r i e l l e s de l ' i m p e r i a l i s m e e t de l ' a l i e n a t i o n c u l t u r e l s ( P a r i s : Presses u n i v e r s i t a i r e s de France; Gensve: Cahiers de l L IUED, 1979), 280pp.

. Jean-Louis R e i f f e r s , Andre Car tapan is , W i l l i a m Experton, Jean-Luc Fuguet, Soc ie tes t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s e t developpement endogsne: ~ f f e t s s u r 1a c u l t u r e , 1a communication, l ' e d u c a t i o n , l a sc ience e t l a t echno log ie ( P a r i s : Les Presses de l 'Unesco, 1981 ), 288pp.

Au moment 00 l 'economie mondia le v i t l a c r i s e 1a p l u s grave de l ' h i s t o i r e de l ' a p r e s - g u e r r e , 1es pays du T i e r s Monde revend iquent l ' augmen ta t i on de l e u r b i e n - e t r e en meme temps que l a conse rva t i on de l e u r i d e n t i t e c u l t u r e l l e . Ce l i v r e pose l e probleme de s a v o i r s i c e t t e preoccupat ion e s t compat ib le avec l ' e x t e n s i o n massive des soc ie tes t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s . Deux ques t i ons se posent: premierement, l a puissance des soc ie tes t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s t r o u v e r a - t - e l l e une c o n t r e - p a r t i e au n i veau des E ta t s -Na t i ons suff isamment f o r t s e t coherents pour c o n t r o l e r , o r i e n t e r p u i s a s s i m i l e r l e s e f f e t s q u ' e l l e s v e h i c u l e n t ? Deuxieme- ment, l e s STN elles-memes, prenant conscience de ces res i s tances , reexamineront- e l l e s l e u r o r g a n i s a t i o n e t l e u r s p r a t i q u e s de facon a mieux i n t e g r e r 1es reven- d i c a t i o n s n a t i o n a l e s pour l a conse rva t i on ou l a c o n s o l i d a t i o n de l r i d e n t i t @ soc io -cu l t u r e l l e ?

. Werner 01 le , "Europaische Gewerkschaf t s p o l i t i k und Entwick lungs lander . Das B e i s p i e l de r Tex t i l gewerkscha f ten " i n Peter Kihne (Ed. ) , Gewerkschaf t l i che

( B e r l i n : Duncker & Humblot, 1982), ~p.276-290.

. Repor t i d e n t i f i e s companies t h a t v i o l a t e t he o i l embargo a g a i n s t South A f r i c a : A r e p o r t , prepared by t h e Sh ipp ing Research Bureau (P.O. Box 11898, 1001 GW Amsterdam. Ho l l and ) , i d e n t i f i e s over twenty o i l and sh ipp ing companies wh ich appear t o have v i o l a t e d the o i l embargo t h a t i s imposed aba ins t South A f r i c a by n e a r l y a l l o i l - e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s . The l u c r a t i v e and h i g h l y s e c r e t o i l t r a d e w i t h South A f r i c a (a coun t r y w i t h v i r t u a l l y no o i l o f i t s own) i s wo r th a t l e a s t $3,000 m i l l i o n pe r annum. The r e p o r t i d e n t i f i e s 256 o i l tankers wh ich c a l l e d a t South A f r i c a d u r i n g 1980 and t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1981, and h i g h - l i g h t s and p rov ides background i n f o r m a t i o n on 52 o f these, which a re cons i - dered t o be t h e most l i k e l y t o have made d e l i v e r i e s o f crude o i l d u r i n g t h e i r v i s i t s t o South A f r i c a . I f a l l 52 sh ips have a c t u a l l y d e l i v e r e d a f u l l cargo o f crude o i l t o South A f r i c a , then they toge the r s u p p l i e d approx imate ly h a l f o f t h e South A f r i c a n need o f impor ted o i l , es t imated a t 20-25 m i l l i o n tons i n t h e p e r i o d i n v e s t i g a t e d . Most o f t h e companies t h a t have been i d e n t i f i e d as owning t h e o i l c a r r i e d i n these 52 "most susp i c i ous " tankers a re p a r t l y o r w h o l l y based i n t h e Nether lands. The most impor tan t o f these i s S h e l l , which i s based i n t h e Nether lands and t h e U n i t e d Kingdom and has major investments i n South A f r i c a .

. David Weir e t Mark Schapiro, P e s t i c i d e s sans f r o n t i e r e s (Geneve: Centre Europe-Tiers Monde, 37 Quai Wi lson, 1981 ) .

. Centre on T ransna t i ona l Corpora t ions , T ransna t i ona l co rpo ra t i ons i n i n t e r - n a t i o n a l t ou r i sm (New York: U n i t e d Nat ions , 1982), 113pp.

. Programmes des Nat ions Unies pour l 'env i ronnement , C h o i s i r pour l ' a v e n i r : D 'au t res modes de v i e e t de developpement (Na i rob i : PNUE, P.O. Box 30552), 85PP.

. John Hamaker and Donald Weaver, The s u r v i v a l o f c i v i l i z a t i o n : How t o remi - n e r a l i z e t h e ea r th , r eve rse t h e carbon b u i l d - u p i n t he atmosphere, s t a b i l i z e t h e weather ... and save t h e w o r l d ( P o t t e r v i l l e , M ich igan 48876: Hamaker-Weaver P.O. Box 457), 238pp.

. Miche l Grenon, "Le P lan B leu: Un e x e r c i c e de r e f l e x i o n e t de p r o s p e c t i v e s u r 1 ' a v e n i r du bass in medi ter raneen" , F u t u r i b l e s (no.54, A v r i l 1982), pp.57- 70.

PERIODICALS

. Autrement (no.40, Mai 1982), "Sauve-qui peut , La c r i s e ? "

. Contemporary Marxism (no.4, Win ter 1981-82), "World c a p i t a l i s t c r i s i s and t h e r i s e o f t h e r i g h t " .

. IDOC I n t e r n a t i o n a l (no.3-4 l 9 8 2 ) , "Agr ibus iness" (a s p e c i a l e d i t i o n p re - pared i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e programme on TNCs o f t h e World Counc i l o f Churches).

PROJECT FOOD A I D DOES MORE HARM THAN GOOD

The idea of the rich sharing their food with the poor is persuasive and powerful. When rich nations share their agricultural surpluses with poor countries it seems on face value that nothing but good can come from it. But in Against the Grain (published by Oxfam in June), Tony Jackson shows that the reality is often very different.

While the impact of the bulk deliveries of food provided on a government to government basis has been examined in some depth, there is little readily available work on the effects of 'project food aid'. Project food aid in- cludesprogrammes such as food for work, mother and child health and school feeding, and disaster relief.

Over US$500,000,000 worth of food is distributed annually as project food aid to more than 60 million people in Third World countries. It has generally been assumed to have been working well in the direct interests of the poor. Its overtly humanitarian functions have allowed it to go largely uncriticised and the fact that it is mainly distributed through the United Nations World Food Programme and voluntary agencies has served almost as a talisman against public questioning.

Using case studies drawn from field experience, this book shows that food aid fosters dependency, competes with local crops for customers and handling and storage facilities, is expensive to administer, often does not reach those in need and actually does more harm than good. Despite the findings, many from their own evaluators, agencies continue to promote food aid - and to increase the size of their programmes.

(Tony Jackson, Against the Grain, The Dilemma of Project Food Aid (London: Oxfam, 1982) 274 Banbury Road, Oxford, England.)

Contributions to the IFDA Dossier are presented under the sole respons ib i l i ty of t he i r authors. They are not covered by any copyright. They may be reproduced or transmitted i n any form or by an means without permission of the author or IFDA. I n case of repr in t , acknoll;Zedgement of source and rece ip t o f a copy u d d be appreciated. The IFDA Dossier i s published bi-monthly.

Editors: 'Hare Nerfin and D m e Preimerk-Fletcher.

Printed in 11,200 copies by Failli Roma

Rivista bimestrale-Anno V, no 31, Settembre/Ottobre 1982-Sped. in abbonamento postale-Gruppo IV (707). Direttore responsabile Roberto Savio - Autorizzazione Tribunale di Roma no 170182 del 23 Aprile 1982.

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