Sir Isaac Newton PRS

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Sir Isaac NewtonPRS(4 January 164331 March 1727 [OS: 25 December 164220 March

1727])[1]

was anEnglishphysicist,mathematician,astronomer,natural philosopher,alchemist,andtheologian.

His monographPhilosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the

foundations for most ofclassical mechanics. In this work, Newton describeduniversalgravitationandthe three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical

universefor the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earthand ofcelestialbodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency

betweenKepler's laws of planetary motionand his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last

doubts aboutheliocentrismand advancing theScientific Revolution. The Principia is generallyconsidered to be one of the most important scientific books ever written.

Newton built the first practicalreflecting telescope[7]

and developed a theory ofcolourbased on

the observation that aprismdecomposeswhitelight into the many colours that form thevisiblespectrum. He also formulatedan empirical law of coolingand studied thespeed of sound.

In mathematics, Newtonshares the creditwithGottfried Leibnizforthe developmentof

differential and integral calculus. He also demonstrated thegeneralised binomial theorem,

developedNewton's methodfor approximating theroots of a function, and contributed to the

study ofpower series.

Newton was also highly religious. He was anunorthodox Christian, and wrote more onBiblicalhermeneuticsandoccult studiesthan on science and mathematics, the subjects he is mainly

associated with. Newton secretly rejectedTrinitarianism, fearing to be accused of refusingholy

orders

Early life

Main article:Early life of Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton was born on 4 January 1643 [OS: 25 December 1642][1]atWoolsthorpe ManorinWoolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth , ahamletin the county ofLincolnshire. At the time of Newton's

birth, England had not adopted theGregorian calendarand therefore his date of birth was

recorded as Christmas Day, 25 December 1642. Newton was born three months after the death ofhis father, a prosperous farmer also named Isaac Newton. Bornprematurely, he was a small

child; his motherHannah Ayscoughreportedly said that he could have fit inside aquartmug (
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_Royal_Society


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1.1 litres). When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new

husband, the Reverend Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother,Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and held some enmity towards his

mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19:

"Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them."[8]

While

Newton was once engaged in his late teens to a Miss Storey, he never married, being highlyengrossed in his studies and work.[9][10][11]

Newton in a 1702 portrait byGodfrey Kneller

Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)

From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's

School, Grantham(where his alleged signature can still be seen upon a library window sill). Hewas removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found atWoolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, where his mother, widowed by now for a second time, attempted to make a farmer

of him. He hated farming.[12]

Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, persuaded his mother to

send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire forrevenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student.[13]

In June 1661, he was admitted toTrinity College, Cambridgeas asizara sort of work-studyrole.[14]At that time, the college's teachings were based on those ofAristotle, but Newton

preferred to read the more advanced ideas of modern philosophers, such asDescartes, and of

astronomerssuch asCopernicus,Galileo, andKepler. In 1665, he discovered the generalised

binomial theoremand began to develop a mathematical theory that later becameinfinitesimalcalculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in August 1665, the university temporarily

closed as a precaution against theGreat Plague. Although he had been undistinguished as a

Cambridge student,[15]

Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequenttwo years saw the development of his theories on calculus,opticsand thelaw of gravitation. In

1667, he returned to Cambridge as a fellow of Trinity.[16]

Fellows were required to become

ordained priests, something Newton desired to avoid due to his unorthodox views. Luckily forNewton, there was no specific deadline for ordination and it could be postponed indefinitely. The

problem became more severe later when Newton was elected for the prestigiousLucasian Chair.

For such a significant appointment, ordaining normally could not be dodged. Nevertheless,

Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II (see "Middleyears" section below).

Early life

Main article:Early life of Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton was born on 4 January 1643 [OS: 25 December 1642][1]atWoolsthorpe Manorin

Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth , ahamletin the county ofLincolnshire. At the time of Newton's
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on.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sir_Isaac_Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller,_Bt.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincolnshirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlet_(place)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolsthorpe_Manorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-OSNS-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_life_of_Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasian_Chairhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_gravitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitesimal_calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitesimal_calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_theoremhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descarteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sizarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworthhttp://www.flickr.com/photos/kingsschoollibrary/3645251382/in/photostream/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King%27s_School,_Granthamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King%27s_School,_Granthamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godfrey_Knellerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-newtonbook-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-nomarry-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-nomarry-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-7


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birth, England had not adopted theGregorian calendarand therefore his date of birth was

recorded as Christmas Day, 25 December 1642. Newton was born three months after the death ofhis father, a prosperous farmer also named Isaac Newton. Bornprematurely, he was a small

child; his motherHannah Ayscoughreportedly said that he could have fit inside aquartmug (

1.1 litres). When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new

husband, the Reverend Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother,Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and held some enmity towards his

mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19:

"Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them."[8]

WhileNewton was once engaged in his late teens to a Miss Storey, he never married, being highly

engrossed in his studies and work.[9][10][11]

Newton in a 1702 portrait byGodfrey Kneller

Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)

From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King'sSchool, Grantham(where his alleged signature can still be seen upon a library window sill). Hewas removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found atWoolsthorpe-by-

Colsterworth, where his mother, widowed by now for a second time, attempted to make a farmer

of him. He hated farming.[12]

Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, persuaded his mother to

send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire forrevenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student.[13]

In June 1661, he was admitted toTrinity College, Cambridgeas asizara sort of work-studyrole.[14]At that time, the college's teachings were based on those ofAristotle, but Newton

preferred to read the more advanced ideas of modern philosophers, such asDescartes, and of

astronomerssuch asCopernicus,Galileo, andKepler. In 1665, he discovered the generalisedbinomial theoremand began to develop a mathematical theory that later becameinfinitesimal

calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in August 1665, the university temporarily

closed as a precaution against theGreat Plague. Although he had been undistinguished as aCambridge student,[15]Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent

two years saw the development of his theories on calculus,opticsand thelaw of gravitation. In

1667, he returned to Cambridge as a fellow of Trinity.[16]

Fellows were required to become

ordained priests, something Newton desired to avoid due to his unorthodox views. Luckily forNewton, there was no specific deadline for ordination and it could be postponed indefinitely. The

problem became more severe later when Newton was elected for the prestigiousLucasian Chair.

For such a significant appointment, ordaining normally could not be dodged. Nevertheless,

Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II (see "Middleyears" section below).

In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number ofreligious tractsdealing with the literal interpretation of the

Bible.Henry More's belief in the Universe and rejection ofCartesian dualismmay have influenced
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Newton_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller,_Bt.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_dualismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Morehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_tractshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasian_Chairhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_gravitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitesimal_calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitesimal_calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_theoremhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descarteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sizarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworthhttp://www.flickr.com/photos/kingsschoollibrary/3645251382/in/photostream/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King%27s_School,_Granthamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King%27s_School,_Granthamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godfrey_Knellerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-newtonbook-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-nomarry-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-nomarry-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannah_Ayscoughhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premature_birthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_calendar


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Newton's religious ideas. A manuscript he sent toJohn Lockein which he disputed the existence of the

Trinitywas never published. Later worksThe Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended(1728) and

Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733) were published

after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time toalchemy(see above).

Newton was also a member of theParliament of Englandfrom 1689 to 1690 and in 1701, but accordingto some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request

that the window be closed.[49]

Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of theRoyal Mintin 1696, a position that he

had obtained through the patronage ofCharles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, thenChancellor of the

Exchequer. He took charge of England's great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Lord Lucas,

Governor of the Tower (and securing the job of deputycomptrollerof the temporary Chester branch for

Edmond Halley). Newton became perhaps the best-knownMaster of the Mintupon the death of

Thomas Nealein 1699, a position Newton held until his death. These appointments were intended as

sinecures, but Newton took them seriously, retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercising

his power to reform the currency and punishclippersand counterfeiters. As Master of the Mint in 1717

in the "Law of Queen Anne" Newton moved thePound Sterlingde facto from thesilver standardto the

gold standardby setting the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and the silver penny in favour of

gold. This caused silver sterling coin to be melted and shipped out of Britain. Newton was made

President of theRoyal Societyin 1703 and an associate of the FrenchAcadmie des Sciences. In his

position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy ofJohn Flamsteed, theAstronomer Royal, by

prematurely publishing Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, which Newton had used in his

studies.[50]

In April 1705, Queen AnneknightedNewton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The

knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the

Parliamentary electionin May 1705, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services

as Master of the Mint.[51]

Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after SirFrancis Bacon.

Towards the end of his life, Newton took up residence atCranbury Park, nearWinchesterwith his niece

and her husband, until his death in 1727.[52]

Newton died in his sleep in London on 31 March 1727 [OS:

20 March 1726],[1]

and was buried inWestminster Abbey. His half-niece,Catherine Barton Conduitt,[53]

served as his hostess in social affairs at his house onJermyn Streetin London; he was her "very loving

Uncle,"[54]

according to his letter to her when she was recovering fromsmallpox. Newton, a bachelor,

had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and diedintestate.

After his death, Newton's body was discovered to have had massive amounts ofmercuryin it, probably

resulting from his alchemical pursuits.Mercury poisoningcould explain Newton's eccentricity in late

life.[55]

After death

Fame
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6/12

where he received advanced primary and secondary school education till he left Germany seven years

later.[8]

Although it has been thought that Einstein had early speech difficulties, this is disputed by the

Albert Einstein Archives, and he excelled at the first school that he attended.[9]

His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must be something causing

the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".[10]

As he grew, Einstein built models andmechanical devices for fun and began to show a talent for mathematics.

[7]In 1889, Max Talmud (later

changed to Max Talmey) introduced the ten-year old Einstein to key texts in science, mathematics and

philosophy, including Immanuel Kant'sCritique of Pure ReasonandEuclid's Elements(which Einstein

called the "holy little geometry book").[11]

Talmud was a poor Jewish medical student from Poland. The

Jewish community arranged for Talmud to take meals with the Einsteins each week on Thursdays for six

years. During this time Talmud wholeheartedly guided Einstein through many secular educational

interests.[fn 1][fn 2]

In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost theWar of Currentstoalternating current

(AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first toMilanand then, a few months

later, toPavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the

Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursueelectrical engineering, but Einstein clashed

with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit

of learning and creative thought were lost in strictrote learning. In the spring of 1895, he withdrew to

join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.[7]

During this time,

Einstein wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State ofAetherinMagnetic Fields".[14]

Einstein applied directly to theEidgenssische Polytechnische Schule(ETH) inZurich, Switzerland.

Lacking the requisiteMaturacertificate, he took an entrance examination, which he failed, although he

got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics.[15]

The Einsteins sent Albert toAarau, in northern

Switzerland to finish secondary school.[7]While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell

in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sisterMajalater married the Wintelers' son, Paul.)[16]

In

Aarau, Einstein studiedMaxwell'selectromagnetic theory. At age 17, he graduated, and, with his

father's approval, renounced hiscitizenship in the German Kingdom of Wrttembergto avoidmilitary

service, and in 1896 he enrolled in the four year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at

the Polytechnic in Zurich. Marie Winteler moved toOlsberg, Switzerlandfor a teaching post.

Einstein's future wife,Mileva Marid, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman

among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the

next few years, Einstein an Marid's frienship evelope into romance, an they rea books together

on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900 Einstein was

aware the Zurich Polytechnic teaching iploma, but Marid faile the examination with a poor grae in

the mathematics component, theory of functions.[17]

There have been claims that Marid collaborate

with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers,[18][19]

but historians of physics who have studied the issue

find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.[20][21][22][23]

Marriages and children
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stein#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mileva_Mari%C4%87http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olsberg,_Switzerlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription_in_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription_in_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_citizenshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maja_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-Bio-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maturahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_theorieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-Bio-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rote_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_Currentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-HarvChemAE-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elementshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-Bio-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#cite_note-Stachel2002-7


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TheNew York World-Telegramannounces Einstein's death on April 18, 1955.

On April 17, 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of anabdominal

aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically byDr. Rudolph Nissenin 1948.[52]

He

took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of

Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[53]

Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I

have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[54]

He died inPrinceton Hospitalearly the next

morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.

Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.[55][56]

During

the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital,Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removedEinstein's brainfor

preservation, without the permission of his family, in hope that theneuroscienceof the future would beable to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.

[57]In his lecture at Einstein's memorial, nuclear

physicistRobert Oppenheimersummarized his impression of him as a person:[46]

"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness . . . There was always with

him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."

Scientific career

Albert Einstein in 1904

The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons,

depicted as flying off to the right.

Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.[5][7]

In addition to the work he did

by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the BoseEinsteinstatistics, theEinstein refrigeratorand others.

[58]

Annus Mirabilis papers

Main articles:Annus Mirabilis papers,Photoelectric effect

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Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking at NASA, 1980s

Born

Stephen William Hawking

8 January 1942 (age 69)

Oxford,England

Residence England

Nationality British

Fields

Applied mathematics

Theoretical physics

Cosmology

Institutions

University of Cambridge

California Institute of Technology

Perimeter Institute for Theoretical

Physics

Alma materUniversity of Oxford

University of Cambridge
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FRS,FRSA(born 8 January 1942)[1]

is an Englishtheoretical physicistandcosmologist, whose scientific

books and public appearances have made him an academic celebrity. He is anHonorary Fellowof the

Royal Society of Arts,[2]

a lifetime member of thePontifical Academy of Sciences,[3]

and in 2009 was

awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States.[4]

Hawking was theLucasian Professor of Mathematicsat the University of Cambridge for 30 years, takingup the post in 1979 and retiring on 1 October 2009.

[5][6]He is now Director of Research at the Centre for

Theoretical Cosmology in the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at the

University of Cambridge. He is also aFellowofGonville and Caius College, Cambridgeand a

Distinguished Research Chair at thePerimeter Institute for Theoretical Physicsin Waterloo, Ontario.[7]

He is known for his contributions to the fields ofcosmologyandquantum gravity, especially in the

context ofblack holes. He has also achieved success with works ofpopular sciencein which he discusses

his own theories and cosmology in general; these include the runaway best sellerA Brief History of Time,

which stayed on the BritishSunday Timesbestsellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.[8][9]

Hawking's key scientific works to date have included providing, withRoger Penrose,theoremsregarding

gravitational singularitiesin the framework ofgeneral relativity, and the theoretical prediction thatblack

holesshould emit radiation, which is today known asHawking radiation(or sometimes asBekenstein

Hawking radiation).[10]

Hawking has amotor neurone diseasethat is related toamyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a condition that

has progressed over the years and has left him almost completely paralysed.

Contents

[hide]

1 Early life and education 2 Career in theoretical physics

o 2.1 Research fieldsStephen Hawking was born on 8 January 1942 to Dr. Frank Hawking, a researchbiologist, and Isobel

Hawking. He had two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary, and an adopted brother, Edward.[11]

Though

Hawking's parents were living inNorth London, they moved toOxfordwhile his mother was pregnant

with Stephen, desiring a safer location for the birth of their first child. (London wasunder attackat the

time by theLuftwaffe.)

[12]

According to Hawking, a GermanV-2missile struck only a few streets away.

[13]

After Hawking was born, the family moved back to London, where his father headed the division of

parasitologyat theNational Institute for Medical Research.[11]

In 1950, Hawking and his family moved to

St Albans, Hertfordshire, where he attendedSt Albans High School for Girlsfrom 1950 to 1953. (At that

time, boys could attend the Girls' school until the age of ten.)[14]

From the age of eleven, he attendedSt

Albans School, where he was a good, but not exceptional, student.[11]

When asked later to name a

teacher who had inspired him, Hawking named his mathematics teacherDikran Tahta.[15]

He maintains
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_encouragement_of_Arts,_Manufactures_%26_Commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_encouragement_of_Arts,_Manufactures_%26_Commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_encouragement_of_Arts,_Manufactures_%26_Commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_Fellowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_Fellowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_Fellowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_encouragement_of_Arts,_Manufactures_%26_Commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-soafellow-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-soafellow-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-soafellow-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-presidential-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-presidential-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-presidential-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxbridge_Fellowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxbridge_Fellowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxbridge_Fellowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College,_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College,_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College,_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perimeter_Institute_for_Theoretical_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perimeter_Institute_for_Theoretical_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perimeter_Institute_for_Theoretical_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Brief_History_of_Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Brief_History_of_Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Brief_History_of_Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sunday_Timeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sunday_Timeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sunday_Timeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-book-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-book-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-book-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoremhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoremhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoremhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Bekensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Bekensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_neurone_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_neurone_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_neurone_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#Early_life_and_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#Early_life_and_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#Career_in_theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#Career_in_theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#Research_fieldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#Research_fieldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-mactutor-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-mactutor-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-mactutor-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Medical_Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Medical_Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_High_School_for_Girlshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_High_School_for_Girlshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_High_School_for_Girlshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Stephen_Hawking_A_Biography-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Stephen_Hawking_A_Biography-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Stephen_Hawking_A_Biography-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_School_(Hertfordshire)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_School_(Hertfordshire)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_School_(Hertfordshire)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_School_(Hertfordshire)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikran_Tahtahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikran_Tahtahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikran_Tahtahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_School_(Hertfordshire)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_School_(Hertfordshire)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Stephen_Hawking_A_Biography-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Albans_High_School_for_Girlshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Medical_Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-mactutor-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#Research_fieldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#Career_in_theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#Early_life_and_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_neurone_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Bekensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoremhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-book-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-book-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sunday_Timeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Brief_History_of_Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perimeter_Institute_for_Theoretical_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College,_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxbridge_Fellowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-presidential-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-soafellow-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_encouragement_of_Arts,_Manufactures_%26_Commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_Fellowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_encouragement_of_Arts,_Manufactures_%26_Commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society


10/12

his connection with the school, giving his name to one of the fourhousesand to an extracurricular

science lecture series. He has visited it to deliver one of the lectures and has also granted a lengthy

interview to pupils working on the school magazine, The Albanian.

Hawking was always interested in science.[11]

Inspired by his mathematics teacher, he originally wanted

to study the subject at university. However, Hawking's father wanted him to apply toUniversity College,Oxford, where his father had attended. As University College did not have a mathematics fellow at that

time, it would not accept applications from students who wished to read that discipline. Hawking

therefore applied to read natural sciences, in which he gained a scholarship. Once at University College,

Hawking specialised inphysics.[12]

His interests during this time were inthermodynamics,relativity, and

quantum mechanics. His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later said inThe New York Times Magazine:

It was only necessary for him to know that something could be done, and he could do it without looking

to see how other people did it. [...] He didn't have very many books, and he didn't take notes. Of course,

his mind was completely different from all of his contemporaries.[11]

Hawking was passing, but his unimpressive study habits[16]resulted in a final examination score on the

borderline between first and second class honours, making an "oral examination" necessary. Berman

said of the oral examination:

And of course the examiners then were intelligent enough to realize they were talking to someone far

more clever than most of themselves.[11]

After receiving his B.A. degree at Oxford in 1962, he stayed to study astronomy. He decided to leave

when he found that studyingsunspots, which was all the observatory was equipped for, did not appeal

to him and that he was more interested in theory than in observation.[11]

He left Oxford forTrinity Hall,

Cambridge, where he engaged in the study oftheoretical astronomyandcosmology.

Career in theoretical physics

Almost as soon as he arrived at Cambridge, he started developing symptoms ofamyotrophic lateral

Hawking inCambridge

Hawking's principal fields of research aretheoretical cosmologyandquantum gravity.

In the late 1960s, he and his Cambridge friend and colleague,Roger Penrose, applied a new, complex

mathematical model they had created fromAlbert Einstein's theory ofgeneral relativity.[20]

This led, in

1970, to Hawking proving the first ofmany singularity theorems; such theorems provide a set of

sufficient conditions for the existence of agravitational singularityinspace-time. This work showed that,

far from being mathematical curiosities which appear only in special cases, singularities are a fairly

generic feature of general relativity.[21]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College,_Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College,_Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College,_Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College,_Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-mactutor-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-mactutor-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-mactutor-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Magazinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Magazinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Magazinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunspothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunspothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunspothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-Current_Biography_1984-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Hall,_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Hall,_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Hall,_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Hall,_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrose-Hawking_singularity_theoremshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrose-Hawking_singularity_theoremshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrose-Hawking_singularity_theoremshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stephen_Hawking_in_Cambridge.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrose-Hawking_singularity_theoremshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trini

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