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Jounutl of Orgtuti:.atiorruI Belnt iorl. Orgurti.-.. Behuv. 22. 8 15-8ll (1001 )DOI: 10.1002/job.IIl3

Do national levels of individualismand internal locus of control relateto well-being: an ecological levelinternational studypAUL E. spEcroRt*. cARy L. coopER:. JUIN l. srNCHEZr, MICHAELO'DRISCOIL', KATE spARKS2, PEGGY BERNIN5, ANDRE siisslf,lco,pHtt oBwE7, PETER HART*, LUo LU', KAREN NIILLERt0, LUCIOFLAVIO RENAULT DE NIORAES'', GABRIELLE U. OSTNOGIIAV8,MILAN pAGoNtt, HOREA pITARIUtt, srEvEN POELN,IANSt*,PHANI RADHAKRISHNAN'5, VESSELINA RUSSINOVA'U,VLADIMIR SALANIATovtt, JEsus SALGADOtt, SATORU sHItvIA",oI LING 51920..;6,1N BENJAN,IIN sroRA2t, NIARE TEICHIIANN't,ronns ruronEll-s, pnlsR vLERICK", vtINA wESTMANtt,MARIA TVIDERSZAL-BAZYL'', plut woNc2o AND SHANFA YUttI Llniy'ersitt of South Florila, L.S.A.2lJniversih of Munchester lnstitute o.f St[ente uncl Tet'hnology, U.K.t F ktr ida lnte rnat ional LI nit' e rsi n, U. S. A.r,Llni|ersi!) of Waikuto, Ne* ZeulandlNatalnal Iniliute for PJ!.roJrt idl Fcr(brs and Hedllh, S\reLlent'Tecllni(cl Unir'ersii of Minchett, Gem.tn\- t/ir.irer Urirer.i^. \pf Zdt,DL!" S ocial Re searc h C tnt s ul tants.,\u stra L i a" Kaohs i un e M edical Uilir e rsi

^. nti w on

tuLlniversit! of Wiwarersrantl. South AlTica"-FeLlera| Universin L).l Minits (;erdis, BrLtaiI'',College oJ Police arul Secui^ Snklies, Slorenia'' Babes- Bo lvoi U n iy e rs itr, Ra nton iatalESE Business School, IJniredin of Navarro, Spain1'Llnivt'rsin

oJ Tonrrrrt tt Scarborou!h, Ctnudu'"Bult,rian A, iltm',,t S, rtrr cr. Br,lt,rrr,t" Ukrainian Acadenl of Public Adrninistration, Ukrdine'"Universih' of Santiuqo, SlrditlteTokr-o Kei:ai LlnL ersi t,-, J.)punzttLingnan IJniversin. Hong Krlg2t Hautes Eruties Conrnercitles Grcupe. Frunce-- ltllllttn llrlutlLal Ltuv(rstl\'. L\tonta)3Ghenr Llniversi4. BeIgiun"Tel t\tiv Univenin. ltruel''Ciltral Inrtiil(e for Laboilr Proletailn, Polilnal]t'Tri

n i tt llt s t e rn li ni| L rsi t\'. Cdt ktda21Henon Institute of Occupdtionul Mecliciile, China

University of South Florida. Tampa. FL 31620, U.S.A*Correspondence to: Prul E- Spcclor, Depi(nlent of PsychologyE-mail: specbr@chumd.cas.usf.edu

Copyright r' 2001 John Wilcr, & Sons. [-td.

Received l5 April 2000Retised 30 lvlorclt 2001Acteptetl 25 Jul," 200 I

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lt l6 P E. SPLCTOR 67"\L

Summrrl f)rta rrcrc collected from mantgcrs in 2-l nations/tcrritories on work l{)cus of control (LOC).individualrsm+ollcctivism (l-C). and'-well-bern-e fjirb satisfacrion. absence of pslcholouicalstrlin. and rbsc'ncc of phvsical strain ). Thcrc rvcre signi ficant nlern di lfcrenccs acrosr samplcson rll hve of these measures. and consistent u'ith our hypothesis. at the ecologicai or santplemcan Ie\cl well-beinc was dssociated with an intcrnal locus of control. However. contrar! toour hvpothcsis. well-beilq was not tssocirted with I-C. despite a strong correlation bcl\\'ccnI C and LOC. Findinss rt thc ccological level were consistcnt wirh the Iircrtture concernin-!the salutar\ cffects of control on rcll-being. Copyright r l0{ll John Wiler & Sons. Lrd.

Introduction

There has been increasing interest in cross-national research that attempts to understand difterenccsand similarities among empiovees i'rom ditterent cultures and nations. One ofthe basic issues cfcon-cern to organizational researchers is the health and well-being ofemployees. and it has been viewed asboth a resp()nsc to the work environment and as an at'fect-related antecedent of other emproyee our-comes such as job pertbrmance or turnover. Employee control beliets and perceptions have beenIinkedtowell-beingandplayanimportantrole(GansterandFusilier, 1989;Spector, 1982).Althoughthere is a tremendous amount ofresearch at the individual level relating control and other variables towell-being, most has been done in the USA and a handful of western nations. and most has targeted thetndilidual employee. Our study compared managers from 24 nations/tenitories at the ecological orsample mean level (Leung and Bond. 1989). as opposed to the individual participant level, in orderto draw more definitive conclusions about nation differences.

Inte rruIional dffi rences in well-beingWell-being at work can be indexed by a number of variables. We chose three fbr this study-job satis-Trc:iirrt. .il.ilIrlc: oln nsi chok'riclrl struin, and al'sence of physicul strain. Job satisfaction is conccrner.l\\lLll il()\\ l)c()t)i. l-- :tbrrrl rirrrk-whethcr !)r t)ot thcy enjoy the ir iobs. It hls sened a central role in{llillli lrcils. frrrrt: irir .lr'rign lrt leadership. anrl is ttsr'.l lrs r generli indicrrtor r,i !'mplo)rnenl-felatedrell-being thll i: rnIr'rrrrr.tte ]err)\\ nittions/culturcs (lJhtl]t t l r;/.. i t)r)O). Job \ifr'ss is cr.Iccr:iiJ rvithlllr ;nr:r:tct oi.j,ri. 1ry11pl;1i1r11\ (rn pe()ple s hc'llth and gcll-bei1,g. indicatrrrs of rvhich are ciLlicrl jobstrrti:li. Wc ittciuria r nrcrsttrc of psvchoiogicll strlrin. r'hich indicltcs the e\tcnt to *hich indiviilu;rlsrre e.:pc11!'ncrl! psycholrr_uical dist|css. such Js rnxietv or tension. Pltysical strain ir indictted bysomatic symptorrs associated with stress. Absence of strain is an indicator of well-being.

Wt chose these particular measures because they have been well studied. and contbined they cover abroad portion of wcll-heing that is specitically reievant to work. Job satisfaction reflects a person st]encral attitudc abotrt his or hcr.job. lt rellccts an overall evaiuation that is an importlnt indicatorof irork well-hcing. \ltntrl strxin rctl!-cts psychological rvelt-bcing in tenls oftntotional rcspoltscto rvork. High stttin tnctns thc individual is experiencing negative emotionai responscs such ls rnxi,'tyand tensiorl. Phl,sical strain is the shoil-ternr physiol0gically based reaction to the job. [t consists ofsomatic svniptorns linked to bothjob stressors and psychological strain, such as anxiety.

N{ost studies of rvell-hcing have lookcd rt individuals, but a handtirl of studics have invcstigaredcross-nation dillcrcnces in errplorec wcil-bcing. Such studics havr- shorvn that on averirge, pcople

INDI\IDT]r\LISI,IA\DWLT-L,BLINC I.II7

rucross dif flrcnt nations diifcr. This is not [{] \ilv that er ery individual within r nation is the samc. or thttthere isn't overlap in tlistributions across niitions. \\'cll-being itself is in fact an individual r':rriable. i.e..people and not nations experience uell-being. Horveler. as pointed out by Morgeson and Hoimann( 1999) individual level constructs take on collective level meanins when individuais rvithin that col-lective inferact in a way that has inrplications tbr the construct. To put this in our contert. it crn berneaninstr.rl to discuss well-being at the national level ifit can be argued (and better still denlonstratcd)that social interaction among people uithin r socierv ai'fects well-being. In other words. if we detecrwell-bein-s differences. can we attribute those difterences to experiences rnd interrctions that vrrvacross nltions due to cultural and olher fictorsl Thus in some nations. accepted rvorkplacc prrerieernight enhlncc well-being whe reas in othcrs it mav inhibit it.

We are not. however. drguing thrt uell-hcin-g i: rn emergent eroup-level phenomcnon (Kozlowskiand Klein, 2000) analogous to organlzltional climate or team elf'ectiveness. Well-being rs an indivi-dual phenomenon and we rre not sus-gesting that there is a national weil-being that is reflected in oura-egregated individual dala. However. we are suggestin_s that there are meaningfuJ nation-level dift'er-ences in well-being. and that thev are the byproduct of interaction lmong people within their nationaland cultural contexts. It has been noted that most studies of culture have relied on aggregating indr-vidual-level responses such as values. because the individual level is the byproduct ofboth uniqueindividual experience and shared cultural influences (Chao.2000). and this is rhe approach we havetaken.

The existing work on national dit'ference. in work well-being have shown some difl'erences. but thepicture is tar tiom complete, and f'ew studie\ have addressed possible reasons. For exlmple, Japaneseconsistently report less job satistaction than Americans. as well as other nations (Bae and Chung,1997; DeFrank et al.. 1988:' Lincoln etal., l98l:McCormick and Cooper. 1988: Smith and Misumi.1989). DeFrank et al. (t988) fbund that physical strains were also higher in Japanese than inAmericans, and iwata el a1. (1989) reported a higher level of depressive symptoms in Japanese thanAmericans. Although these tindings have been consistently shown, there is little research reflecting onthe reasoirs. Son:e have suggested thlt Ji-lanese tend toward a modesty bias that leads them to avoidreporting high levels of well-being ( Snith er rri.. i 995). but it is not clear to what extent these reportsreflect mere bias or accurate experience.

Looking at a broader range of nations. McCormick and Cooper ( I 988) tbund that Anglo and westemE,uropean nations. such as New Zealand. Germany. Srveden. and the USA had better psychologicalhealth and higherjob satisfaction than nctions in Asil (Japan and Singapore). South America (Brazil)or the middle east (Egl"pt). Sadri et o/. ( l()96r ruributed these dilfcrences to level ofcconomic devel-opnrent. Thus. we crn say tbat natior. nrl\ \urv in the extent to u,hich people report well-being atwork, but f'ew generaiizations or conciLrsior';' har e been tlrarvn.

Intlividuuli,snt-collectivism ( l-C ) und \"ell-beine

I-C is a dimension of values that has been studied extensively in relation to culture. As defined byTriandis ( 1995). individualism is a tendencv tbr people b be motivated primarily by their own goalsand pref'erences, or what has been tcrmed the independent self (Markus and Kitayama. 1998) and anexpression ofautonomy need lKagitgrbasi, 199+). Collectivism, on the otherhand. is atendency toview one's self as part of a netrvork of social groups, or a rellection of the interdependent self (Markusand Kitayama, 1998). and ln expression ofrelatedness need (Kagitqibasi, 199;1). lndividualist nationsare fbund in the Anglo-European \\orld. including the United States, Canada. Western Europe,Australia and New Zeirland. Collecririst nations are tbund in Asia (China. India. and Japan). LatinAmerica (Hot.stede, 198.1). and other places.

Coprright r l{)01 Jolrn \\'ill .t Sons. I_rd. L Or.qotti:. Iltluy.22.8l-5 lt.jl (1001) Copyright t 2001 John Wiley & Sons. Lttl J. Orguni:. Belnv. 22. 1ll5-lJ.l2 (2001)

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ITIIJ P E. SPECTOR fT,.\1-,

There is rerson to expecl thot I-C at the nation ievel will reiate to rvell-being, alrhough there arecontradictory mechanisms iikely at work. On the one hand, it has been note.l that people from collec-tivist societies enjov a higher level of social support iiom extended iamily, tiiends. and work groupthan do people from individualist societies, and this has been linkcd to enhanced psychologicai iSinharnd Verma. 199'1) and physical (llola. 1990) well-being. Furthermore, individualists are likely tostruggle with personal problems on their own. whereas collectivists rvill seek help from others in theirgroup (Sinha and Tripathi, 199.t). On thc other hand, inclividualists rend to fbcus on rheir own needsand therefbre will spend morc time than coliectivists seeing to ir that their weii-being is enhancedtRcl'kowski. 19941.

There is little direct evidence that addrcsses the Iink between I-C and rvell-bein*. In the job stressarea. Peterson ?l d1. ( 1995) iound that role stressors related to I-C in an ecological study of 2 I diversenations lndividualisnt rvas lssociated with hi-sher levels of role ambigurty and roie conUict. This sug-gests that peopie in coilectivist societies are more likelv tO t-eel thlt the1, know their roie at work lndperceive relativelv low conHicr rmong roles. comprretl io individualist societies. Although they didn'treport deta on strains. these role variables have been shown to relate to well-being at the indrvicluallevel (Jackson and Schuler, 1985), and perhaps this will hcjld at the ecological level as well. Ail thisIeads to the first hypothesis that well-being should be negatively relrred to I-C at the ecological level:

Ht'pothe.sis /: At the ecological level. collectivism is associatecl with higher levels of well-being.

Work locus of control and individualism-collectivism

Locus of control (LOC) reflects an indiviclual's tendency to believe rhat he or she controls events in life(intemality) or that such control resides elsewhere, such as with powerful others (externality). WorkLOC concerns beliefs about control specifically in thejob domain, as opposeti to life in general. Therers reason to expect that I-C will relate to LOC. People in individualist nations are taught to value andpursue independence and individual achievement (Gudykunst, 1998). which should lead to beliefi inpersonal control. People in collectivist nations are taught to value interpersonal harmony and solidaritythat results in an emphasis on interdependence and group achievement (N{arkus and Kitayama, I 99 I ),or control by others rather than the self.

It has been fbund that compared to people in individualist nations, people in collectivist nations bothvalue autonomy less (Lundberg and Peterson. I 994), and perceive less autonomy (S rnith el a/., I 995).Furthermore. studies have shown that collectivist Asians (e.g., Chinese antl Japanese) ilre more exter-nal in thcir qeneral locus of control (LOC) than individualistic Americans and other westem naiionst Flam id. I 994: Hui. I 982 ). Nations in eastern Europe that were formally under control of the SovietUnitln itrc ltlso coilectivistic. Arguments have been advanced that the state-dominated econorric sys-tcnt in erstern Europe should have led to the developrnent ofan external locus ofcontrol at work (Freseet ul.,1996; Tobacyk;rnd Tobacyk, 1992).

One must be cautiotts. however, in overgeneralizing these findin-es. Smith el at. (1995) used a gen-eral scale ofLOC in their 35 nation study, but used multidimensional scaling to produce three dimen-sions. At the ecological level. only one dimension relating to rhe ef'f'ecriveness ofthe individual in dailyiile was related to I-C with individualism associated with internality. In reviewing the cross-culturalliterature on LOC' Hui (1982) cautioned that we must use specilic rather than general measures ofLOC. ln this study we chose a measure of LOC specific to the workplace. This is a domain in whichwe would expect I-C to show strong effects with belief.s about control, and workplace LOC shouldrcHcct uurkplaee prf,elit'es thut vury rero\s nltit)ns. Thc workplucc is r \cilin-s in u lriclr tchrcv(,mcnlis emphasized, although how it is emphasized can vary across nations. Individualist workplaces areexpected to tbcus on individual action and autonomv as peopie are expectcri to achieve work-related

INDIVIDLJALISM;\NDWELL,BEINC I]I9

objectives tirr the orcirnizrtion. Coilectivist workplaces, by contrast. focus on eroup action endachievement rather than the indivrdual. People in individualist societies are likely to see themsclvesls having control over their careers lnd work. whereas people in collectivist societies see career andworkasundercontrol ofgroups.ThisleadstooursecondhypothesisthatworkLOCwill relatetol C.

Hrpothesis 2: The nrean lerel ofrvork LOC will be related to the individualism ol'r nati()n/terrirorvsuch that individualism is associared wirh internalitv.

Loctrs oJ control uttd vell-heirtg

Theories ofbothjob design lHeckmrn and Oldham. 1976) and job stress (Karasck. 1979) have linkedperceived control to well-being. Such linkages have been supported empirically, as shown in Spcctor's( | 986) control meta-analysis. Howeler. control beliefs or LOC rather than perceptions have also beenconsidered by many researchers to be an important component ofemotional adjustment and ability tohandle stress (e.g., Kobasa st a1.. l98l). and qeneral LOC has been firund to be relatcd to rvell,beins rtwork (e.g., Ganster and Fusilier, l9E9: Spector, 1982). Furthermore, work LOC has been linked towell-being (job satisfaction and negative emotional states at work) both inside (Spector. I 9881 Spectorand O'Connell, 199.1) and outside of the US (Sadri er al., 1996; Siu and Cooper, 1998). in much rhcsame way general locus oicontrol has been linked to general well-being. Using data fiom this proleetat the individual employee level. Spector et al. (in press a) found that the relation of rvork LOC withmeasures of well-bein-e held across lll nations/teritories tbrjob satistaction and across most fbr phy-sical and psychological weli-being.

At the ecological level, we would rlso expect work LOC to relate to well-being. Nations in whichpersonal autonomy and control are the norm will have individuals who will fbcus on and manase theirown well-being. They will be more free to change the work environment if it is tor.r sttesstul, or evenchange jobs. Nations in which peopie must fbrt'eit control to powerful external tbrces will tend to havepeople with lower well-being because they are unable to escape stressful situations either by modityingthe job environment or by changing jobs. This suggests our third hypothesis linking work LOC t

INDIVIDUT\I,ISVI,\NI) $ FLI- BEI\'; ti2lP F.. SP[Cll)li Lr.\1.

'fhc'sc'rrltionll lrctors woulti br crpecteil to in.rpact rvork loctts ofcontrol through both psychologic:rl rnd non,psychological factors. On thc psychological side. ilitferences in vllues impact how peo-ple Vierv the world. and that would be erpccted to impact work loctts oi control. [n fact our resultssho[c-d such a re]ation rvith individualism{ollectivism. but iikely there are manv unmeasuretl vari-lblcs thrt might also rclrtc to loeus of c0ntrol. Perhlps morc important is thrt work ltlcus of controltlevelops throush the experience of being able or not able to contnrl rewards in the workplace. Fac-trtrs that aflecrjOb ntobilirr'. thercfirre. w0uld bc expected to irltpitct work loctts ofcontrol. Forexlnt-ple. in Japanjob lrohilirl is linlited by culturll ttornts tienltnding ltl'raltv to enrployers ln cotlpletingtlte \\ork Iocus of control scalc. Jlplnesc. rrlnagcrs would likell' tltil to cndorse items concerningcontrol Or'ergettingaj0h. In()rhcrcountriesrnobility'islimitedhyltailabilitlr)f illternrtiveemplov-:nent. This is especialll,truc in dereloping countries (e.g.. lntliat and in countries with high unem-plorrlent (c.g.. Spain iluring our studv). and this shouid scrve to decrease intcrnality. StLcll tjlctorsrnar $e ll have accountcd fbl tite rather large e iitct size lbr loctts of contro] in our sltlrivParticipantsThe participants in rhis study Iere all managers, rlnging from first level to the iops tll their orgr-niiations. The mean ages in most samplcs was betwecn 35 and.15. and the nrajority ol partieipilnt:in nrost samples were married. The gender breakdown rellects that most managers in the world arcrnale- although most salnples containcd at least 25 per cent fenrales. In I 8 of24 samples participantsu rr|keci tbr a wide range 0f intlustries and organization tvpes- with tew cotning lionl the same orglr-niz:ttions. Although one lrould not r.\pect gender to allect results with locus of control. it is likclythat level within the organization would be important. Managers halc greater intJuence and power tnorganizations, and fbr them work would be a more 'internal' place. Considering the items of theWork Locus of Control scale used here, managers would be more likely than non-managers toendorse items concerning rewards based on performance and their ability to control rewards- Thistendency would likely-. be stronger in countries where the power and status differences between man-agers ancl non-managers (i.e., power distance) tends to be large. Conclusions based on this studyshould be generrlized be;onJ munrgcrs uith iume cauliun.

}l!ethod

| )\ {'t',,'i(\t' ol i/tL' .\ru(i\''fhe Jrra riported iiere lre t|rr1 the Collaborative lnternational Study of lvlanagerial Stress (CISlls)tr,ititrierl in l,)96 to c()lldLi-i

-sloirill reserrch on.i()b stress bl pooling ef'fbrts ofan international group ofrc\!';Lrcitcrs. The goal.l the studv was ft) collect d:r|l] on an equivalentjob {ntanagcrs.) trom a repre-5entativc sample trorn erch nation/tcritory. Although we were able to rchieve constancy oijob. therepresentativencss ofsampies r.aried somewhat, as will be described below. The project has produced alrrge dataset containing scveral rlozen variabies on 2.1 samples. Subsets of these data have been pub-lished seplrately to address indcpendent questions (e.-r:. Spector tt ul. . in press; 100 | )

Pa rticipunts

Participants were 5 I 85 manaqers tl'orr 24 nations/teritories (see Table I tbr sanrple sizes and samplecharacteristics fitr each). The sirnrples vuried considerablv on derrographics. b'ut ill most cases,lls ml-sht

'llble |. C hriractcristics rnd santplc sizc'' ti)r L'rch :arllple)'l rllon/tcrnlor! .r \lalc \lern \lcan tt Collegc '/r ltlarrtc'dlcnure gradlliLtes_,\Llstr'illlilBclgiunrBrrzi IBrr I gariaf]rnrdaPR ChinaEston i rFrlnccCcrnranyHong KongIndiaI sraclJapanNcw ZealandPolandRomania.) loven I aSouth AlricaSpai nS rvedenTaiwanUKUkraineUSA

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be expected, the majority of munagers u cre nrirle, educated. and rnanied. Since there w,:ie demograplricdifl'erences, we checked to see if the-v- atiected results. as will be described in the results secrion.

Measttrei

-i5e questionnaire was ldrninisrcred thlt inclurlcd the Occupational Stress Indicirtor-2 (OS12: Cooperantl Willianrs. I99(r). rhe Wrrrk Lrrcu: Lrf Conrrrrl Scalel'WteS fspe.ior, 1988). the Hofstede (i99'1)\,iriues Survcy. Nlrtlulc lg,lJiVS),i.)-l . and denrographics. FLrr this studl *'e used onll the threc lvell-bcing nreasulcs fronr tlre O-sl.

Thc WLCS is a l6 itern, sllnllnirtcd r:iting scrle of \ork LOC. Half the itenls:tre written ;n lhe extcr-n1l (e.g., 'ge tting the job

-! oll $ ilni i\ n1(istly a nrattcr oi luc k'.1 at.1 lrrlf in the internal ( 'prolll(1( i(,ns rLreuiven to employees who pcrfbrrn we)l on thc job') direction. Six response choices range froln s/ran.ghrlisu,q,ree to srrongl\ agree. High scores rcpresent externality and low scores internality. Spector ( I988)reports intcrnal consisrency (coet-ficient olphr) of0.75 to 0.85 across six US samples, with all but onein the 0.80s.

TheOs12isag0itenrshorttbrmoilheOsl lCoopereta/.l98ll)'Well-bcingwasassessc(lwilhthcOSI scale firr.job satisfaction. ps1'chological strain. and physical strain. Job satisfaction was assessedwith l2 iterns that asked rcspondents ro indicate their satisfaction with each item. rvith six resptlnsechoices ranging liom yt,r'r, nut'h tlissurisJuttion to t'en'nttt'h stttisfttctittn. Psychological strJin wil\assessed with I2 items that asked ahttut pslchological distress at work. All items had six responsechoi:es. but the choices varied acrt,ss itenrs. For e.ratnple, item tl 'Are thcrc tinles at *ork when

Coprrisht r l00l John \\'il.\'& Sons. Ltd .1. 0rgoni:.. Ilt'hut. 22. 8I5-Ul2 (2(X)I)

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Copyright r 2(.)01 John wile) !t Sons. Ltd J. Orquni:.. Bahut 22.li l5 8-12 (2001)

8:2 P E. SPITCTOR Er.1L

yo1 teel \o exaspcrtted rhat voll \it back and think to yoursclf that 'life is all really jttst t.xl nruchellbrt']" had choices ranging from tflsr to ofien. Physical strain was assessed with six items asktn-cabout phvsictl or somatic svmptoms. such as shortness of brcath or tnuscle trentbling. Therc ucrc 'irrcsponse choices renging lront rct'r'r to very frequenth. For all three scales. ttlgl.1ryfgltgli"lgltgiihigh levels r:rf well berng. that is. high satistaction. low psychological strain. or lorv physical strain.RijbEtliri-ii;7-jl99bl rcportcd coefficient itpha ieliabilities lor the ,rri-sin;rl lcnl:th OSI oi 0.8-5.0.8,S. ancl 0.78. respectivell'.

Thc- I-C subscale oi the VSivlgzl was used. [t contains tirur iterns for which respondents indicateirnporlance. using iile rcsponse choiccs rrnginq from of |e^ Little or no irrtTtrrtutte lt) ()l ultno\tinrlntrtunte. A slmple item is 'have sutficient timc lirr vour personal or tirmily lif-e.' High scoresreprescnt an individualistic orientation. The scorins was done using the procedure recolrmellded bythe scxle's author (Hofstede. 1994). The items are cornbincd using differential weights. and a constantis added ro the total scor.. This oroduces scores at the ecologicitl level trorn about 0 lo the lou' l(X)s.

I n t e rnol c o n s i s t e nL' t- ond me us u re m e n t e q u iv o I e n(' e

In eighr samples (Australia, Canada. India. New Zealand, South Atiica. Sweden. UK and USA) thequestionnaire was ddrninistered in English. and in l6 samples, the questionnaires were translrted intothe native language of the nation/territory. Across our 2.1 samples. five of eight Ronen and Shenkar(1985) nation clusters were represented (Anglo, FarEastern, Germanic. Latin European, and Nordic),as well as all lbur of the independents (Brazil, India, Israel, and Japan). Thus a wide range of bothcultures and languages were represented.

Table 2 contains the internal consistencies (coefficient alphas) ibr each scale in each sample. Spectoret itt. \2001) discusses the VSM9.I. As crn be seen in the table. the remaining four sclles (Columns 2-5) maintained aclequate reliabilities in most cases. There were a handful ofcases in which a translrtionresultedinanalpharhatwasbelowthe0.T0standard(Nunnally,1978).ThisoccunedfourtimesfbrtheWLCS. ancl once fbr psychological well-being. We compared the US alpha (as a standard) with allorhers, using an, ,F-rest ( I -smaller alph.r,/ l -larger alpha with n- I degiee- of freedbm associated witheach alpha) provided by van de Vijver and Leung (1997. p. 60). The reason for choosing the IJS asa standard was that these scales were developed in Anglo-western nations (UK and USA) where theycrlrihir grxrl irrrc.rnll conristcrrcies. This comparison ivill inclicrte the extr-nt to wllich fransportation toother nations and languages rriight adversely affect internal consistency- There were 48 of92 cases inwhich rhe US alpha was significantly higher than one of the other samples. 38 of rvhich were rvithtranslations. These results should not be surprising. as ofien internal consistency declines with transla-tion (e.g.. DeFrank er a/., 1988: Iwata and Roberts. 1996; Iwata et ul., 1995).

We also conducted multisample variance/covariance matrix equality tests for WLCS and the threewell-being scales using IllSREt-B]Joreskog'dnd Sorbom. 1992). This test has been recommended fbrevaluation ofscale transportabilitv across translation (Johnson, 1998: Riordan and Vandenberg. 1994:Schaubroeck and Green. I 989t van de Vijver and Leung. I 997). and is the most stringent of the tests offactor equivalence. Because this test is inappropriate fbr small san:ples, we limitc'd it to only those ninesanrples wirh a sanrpie size of 200 or grcaler. These sca]cs were developed in the UK and USA. so wechoose as a standard New Zealand wlrich rvas the largest sxmple thdt was culturally similar. lt wascompared to Australia. China. Hong Kong. Japan. Poland. Slovenia. Taiwan. and Ukraine. These eightcountries represent a wide range of cuitures and languages and should provide a good snapshot of horvtlansportable rhe scales are. The equality test shorved very good fit. with six fit indices meering theiiccepted standard of 0.90 in 87 per cent of cases ior the three well-being measures. Fit was llmtlstas good ttrr the WLCS. wirh three-quarters of clse. at 0.iJ5 or higher and a third at 0.90 or hi,ilher

ITvDIVIDUALISIVIANDwELL-BEINC lJ2.l

llblc L lnternrl consistcncy reliabilities rcoefficient alphas) fbr work LOC. uell-being, rnd individualisn scalcs

Nation/Territorv \\'LCS Job Psychological'uti\tiction Iell-being

Physicalrvell-bei ng

lndividualisrl

ALrstrtllaBclgiumBrazilBuigariaCanadaPR ChinaEstoniaFranceCennanyHong KonglndialsraeiJapanNew ZealandPolandRomaniaSloveniaSouth AtricaSpuinSwedenTaiwanUKUkraineUSA

0.8-+0.79'.'0.78i0.7i*0.87t).61t0.67'r'0.800.810.79*0.79+0.820.65*0.8.10.8.10.1'/+0.78

''

0.8811.71'l0.80*0.73r,0.870.67 +0.86

0.9t)0.8i'!r).9 I0.890.900.910.l3'+*0.920.910.920.930.9{)0.9.10.920.u90.880.900.910.9 t0.8;1*0.920.89r).86''0.90

0.870.iJ t*0.78*{).7u*0.870.7-5 *

0.76'!0.16't'0.810.1J.+

0.81+0.80*0.840.860.840.78*0.81*0.850.8?0.8,+0.81+0.75+0.820.rJ6

0.76+0.7 640.830.78*0.71'1'0.75,:,0.70'!'0.7 5*0.75'r.0.76*0.7 5't'0.12*0.73'i'0.79*'0.16+0.78*0.79*0.820.76*0.77+0.820.840.8 t0.{J.1

0. 160.7 I0.160.6I0..18{).480.590.18i).6 I0.7-50.550.6I0.+50.+80.290.;t90.11().i00.190.520.:l I0.530.700.26

*Alphr is signilicantly lower than the US sarnple xt P < 0.05.

The only comparison that was clearl\, poor was tbr Taiwan- which also had a poor coefhcient alpha.Additional details on these analyses crn be fbund in Spector ar a/. (in press)

Procedure

The original plan was to collect representative samples from each nation/territory. limiting the parti-cipants to managers to control tirrjob ditterences. The fbrmer criterion rvas lchievecl in all santples asdata were collected on manasers. The latter \ls achieved in nrost. but not all, samples. In iile cases(PR China, Germany, lndia. Romania. UK) data were collected in onc or two orglnizltions. and in one(Sweden) data were collected tt0m eight. In the remaining l8 samples, various procedures were usedto achieve a broad cross-section of manlgers. In some crses, members of management orgattizrtionswere sampled, such as thc chamber of commerce o| an institute of managenent (e.g.. Canada. HongKong. Ncw Zeulrndt ln othcr e rse' qtlc'liunllrrire\ s( re mliled to rrndr)tll srtttplcs ol ntrnu-scrt inrandomly chosen businesses (e.g.. Hong Kong and the US). Multiple mctht:tls were used by stlueresearchers to expand representrtiveness (e.-e.. Hong Kong, Spain. and the US).

The orglnizers of CISMS put togcrher the En_glish version of the questionnaile containing the threeinstrulnenls and additjonal questions (e.g.. age and gender). This was used in eight samples-tlle scvenEnglish speaking ones lnd Sweden. The rcmaining I 6 versions were translated into thc native languageof thc sample, and were then independentlv beck-rranslated to assure lan,guage equivalence. Portionswe--e rctranslrted as necessffy and then retested uniil equivalent tneanings were achteved

Coplriglrt ( 2001 John Wilev & Sons. Ltd J. Oryuni:. Bcltuv.22. Itl-5 8-ll (1001) Copyright r l(X)l .lohn Wiley & Sorrs. Ltti. J. Orgturi:.. Beltuv. 22. 8 I 5-8ll ( 100 I )

\It].I P E. SPF-T'TOR Er iL.Results

Dilferenca.s urtrrtg tttttiotts/te rritrtrie.s in vt.ell-being, I-C, u,tl yr;ork LOCBcibre procceding to tests of hypothcses, we hrst testetl fbr signihcant clifferences among the natlons/tcrrltorlcs on thc variables in thc studv. Betbre rve can claint our variables can bc meaningfully con-sidered at the national level. we must show thcre are nltion dilterences, and that there is st>nre ctegreeot consensus (Kozlowski and KIein. 20{)0). as reflected in a measure ofetfect size (Klein ar d1., 2000).Wc conducted one -war anaivscs of variancc (ANOll\sl witlt naf ion/tcrritoq/ :ts thc indepcndent vlri_able and each ofthe threc well-being meilsures, WLCS and l-C as tlependent variables. R: showed theproportion of variancc attfibutable betwcen rroups. Well-bein-g resuits were: job satisfaction(fl23,-51i6):17.i0. p

,t2lt l, E. SPECTOR ar.\/_.LuO Lu receivcd her Ph.D. from Orfi;rd University. UK. She is now an Associate Prof'essor ofP\\'ehol()gv ar the Gra.luate InstitLrte ol Behavioral Sciences. KaohsiLrng Nledical UnrVersity. Taiwan.Hcr lcselrch focuses on uork stress and well-being.Karcn Nliller recciyed her MA in industrial/organizatittnal psvchology frorr the Universitv ofrhc Witwrtersrand in South Alrica. She is currently on the faculty of the psychology dcpaltlllentrt thc samc universitl'. Her rescarch interests are in the ilreas of job stress and organizationalc()nlnt I It]tent.l-ucio lilalio Renault de r-loraes is a Profcssor itt the Fcdcrol Universit-v" ol'IVIinas Gerais in Brazil.\lichael O'Driscoll rece ived his Ph.D. tiorn Flinder Universitv 0f South Austrlliit. He is Prote:sor olPsrclrglggv at the [.rni\cr\itv oi Waikatg. Ncrv Zcallnd. His currcnt research interests include jobstrcss antl burnout. the interface beilveenjob and ofI-the-job roles and cxperiences. and work attitude\.cspceially job involvcment and organizrtional conlmttnlent.(iabrielle NI. Ostrognaf is t social resetrch consultant in Austrllil.Nlilan Pagon Sc.D. Ph.D. is the Dcan and Associrte Protessor of Police Administration andN,llrlrqL.nlenr at rhc Collegc ol Police and Security Studics. Uni';cfsity oi Ljubljana. and AssociatcPrgllssor of Organizational Behavior tt the Faculty of Organizational Sciences. University of'lVlarihor. Slovenia.Hgria f). Pitariu is Protessgr in industrial/organizational psychology at Babes-Bolyai Llniversity.flLi.; \upgca. R6lnanirL. flc rcccived his Ph.D- in psychology (197(r) frorrl Babe's-Bolyai Univcrsitr.FIis tc'aching;rnd rcscrrchc lbcuse\ on personnel selcction and appraisal, occttpational stress. and sonlearea ttf cogrritive crronunrics. ile is luthor of sorne trooks in industrrll/orglnizational psychologl: alea'tlre last being Hunttm RestLrces Mutl(tgeilPnt: Petfonnunce AppraisaL (20OO)'Steven Poelmans receivecl his N4A in Organizatronal Psychology (Catholic Universiry of Leuven),illarketing Management (Vlerick Leuven Gent Management School), and a Ph.D in Economics/Business Administration (Univerity of Nltvana). He is currently an Assistant Protessor rt IESEBpsiness School, University of Navarra in Barcelona. His research intcrests are work-family contlict'tunrily-friendly policies, career management, and managerial stress. mostly with a cross-culturalper\pective.Phani Radhakrishnan is an Assistant Professor of management at the University of Toronto.Scrn'horough. Her research interests irre in ethnic relations in the workplace and cross-culturalpsr chology.1. rs\r'lin:r RussinOrr i\ .i rr'5curcher with the Bul-,:Jriirtt \ctde ntl' ol-Scicnces.\ lrrlirr;ir S:;hnrator is r rcscirr.'h scicntist l'itr ilte Ul.iainian Acrdenrl of f'jublic .\clnlini5tt'ation inlr..rr. Likrrinc. Hir ilil,'iests arc in the ilrcll ol'.iob strcss ancl cror''nntionill issues.jrsris F. Srlgado reirrl\id liis Ph.D. lronr Llniversitv of Slntiago tlc Contpostela (Spainl- l-le is aPr,rlcssrrr ot work rirtl irr-:lnizrtiontl ps;chology in thc iracultl of Ps,"'chology. University ol'Santiago!ic C611postela. I{is re,earch focuses on personncl seiection, intt'rnational validity generalizltirrn.ccanonlc psi choiogy'. and cross-cultirral hunran rcstlurcc lnanilgement-.fuan I. Sanchez earned his Ph.D. in industrial/organizational psychology from the University otSouth Florida. He is currently an Associate Polessor of management and international business atFl,.rida International []niyersitv. His interests iie in the analysis of work in today's global orgrrniza-tir"r..Sltoru shima reccivcd his Ph D fionr Keiogijuku Universitl'' Japan' He is a Professor of mentalscic.ncc at Toklo Kei.zai University. His resclrch fbcuses on occupational stress, and occupatlonxlnrental health.Oi-ling Siu received her Ph.D. trom The University ol Liverpool. England. She is an AssociatePrtrlcssor ofpsychology at the Deptrrnrent ot Politics and Socittlogy, Lingnan University, Hon,e Kong.

INDIViDt I,\I-IS!I AND WI]LL-BEINC IJ29

Hcr research fircuses on occupirtional stress rnd ivell-being. organizational clinrate. and orglnizltionalc0rnrnitrneni.Kate Sparks received her Ph.D fiom University ofNlanchester Institute ofScience and Technology.IJMIST. UK. She is a Research Associate in Or-sanisational and Health Psychologl, at NlanchesterSchool of Nlana_qement. UMIST. Her research arels include workplace stress. working hours andcnrplovee well-being and perlbrmance, and health services managenrent.Paul E. Spector receivecl his Ph.D. in industrirl/or-canizational psvchology tiorn the University ofSouth Florida. He is a Protcssor and I/O pro,::rammc director at the same university. His research inter-csts invoive thc well-being of emplol-,ees, including cross-nalionll issucs,.iob satistaction. job stress.and counterproductive work behavior.Jean Ileniamin Stora rcce ived his Ph.D in Lrrw and Economics from the University of Plris as wellas his protessional degree in Clinical Psychologl'. He is also a Pslchoanalyst and a Psvchosrrmrti-cian. tirrnrer Chairnran of the lnstitute of Psvchosomatics in Paris. He is a Protcssor of StrategicVlilnagement and a Protessor of Clinical Psychology. GROUPE HEC, Paris. His research fbcuseson stress rnanagement, psychology of top managers. lnd cross-culturul psycnology. He rs a consultant of psychosomatics at the hospital 'La pitii-Salptriire' in the field of stress and cardio-vascular disease. Reiired from HEC in January 2000. he is Honorary Dean of the Facuity andResearch of Groupe HEC.Nlare Teichn.rann is a researcher at the Tallinn Technical University in Estonia.Tiires Theorell MD, Ph.D. is a Protcssor of psychosocial medicine at the Karolinska Institure inStockholnr. He is also the Direck)r of the Nrtirrnal Institute for Psychosocial Facturs in Stockholnr.Thcorell has published mainly in the lleld of stress and psychosomatic medicine. specializing on cri-tical lif'e events and work environment in relation to cardiovascular illness as well as functional gas-trointestinal and musculoskeletal disorders.Peter Vlerick is Assistant Prof'essor in econonric ps1'chology at thc Faculty ofPsycholo,ey and Educa-tional Sciences. University of Ghent. Belgiunr. He received his Ph.D. tiom the same University. Hisresearch tbcuses on occupational stress, burnout and consumer behavi,r.Mina lVestman received her Ph.D in Organizirtional Behavior from the faculty of Management, TelAviv University. She is senior lecturer and researcher rt the Graduate school of Business Administra-tion, Tel Aviv. Her current research interests xre work and family stress, job insecurity. respite, andcrossover of stress and strain.Nlarirr \Vidcrsz:rl-Baz;'l Ph.D is a research scientist tbr the Centfal Institute for Labour Prorection.Wrrsuw. Poiand. Her work deals u,ith organizlrional stress as a risk factor in occupational envlron-nrent. rclatiorrs bct\yeen itress at'rork and hcalth. indir idual dilferencc: in strcss reactions anil cultlralditterences in stress pnrccss.Plul T. P. \trong received his Ph.D. in PslchtrLo-u1,iiom the Univer'sity of Toronto. Currectly. he isResealch Dir.'ctor. Craduate CounselJing Pslch,,lLrg1. Trinitl Wpstern University. BC, Canada.Shanfa Yu is ir Prolcssorol Occr"rpltiolui \'lc.:rrlnc and Dircetorof Occupatiorul Health in the Henanlnstitute of Occupationai lvledicine. Dl Yu has published nrore than -[0 papers on occupational stressand occupational health.

References

Bae K. Chung C. 1997. Cultural values and rvork attitudes of Korean industrial workers in comparison with thoscof thc United Strtes arrd Jrpan. !/or* unJ Otr ttl,tttions 2{: iJO 96.

./. (lr,quni:. Befutv 22. lt I 5 lt3l (l(X) I )

TL

Copyright t l00l John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J. Orgutti:. Ilelutv. 22. lJ l5-812 (2001 .)

ilof forcrilmplc cermanr' indrrt. Isrrre l. swcden. and the US all rendecl to be reiatiVcly high across alln)clsurcs llong K,n-g and thc trK b'lh rcnded t,r tr" ,.triiu.tu Iou,. Esr.nia rvas relatiuelv-hrgh on job:iii]i',;i'ii:Lii ;X';,';o'il';J'; n".h'r'gicrl werr-bein-s. "n,1 i,, rhc;,;ri;,;;;;,;.,i*.ir u.ing r,lronr rpprorirnatalr,rh" n,i,l,l'tt"

mclns are relutive to one anothcr' anri that in all cases means rverer,eins ind 2r rbr phr.sicat o-;ii;: ;:;H:ff#".::llror job satistaction and psvchological well-

The biggest effict size ior

m*lX;j: j::t;**l[:,T:lt);:ti;ili.:,Ti:i;i:Jlit Jl],n: Tt"l,?i; tlti,nsiderecran indi,iiruar

,.,..;;:i;J,J;:,i;::l;fi::T:Jlillii,,llii'..lilHlJ;:Jli^:""i_.lHl;r

' c.nsidered a culture variablc lt rnay bc rhat w.rk r-oi:ir'. rneaningfui cuiture variable and reilects,r important diticrence in belicls u..,,r, nationr/curiu.* Lif"ru this rellects how thc woxprace,,1)erutes. rvith more autonomy rnd inclividuai control bein,g glvcn to etlplovees in somc nations/r' I rlt,rrl('s LhJn r)lhcr\. Thc ,llpro_,ees enloy nigre.iev"llilg.]l;,:,,i':i'ri;i.lffii'liilii ;:,1",i:#1:H;HJ:ili;:,,1i:l:

: i:tT:r.'_"il1i","#rll ". (Ho and chiu, lee.r), antl has been closciv tinked to it conceptuanv

('onsistent with Our seconcl':er rhose nution,rt..,iru.i"',lli;:::1;,h:.ffil:i:iJ-iifi"il"r1ff[ r.?"r;:'i"","".""i";:.'i

' rrtrol hcljels. Thir muker rcn:',, e d w i rh i nri i v i,ru ar i s n,,,

"

J ;:ifi ;:illH] i:THIili[ ::i:iJ'il:.1,11T:T]:$::il1;';'! rnore concerned with group harnt.ny. and typically inclivrduals subordinate their own control to the'

'r k group or to the supervisor. Thcrelbre, p""pl" n"ri"r" irr"], nou" l"r. direct control over career andI l,.:i Y:.i"I-t because they really haue less direcr conrrol;r ar leiisr are less likel1,.ro exerr conrrot.lll:::^li.:,:lt" s:ro.nisupport lirr,ur rhird hypothesis in rhar a' rhree well_being measures were'\'lated wlth work Loc at the ec,r,gicar lever. Inte,nar sampres were high on well-being relati'e\lcrnals.'mples Again'thisttlrtkesscnseasinclividualswhoarebetterabletocontrolthe,rwork'rrtnnlenf should be in a bettcr Posilio. to control their well-being. They rvould be expected to take" itssertive action to change the workplace to rheir own tiking. o. to change jobs that mlght be. r scly affecting well_being.

t !' rrvevr" there was no support lirr our tirst hypothesrs rn that I-C did not relrte to well-being at the, ::lji:;],|.Ti,jrlil;ll;. *",.t.,ngr), i.i";;;;;k LoC. it was nor rerated to werr_being

,,,, ,,t ,,! (re!)51 q61y ,,,,, llllllll,lll,il.Trrl::,il'irlilll]l..li;]i]il;::,f ;;T:i:.,1;:.,,i' ts quite unlikely b1' clrrLrcc, s. ir seems ,""ronribr" to concrude thar there is a verv srrarlr' I I,rr indiriJurlisnr r. trc,rsr,r.i,,.., -,;; ,-;. '"-1- :: "':' "-' .rs 1 vcr.

rtr(.r.e u,ere ficrors tendirl llssociitted with job satistacfion. As we explained in the introt.luc-

rr'ists have in"."0""r,,,* ro cnhrnce well_being for both collectivists and indiviclualists.

. rvhereas inclividualisrs,-tc of enhanced social support (llola, 1990: Sinha and Verma.

, hcing (Reykowski ;;l; ffi,i1.:1iJ:il":J fiylHJ:n,fi'::,:::.:l :l.J.Jlil":T,ii, lfi:i l:,,ff1,i.",t;": 'n,"i1 t"nd"n.y i", i".r'"rirrr''rs to have hisher wetr-being. ar leasr' .rc sonrc linritarions thrrr should be kept in ntirrtl in interpretin.t thr_\r rcsults. Respunsc biasesr' r)cres can'ary among

'irri()r)s/eulrurcs 1T.anJis. rggi, v"n de vijver and I-eung, lggT). and'' r(count lor observed tlilterctrces in joh satisfactir)rr rnd lvell-beir-{. For example, Spcct'r,],ltj.U results acr.ss.iob satistaction facets lbr,*o or,"n srmples (Hong Kong and

" ) lll comparison to rh!'LiS. .\lrhough overa)l job satislactioD was the same, there was't r''l'iability in f'lcct.rc'.ns rithin thc US sampre. consistent rvith rhc.rnotlestv bias.

P E, SPECTOR ET,lI

I\l)fVll)tri\t.tS L\Nt)\\'trt_t_ fltrt\(i ll|j(smilh s1

'11 ' I 995 )' the Asians tended to ar.id indicating that therr leelings werc extremcrv posrri'erlulrtlr, l,1/.. l()il\, {rr rrr.Iir(t\a

Tllc context in whrch orlr data wcrc collecred should be considcred in interyreting rcsults. perhapsItlost inlporllnllv' this stuiif ivrs lirnitc'd ft).ranagcrs. lnd it is possibre tl.r"t n,rn-,,.,"n,ira.il1 crlrplovccsurrrrlti vicld Jiirerent rrrrJin:. orrr.srr.rrrLr.rr.rr hc lruriurrs in ".n"rr'tir,n.,,n,,'.-,,,'.,,rn,r,a. nn,rncluded in our studv' espcciallv those thrt are \erv dillerent culturllly ti,nr those we rnclucled.Fin:rll\. rlllr,'lrih rhc,,ri:rnlrJ J'lJn \\ir. l.1,,,5., ic1,r.r.:c,nrrtirc \rrnll(,_ ln rll rir.c\. in .r1 r;1np11.1(noted in ottr ptocedurc scction) dlt.t collection ,rcciurred in a limited nunrber of organizaiions. andit is p.ssible resuits lirr th.se crunrrics rvould be t.rifrercnr h,,,r.tiii;.;,,,;;;:,;;;,;,,;;;, ror rvpes ororqanlzations) bcen srntplcd.

There are ais. some welknesses in the vS\'19'1 nreasure ol I-c. As we discuss elscrvhere uslng diitalr"nrCISI\lS. tlrc intcrnrl !,,n\t\tcnL\ ,,1 lltrs nrr.usurc rrrrispeck';rt'r ut.'2001).Arrhoush rve uscd rhe scare herc

",r1TtJ..:,,,T'::li:l:iT:iJi:j:::i:Jil.il:ithe 'ndividual

iterns dtl not relatc'wcll to one another. and perhaps resuJts would have been trifiercnthad we used a ntelsure witIn sum,nar\', ,,u. ,",u,,,ffi, i:;il;:i':"1:"til[iii,ii;,," dir.rerences in wer-Lreing. and rn,)scdiifcrences are rinked to diff'erences in pcopJe s conrroi belier.s. o'the other hand. r-t was appar_cnfly not rerated to *'eil-being (or \\ils ver) slightrv). so rncfe rs apparentlv nothing inherent inindividualism thrl lcails to well-bcins. ile.spitJ the strong corrclatron bc.trveen I-C anci workLoC Howcver' cultures in *hich pcople tend r. perceive they ha!c control tend to be assocraredwith befter well-being The ecologicai levcl tindings rriror hndings tiom the inclivir]ual parricipanrlevel lspector et (1l..in press.a) that belief\ and ierc.ptrons ofcontrol at work can h"u. rotrt".yetl-eds. and this ma1' occur universallv. although ...,"inty rhe way in *hi.h .;;;.;i;p;.r,"r

.rn o"culturally deterntined.

Author biographies

Peggy Bernin received her lvlD fiom Karolinska Institute in Srockholm. Sweden. rvhere sne .s eorn-pletrne her Ph D She is curentiy $orkin-9 on several health-related projects ut IpIVI-The NationalInstitute fbr Psychosociai Fxctors and Health.'\ndre Biissing receir"c'd a unirc'rrirr riipronra in marh!,nr:ltjcs and psychoio_ey and a ph.D. trom theRWTI{

"\acrrcn ancr did a habiriraritrn in rlslchorogr. H.'eu,-renrry holds rhe chair.f ps-vchologv ar theTechnical Universitv of NItinchen.. Ge.rnaqv. Hc ii trire cring *r."..r, p"r;..i in',rr" ,o1,.'o-i or"*o.tin-u and telecooperltion' work and ()f,r.niz;tional psvcholJly in health care. as rvell as on transitionsfrom knowlcdge to behaviour at rvork. Prot'essor eLissing se-rves on the editorial boartj of a nunrber ofscientitic iournais stlch ls l)rrr,{iirr.rlirrr. l/rrrA .t srrz.r.i. 2eit.stltrili liir Artteir.stt,i.y.strt.sL.lnli.His publicatrons rnciLrde l8 books anti orer 100 articlcs in journals antl books.Car-y 1,. Cooper is BLIPr\ protessor. ol' Organi;ret!onll psvcl6l6gy ancl Health and Deputy ViceChancell.r of the uni'ersit1, .f \.[a'cheste. rnstjture o| scrcrrcc & Techn.logv. England. He wasrcccntJl awrrded rhe CBE {Conrnranrlcr of rhe Order ol.the Britrsh En.rpire) in ifr" 01..":. tsirthdavHonours List firr his contriburion to hcalth and srtetr."t _orL.Philip Derve rcccived his ph D llorr rhc Lr'ntrrn Seho,,r ,,f Economrcs rn Ba,sr.nd. Hc is an A.nivcr-sary Reacler in orglnizatiollitl. Psvc'hokr-uv in rhe Dcpartnrent of or-sanizrtionli psvchoioey atBirkbcck coliege' uni'ersit' of London. His rcscarch fircuses o' work stress and copi,*.Peter Hart is r sOcial rcserr!.h e{)lt\ull.int ln.{ustriijiit.

l00l John Wiley & Son\. Ltd J. Or.qLuti:. IJtluu.22. BI5_8-ll C(X)l)

ItJ0 P E. SPECTOR E.7,-11-Bhagat RS. Kcrlia BL. Crawibnl SE. Kaplan jlIR. 1990. Cross_crenergent lrends and directims iur reserrch in rha JQQn" ,1t"1t|ti:t in orgrnizationai pslchologyeme rge nt lre nds and dire ctions iirr reserrch i" ir.", rs9;;. ;'",1':' l'l'i:t tn t 'rgrntzati' rnri p:,r e hoi.gy:Or.qonitttiortttl Ptttlktltryt 19.)o ('att."ar D^r.,-.,..- ra.,-, ,tt,ttrt.ttLt.l.ttrthtI R.ttt\ t,l liltlt\!ttLu 41.!?;:?l:ll;ll"llf;:,i!1"!;'i.y r.7a1 ,ii';;i-'R#.;,i:,"'i'r'1lu,ii,,'liii'#iii'i:'['f;;:1i,11;1;gChao GT. 1000. Muliilr,\el ir.ru.r, . -......,. r r rcosr. Jonr] wrley: Chichcsre r: -59_99.U|g(o1l.u/i()i'|.'frntnltttitllt's''.;:,::]j:l,:''i.lill:s.::l]..1i"'In',NIu1t'il,leliht,,g;ltn:ln, !t:;::l';t,''" e'''"u'i",,'-,,,1,,ii),i'i',:,,,,,',i,i, 'il,;;"i1.'il,ii:;t,"{ii:"iJlJi"'l,it:.'1,1;1',i

ciroper cL' willirrns S l996 ottupuri.tt.l stft'.\s ltklit,k)r vcrsiou ).0.NFER-Nclson: windsr,r. tr11a.'rlfi::i.fl:r" sJ, wiiiianrs s 'rgss o,i,,,/;, i,,;,;;;'i;,":, rrtrtituror ,vttrtu!ettten/ 6rrrrta NFEp Nelson:I)cFmnk RS. Irrnc$.ich J\1. Schrvei-gcr DM. l9l.]lJ. Job srrcsr.

diitcrenccs 'n"'ng ,\n'":,,.:un- Japrrr:se.

"na rnJiun ,;;,,";-;;,r. }j],i,,|;l;l]:'fi1i.l1,,:"1'.I';1i,;ii"rrirics rnclj

,:':r,llli,::l:,,);,:::;i);,i"#;ll,:::l j;;:;q;;'-,-;,;"" r, riork: dil,ere.nc., ;,;;;; Ens, and wcs,t"li;i;,,?:r,:;'llii,,),1", l,e8e Curtror irr -,i,. *,,rtpr**, ,rn ./n.tcrn.ur.trtttut Revittr ,1. )ntu.r/riu! un!(iud'kunsr wB. I998. ,n4,,i.'/.l3..Stlt'p"'',cL',Robenson IT (ecls) John wir." Ct".1,..i.r,'i-,.-tru

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rtrttl llrrttttttt pt,rfitrrnut.e , ol ;L;j;";t" tn'ough the design of work; le st of { theo ry. orgttni;utiottul Reht^,i.r

l:''ii[',i1,1!11,i:.iilliiiXll:;,,?:,li!!:::l,;:11;, sociar cnci,,,nrers orchinese and New zcarand srudcnrs"'i,1.11,:,1:',i;,;:i.ii,';il?:l';;i,li,:;);;l,ili,llli:ii_:;:;:li;;,]"1)',,,,d..oc,,,,rrrni/J,i,,,,:.n;r,.,.,i,,r,,,nin,,r.d't. Srgt': Th,'u:rntlo"ir.c,q, r.,l rso.

ttt*'r.\"lhtlt'\l rttllt'ltli,,/fi,/rf-Kinr ut.(//rl()r\rc(lc(r' l(ll{+ Theculturrl'elativilv,ofthequalityoflif'econcept. Acutretnt,oJMunugeaertRet,iett,g-.jg9_39g.,t,lilili

l. +i:*r.Hlil:i^,et. Mottute tset riu,,,u,t,t in,,,t,,t. ru, Research on 1nt.,.ultu,oi.coop.,aribn:llrr,i ('ll. l9li2. Locus ol.controi; u review ol.cross_cultural reRt ltrtiorrs 6:

-101-12-1. rrvrcw trr cross-cultutal research ful(/lt.lliortul Jountul .l !ntett.ulturql

I ljl,ltt,L,,,:rllii'i",i,I;;,."?,,',i;,Ili ;'i,?:,i;ll.fr1..'l..r"l incrividuarism-corectivisrn and.job satisfaction.ll,il.r I \l le,rd. Culrure rrnJ hculrh. In A1,ptir,L C):,,.rr.C,i)),n,t t()rrks. CA; ZZg-ffti,- ttt ^/)l)Itea Lft)t't-cttllufttl Pstcholog:. Brislin RW (ed.). Sa-"e. I.housand"":l:l I ,ll'ililll.l,illill.l;:: ll*rcnces amons Japanese on the center ror epidemiorogic srudies depressionr*,,r,,,r .ruu,,,ri'i,i:ffiHit_iiii."l.iiil??i;"tfi::::f,;,^" tr,ritirt, rr, eo7-ei+'. "'"''

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']\ ' I lrrc \uc \ [ E5rrh r' K. Hiro H. Nrizouc T. Mishirna N, Nagata.s. I ggg. Can positive aff_ect itcms bc used,,,1i.,,1) il ,il]li,l:lf iil.ffi:: in the Japrncrc p,,p,,i"ii,;;;p;;,, tosrcut ,vettk.ine 28: r.5.j_r5s.||.1ll|lll\'rJ|'',;|*;;,,..;,;*)'j]]:],;lj;,,):j,:.;l,,,,:,,,::),;,,,i.:,',i,;::1;.],];)lli:,T.lr'lrrl\ilrl ll) l')'rs Appro'rch''s to.equivalencc i"."nr-a"iirari'"id cross-n.tionar research. tn Cro.y.y-c.urturttr.

\utt(\ I't!ti\'ul(rrc.r. Hrrkness la^Ga.l zurnr,a,,-u1""#i_, b.._."u, ,_ur,,,,.\ki,:, K.; s,,1[,,,,, n t(/(), /t\R6L ,ji u C,i,'i),,",,'i',i,iiii,tr,tr,,,rcsrillc. lN. '111. ^ uttla? Io ilte rropratil ond Appliuttions. Scicntific Software:\'l'rl{lhl\i( lv't1 'lcritierl'rppraisalolindividualismanclcollectivisrn l.ttlndivitluqlistntntlcouecti,isrn.

u 11',.1'u '(.",',,'',.,i:! l.'.:!,il:111,-i1. IrT L' ;;,;f (.,r.; ;;;i,ir,nu."n,, oaks. CA: .52_6.5"

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INDIVII)U,\LISj\,IANDWELL.tsEIN(; 8.]I

Kozlorvski slVJ' Klein KJ :(r)0 A,'dtrleveJ rppr.ach ro 1h",,;., ,t rcscarch in organizrrions: contexrLrrr.Fq;ilT,'ffff;,?:H;I:li:i'i'*l{:lii*:llll;,,,',,,.q,:,t,,'r",t,t,i,^;,;';;,;;,i;:';';,,, n,u,tu,i,,,,,

Leung K. Boncl MrJ. ie8s. on rhe.rpi*riia.",i,i*;:1,'r;r,1,:::],]:'sv-Brss; San Francisc.: i-90..

ttf Cntts-Culrurul Psvltrlo,qr l0: ljl l_;1. 'llllelslors lorcross-cultural conparisons.././,r/rkl1Lircoln JR' Hanada M' o't":j; l'j-1lt:it-urai orienrations and,intJividuai reactions rn organizrrjrns: a sru

IJ

P L. \PtCIrrR ET \lJrturrru! rtl 0rguni:tttittnuI IJt'Ittt trtrJ. Orgtttri:.. Behtn 22.li-ll-ltl7 (l00lrDOI: 10. 1002/job. I 1 5

SpectorPE.CrlrlperCL.SanchezJl.O.DriscrlllN|,SparksK.Be'rninP.Bi,issingA.DcwcPHartP.LuL.NlillerK.Renaulr de \krraes L Or,rog".y-Cvi

-p"-sn; M pitu'iu H' Poelmans i R'tlhtktithn'n P Russinova V'Salanrtov V. Saigado: sr,,*u'!'lio OLi iu"' JB Tcichmann i\!' Theorell T' Vlerick P \\tstman

\1'

Widerszat-Bazyl lvl.\!irngPvuS.inp'""r"t Al4nation/tenito'1 "''i).ll',":'i1 l::l'),t.::-:::i"rnrerqrontowell-being at work: how generriizablc arc western findings l Acralcttti tll rtLtnLtqtDlcnt J('ut nttt'

Specmr PE. Cooper CL. Sp"rt, f'-e"tnin P Biissing A' Dewe P- Lu L \lillcr K Renauit tlc Nloraes L'

o,Driscoil !1. prgon lt. t,,tanu u. prrelmans S. Riclhakrishnan P. Russinora V. Saianatov V. Salgado J'

Sanchez JI. Shima S. Siu Or-. stt,,lA. T;ithmann Nl' TheorellT' Vlcrick P wcstrnan \l Widerszal-Bazyl M'Wong P Yu S.2(X)1. An,n,.,";;;;;i *iudy of the ps-vchometric propenics ol the.Hofstede^Values SurvevNlodule 199.1: a comparison,ri"i"Ji"il"ir and nation/prouince level results. ApplietL Pstthopnv:

An

l nr e rntn iotul Rrr ier 50; 169-113 1TobacykJJ'TrlbaclikZS'luvz.CorrrprrisonsoIbelief'basedpersonali|yconstfuc!sinPolislranelAtltericrn

uniicrsitl sludcnts. -/ottnirrl ,,J Cn'si-Cultutu[ Psrtlto/ogr 23: ]l I--l15Triandis HC. lr)()1. Culttrre ttttl Sot ial Befutt'ittr' McCraw-Hill: Ncw York'Triandis HC. 1995. Itttlit idtutli srn & Collec rivi sn Westview: Boulcler'Van de Viiver F, Leung K. t'lCl .*!,1")ti''''t'

""tl Dtua Artetlvsis Jttr Crost'Culturttl Rcseurch sage: Thousand

Oaks. CA.

The concepturlization and ps)'chometric properties ot. the Maslach Bumout lnventor)'iful"ril.f,

"i'O Jackson. 1981) were examined by this study A new structure of hve bumout

factors was identihecl using a sanllle of 480 Ausiralian law enforccment manilgers An exam-

;;;i;; ;i;r;h ii.m. "ton!

*ittt singie and confirmatorv factor analvses supported both emo-tional exhaustion and rhe lrck ot pirsonrl accomplishment factors splitting

into. tso tactors

*nir" 0"p..-"^irr.,ion remained'a single-factor' Th,t ":* !-]:-]h:j"r structure rncorporatespsychological lnd somatrc *'otn

"ptti"oi ttotional exhaustiol', and two aspects oi the lack

of personul accomplrshnlent' nameiy seli and others This expanded frctor structure cltrifies

rhe multi-dimensional nature or tn; N{BI Funh"""t"""h directions are discussed Copyrighti 200i John WileY & Sons, Ltd'

Re-thinking burnout

IAIN L. DENSTEN+Urirt'ruin oiNrr Soar/r llir/es

"lararrlitr

SummarY

lntroduction

Cunently,theMaslachBumoutlnventory(lvlBl)isthemostwidelyusedbumoutinstrumentwhosedevelopment has significanrly contribure; to research of the phenomenon.

The MBI has enabled the

multi-dimensionalaspectsofbu.nouttobemeasuredwhichhasfurtherdistinguishedburnoutfromrelatedconceptssuchasdepression,dissatisfaction.tension,conflict,pressure'andparticularlystress.ThedistinctionbetweenburnoutandStressisinrportanttoundcrstandbecauseoftheirinter-relation-ship.Briefly,specificstressors(eg'roleconflict'ambiguity'andover-stimulation)causcstressrnlneshort ternr, rvhile in the long tcrnr-these stres\!)r\ can ira'e an rccumulating ellect

whicit cltuses burn-

out (Brill. l9g4: caltlwcil ,,,,,,-;,,,ii;s. l99l: (ir'cicn. tt)!)-l: flold rnd Ilorh. 19L131 Whilc rhe lvlBI isrecognizeclasarobustinstfull]ent.itl-strucrurlii.'liiclityisn()tbc\Ondquestion(Scheuf.e1iera1..L993)'

Mas]achantiJackson(193])estlblislre.lrlrrcc|tcrors0l.bulnoutthltnlc:]'.ureemotionllexhaustlon'depersonalization. an,t teettng..-oir.J,,..,r pcrsonal rcconrplrshment.

Horvever. several studies (Firth

etal.,l985;lrvllticktandScll\\rb'l9Sl:PoscisrtltlGore'198(r)tbundthattheMBlnreasurestburtnctors, wlrile others (Brookrngs ct rr1 ' 1985: Dignam et ai ' 1986; Green et al" 19911

mainllined that

the MBI measures only t*o fa.:tors. Recently. strrlies using confirrnarcry tactor analyses (Byrne' 1993;

Gold er 41., 19891 Lee ono o'itt*t'' 1990: Sch'rtrfeli and Van Dierendonck' 1993) have identified the

original three-flctor model ^r:;;.;;", ro severtrl rlrernarive models. However, Schaufeli et al' (1993)

;;a"** ,,,: Dr lrrn L- Derr\ten school ol- Ectrnonlics rnd shilrgcment Uni'rerslty r)f Nclv South wales Austrllrrn

9",.n.e 5,,rcc \urJern1. ( rnhurrr \'T ihrilr' \u'lrJlrrrE mril: i-dcnsten@lrdfr'oz du

RettiYatl l6 liurch l99i:/?elircrl I'i I'ottnlrcr 1993

At(ePtKl 20 Augrr'rr 2()01Puhli.slrcd otlint' l7 Ot tthar 2001]C

Itt

Copyright (' l00l John Wiley & Sons.

\J. Orgtuti:. Bthav. 22.8 l -5-812 (100 I )

opyrigiii ( 2001 lohn Wilcv & Sitns Lttl