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UNIVERSITE MONTESQUIEU – BORDEAUX IV
ECOLE DOCTORALE ENTREPRISE ECONOMIE SOCIETE (E.D. 42)
DOCTORAT en SCIENCES DE GESTION
Ali Mohammad GOUDARZI
L'INFLUENCE DE L'INTELLIGENCE EMOTIONNELLE ET
DU STYLE DE LEADERSHIP SUR L'EFFICACITE DU
LEADERSHIP
Thèse dirigée par M. Olivier HERRBACH, professeur des universités
12 Septembre 2011
Jury:
Monsieur Serge EVRAERT
Professeur des universités, Université Bordeaux IV, co-directeur de recherche
Monsieur Olivier HERRBACH
Professeur des universités, Université Bordeaux IV, directeur de recherche
Madame Corynne JAFFEUX
Professeur des universités, Université Bordeaux IV, suffragant
Monsieur Jean-Fabrice LEBRATY
Professeur des universités, Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, rapporteur
Monsieur Jean-Pierre NEVEU
Professeur des universités, Université Montpellier II, rapporteur
2
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... 4
Dedication .................................................................................................................................. 5
Epigraph ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 9
1. Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................... 16
1.1. Ability Approach of EI .................................................................................................. 16
1.2. Transformational Leadership Approach ........................................................................ 18
2. Research Model and Hypotheses ..................................................................................... 24
2.1. Emotional Intelligence ............................................................................................... 24
2.1.1. The Emotional Intelligence Construct? .............................................................. 24
2.1.2. The Intelligence of Emotional Intelligence ........................................................ 27
2.1.3. The Emotion of Emotional Intelligence ............................................................. 35
2.1.4. Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 57
2.1.5. Defining Emotional Intelligence: Models and Measurements ........................... 59
2.1.6. Concluding Remarks .......................................................................................... 79
2.2. Defining Leadership and its Approaches ................................................................... 80
2.2.1. Approaches to Leadership .................................................................................. 83
2.3. Emotions and Leadership .......................................................................................... 99
2.4. Leadership Style ...................................................................................................... 101
2.4.1. Transformational Leadership Components ...................................................... 104
2.4.2. Transformational Leadership and Emotional Intelligence ............................... 106
2.5. Leadership Effectiveness ......................................................................................... 111
2.5.1. Leadership Effectiveness Measures ................................................................. 114
2.5.2. Transformational Leadership And Leadership Effectiveness .......................... 121
2.5.3. Leadership Effectiveness and Emotional Intelligence ..................................... 125
2.5.4. Leadership Effectiveness, Leadership Style, and Emotional Intelligence ....... 128
2.6. Conceptual Model.................................................................................................... 131
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3. Methodology .................................................................................................................. 134
3.1. Research Design ...................................................................................................... 134
3.2. Population and Sample ............................................................................................ 134
3.3. Instrumentation ........................................................................................................ 136
3.3.1. MSCEIT v.2.0 .................................................................................................. 136
3.3.2. MLQ 5X ........................................................................................................... 139
3.3.3. EFQM ............................................................................................................... 144
3.3.4. INPE Award (EFQM-based Model) ................................................................ 144
3.4. Data collection ......................................................................................................... 160
3.5. Data analysis ............................................................................................................ 163
4. Results ............................................................................................................................ 164
4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 164
4.2. Descriptive Statistical Analyses .............................................................................. 165
4.2.1. MLQ 5X ........................................................................................................... 165
4.2.2. MSCEIT V 2.0 ................................................................................................. 175
4.2.3. EFQM ............................................................................................................... 176
4.3. Correlations Analyses .............................................................................................. 177
4.4. Multiple Regression Analyses ................................................................................. 184
4.5. Canonical Correlation .............................................................................................. 185
4.6. Models developing .................................................................................................. 187
Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 193
Reference List ........................................................................................................................ 214
Appendix 1 ............................................................................................................................. 256
Appendix 2 ............................................................................................................................. 258
Appendix 3 ............................................................................................................................. 264
Appendix 4 ............................................................................................................................. 272
4
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I offer my sincerest gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Olivier
Herbach, for his supervision and advice from the early stages of this research as well as
giving me ways to enhance my research project. Above all and the most needed, he provided
me with quick answers to the crucial questions I encountered throughout the research.
Although I found him a great scholar for supervising my research, I feel beholden more to his
pure spirit and strength.
I am also profoundly indebted to Professor Serge Evraert for setting up this
international program between Iran and France. The seeds are blooming and soon, we will
have fruits!
Many thanks go in particular to Dr. Ali Asgari, Assistant Professor of Psychometrics
at University of Tehran. I am much indebted to his valuable advice in methodology and
statistical analysis and furthermore, using his precious times to read this thesis and gave his
critical comments about it. I have also benefited by advice and guidance from Prof. Hooman
who also always kindly grants me his time since the onset of the research.
I gratefully thank Prof. Abili and Naji Zadeh for special care in managing the program
at its best. However, the intellectual and extra efforts of Dr. Ansari in conducting the joint
program between Iran and France cannot be ignored in this regard. Meanwhile, I sincerely
acknowledge Ms. Shabgahi, for her great efforts in coordinating the program. Therefore, I
sincerely acknowledge them all for their sincerity and advocacy.
I would also acknowledge Mr. Nasrollah Fallah, the Ex-president of IMI, for making
the first spark in me for taking this program.
I am also grateful to IPHRD in my data collection process. I am specifically thankful
to Mr. Homayoonfar and Ms.Hatefi for their great coordination in distributing the
questionnaires among the sample companies.
It is a pleasure to pay tribute also to Seyyad Jamal Husseini and his team for their
sincere efforts in data collection. I would like to thank for their high quality practice and
results. I would also acknowledge Mr. Komaee, Ms. Mansoori and Mr. Azadi for their
significant contributions in the team of data collection.
I gratefully acknowledge Mr. Alishahi and Abbas Noorizadeh for devoting a great deal
of efforts to purchase MSCEIT v.2.0 and MLQ 5x, as the main tools of this research from
Canada. I am thankful that in the midst of all their activity, they accepted this demand.
My special thanks go to Mr. Javad Mosleh for his genuine support in every part of the
thesis as if it was his own job. I am also gratefully indebted to Mehdi for his sincere, serious,
and academic contributions to the current research.
Words fail me to express my appreciation to my family. This thesis would not be
completed without their constant help and support.
5
Dedication
To My Mother, who suffered and taught me resilience and through suffering, built up my
faith for an eternal move for learning.
To Roya, My Wife, for her patience and emotionally intelligent management, and wise
behavior that helped me reach the calm shores of life after a long shocking days. She suffered
and created meaningful life but she led like a great mentor.
To my daughter, Sahar (Fatemeh), for her love, sincerity, and hope for future.
To Mr. Abbas Iravani, as a spiritual organziational leader and a real entrepreneur.
And to my brother, Mehdi and all the good people of the world.
6
Epigraph
“Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things.” Peter F. Drucker
7
RESUME en français
Cette recherche s’intéresse à la relation entre l'intelligence émotionnelle, le style de leadership
et l'efficacité du leadership afin de développer et de tester un modèle de l’effet médiateur du
leadership transformationnel sur le lien entre l'intelligence émotionnelle et l'efficacité du
leadership. Un échantillon de 79 manager de sexe masculin ayant remporté un prix national
iranien INPE ont été choisis par la méthode d'échantillonnage aléatoire systématique. Les
résultats de la modélisation par équations structurelles ont montré que le style de leadership
transformationnel médiatise la relation entre l'intelligence émotionnelle et l'efficacité du
leadership. L'intelligence émotionnelle et l'efficacité du leadership sont corrélées positivement
avec le style de leadership transformationnel, avec le style de leadership laissez-faire et non
corrélées avec le leadership transactionnel. La dimension contingente du style de leadership
transactionnel a une corrélation positive avec l'intelligence émotionnelle et ses composantes.
Les managers ayant un score élevé dans la récompense INPE ont aussi obtenu des scores
élevés sur l'efficacité du leadership. Les résultats de la corrélation canonique ont montré que
deux des corrélations canoniques étaient plus importantes que les autres et expliquent 72% et
20% de la variance des variables canoniques, respectivement. Enfin, les résultats d'une
régression multiple ont montré que la compréhension et la perception de l'intelligence
émotionnelle expliquent l'efficacité du leadership de manière significative (R2 = 0,58).
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TITRE en anglais
The Effect Of Emotional Intelligence And Leadership Styles On Leadership Effectiveness
RESUME en anglais
The research aimed to study the relationship among and emotional intelligence, leadership
styles, and leadership effectiveness in order to develop and examine a model exploring the
mediating effect of transformational leadership on the relationship between emotional
intelligence and leadership effectiveness. A sample of 79 male managers who won Iranian
National INPE Award were chosen by systematic random sampling method. The results of
the structural equation modeling showed that the transformational style was significantly
mediating the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness.
Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness had correlations with transformational
style positively, with Laissez-faire negatively and no relation with transactional leadership.
The contingent reward of transactional style correlated positively with emotional intelligence
and its components. The managers rated high in the INPE reward, had also obtained high
scores on the leadership effectiveness. Results of canonical correlation revealed that two of
the canonical correlations were more important than the others and explained the 72% and
20% of the variance in the canonical variables respectively. The results of a stepwise
regression showed the understanding and perceiving emotional intelligence explained the
leadership effectiveness significantly (R2= 0.58).
MOTS-CLES en français
L'intelligence émotionnelle, L'efficacité du leadership, Leadership transformationnel, Prix
INPE
MOTS-CLES en anglais
Emotional Intelligence, Leadership Effectiveness, Transformational Leadership, INPE Award
9
Introduction
“Great leaders move us. They ignite our passion and inspire the best in us. When we
try to explain why they are so effective, we speak of strategy, vision, or powerful ideas. But
the reality is much more primal: Great leadership works through the emotions” (Goleman,
Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 3).
Emotional Intelligence will bring what Bennis and Nanus think of an effective leader,
into practice: “one who commits people to action, converts followers into leaders, and who
may convert leaders into agents of change” (Bennis & Nanus, 2003, p. 3). Salovey and Mayer
(1990) claim that emotional intelligence is quite substantial for a rational decision making.
Emotions affect attitudes, beliefs, habits, decision-making and behaviors (Humphrey, 2002),
and hence has a great impact on a person’s interactions with others. Learning to realize
helpful information in our emotions and others’ is a relevant predictor of a skilful leadership
(Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995; Cooper & Sawaf, 1997). Several scholars have contended that
leadership effectiveness connotes a strong relationship with emotional intelligence
(Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000; George, 2000; Caruso, Mayer, & Salovey, 2002). Such relationship
is the focus of the recent literature in the field.
George (2000) through his examination of “ways EI may contribute to leadership
effectiveness, focuses on the possible gains earned by cognitive abilities in managing
emotions. EI make up the skills for inspiring followers, efficient decision-making,
accommodating thinking, and “being an agent for change”.
Just as George (2000) explored elements of effective leadership, Higgs (2002)
performed a content analysis comparing the Dulewicz and Higgs (2000) model of El and six
major models of leadership (Alimo-Metcalfe, 1995; Bass, 1985; Bennis & Naus, 1985;
10
Goffee & Jones, 2000; Kotter, 1990; Kouznes & Posner, 1998). Elements of motivation,
interpersonal sensitivity, influence, and conscientiousness/integrity correlated point by point
between the El model and models of leadership; intuitiveness correlated with five of the six
models of leadership; and self awareness and emotional resilience correlated with three out of
the six modes of leadership. Empathy is another trait that is linked in the El and leadership
research (Andersen, 2000; Ashkanasy & Daus, 2002; Goleman, Royatzis, & MCKee, 2002:
Landnim, Howell, & Paris, 2000). Being emotionally intelligent is claimed to enhance an
individual’s ability to cope with outside and self-induced pressures associated with leadership,
thus, improving efficiency and effectiveness (Ashkanasy et al., 2004).
Due to the necessity of effective social interaction, good decisions, and high
motivation in almost all areas of organizational culture, EI is significant in many areas of job
performance, too (Cote & Miners. 2006). Increased evidence in recent years seems to suggest
that social effectiveness skills are crucial aspects of leadership effectiveness (Prati, Douglas,
Fenis, Ammeter, & Buckley, 2003). Prati et.al (2003) sees El as a key construct of social
effectiveness and thus leadership effectiveness. Research indicates that the ability of certain
leaders to acknowledge the individual needs of subordinates makes them better leaders
(Andersen, 2000). Terms such as boss are less frequently associated with leadership. Instead
terms like facilitator, coach, and manager of relationships are often used to describe effective
leaders (Homer, 1997).
Statement of the Problem
Every year, many industrial firms in Iran register to Iran's Institute for Productivity
and Human Resource Development (IPHRD) to test their chances of getting Iranian National
Productivity and Excellence Award (INPE). It is totally based on the standards of EFQM. The
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registered companies race for such an award and some have attended for several years in the
hope of being accepted. This research is an attempt to go for these companies and their
respective managers through a set of standard measures. The main research variables involved
are emotional intelligence (EI), transformational leadership, and leadership effectiveness.
The empirical research shows that these variables are related to each other in one way
or another. Coetzee and Schaap (2004), Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, & Boyle (2006), Leban &
Zulauf (2004), Srivastava & Bharamanaikar (2004), Wong & Law (2002) showed a positive
relationship between EI and leadership effectiveness and Lowe, Kroeck & Sivsubramaniam
(1996), Horner (1997), Seltzer & Bass (1990) found positive relationship between
transformational leadership and leadership effectiveness and Ashforth & Humphrey (1995),
Bass (1990), Seltzer & Bass (1990), Bass & Avolio (1994), and Callahan, Hasller, & Tolson
(2005) found positive relationship between EI and transformational leadership. However, in
these researches, these variables are examined separately, two with one, or sometimes with
other variables such as organizational culture, organizational performance, personality factors
and so on. Here the three variables namely EI, transformational leadership, and leadership
effectiveness, are examined based on their components and their interrelationship is going to
be discovered in the INPE (EFQM-based award) award winning group of managers.
Although, George (2000) argued that “leadership theory and research have not
adequately considered how leaders’ moods and emotions influence their effectiveness as
leaders” (p. 1028), in a meta-analysis, Harms and Credé (2010) argue that the studies under
question produced somewhat mixed results regarding the EI measures. Some researchers
(Daus & Ashkanasy, 2005) found the positive findings as proof that EI was significantly
related to transformational leadership, whereas others (Locke, 2005) remain entirely skeptical
of the validity of the construct of EI itself, much less its role in leadership outcomes. In such a
situation, where the results of empirical research are not entirely clear, developing an
12
empirical model explaining how these constructs are related together can offer insight into the
possible reasons for such confusion in addition to providing a more precise estimate of the
relationships in question.
Research Questions
Questions 1: Is there any relationship between dimensions of emotional intelligence and
dimensions of transformational style?
Questions 2: Which of the emotional intelligence components are more important to explain
the leadership effectiveness?
Questions 3: Do the model explaining the relationship among emotional intelligence,
leadership styles and leadership effectiveness fit the data well?
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to demonstrate that leaders today must be more
emotionally intelligent to be effective as leaders. This idea was tested by examining the
impact of leaders' emotional intelligence on leadership style selection. If a relationship was
found to exist between these two variables, then the study will have contributed much needed
empirical evidence to expand the basis of knowledge on emotional intelligence and its impact
on leadership. Findings from this study may also encourage organizations to place more
emphasis on emotional intelligence in leadership training and development programs.
In addition, although a few studies examined the mediating role of transformational
leadership between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction (Fatima, Imran and Zaheer,
2010) and between personality traits and leadership effectiveness (Anderson, 2006), there is
no empirical evidence developing and testing a structural model to indentify the role of
13
leadership style between EI and leadership effectiveness. So this study aimed to contribute to
a better understanding of effective leadership. More specifically, the purpose of this study was
to investigate the path of influencing emotional intelligence on leadership effectiveness.
In the other hand, since the target population included the mangers who won the
Iranian National Productivity and Excellence Award (based on the standards of EFQM), the
other purpose of this correlational study was to explore the possible relationship between
leadership effectiveness and EFQM ratings.
Although, a wide range research has been conducted on contemporary emotional
intelligence and leadership styles and their impact on different constructs, significant
contribution contextualized with Iranian environment is yet to be imparted. Therefore, this
study was an attempt to determine the impact of emotional intelligence and leadership styles
on leadership success and career effectiveness in Iranian managers.
Significance of the Study
This research was conducted in an effort to build upon the current knowledge based on
the subject of emotional intelligence and leadership. Although many books, dissertations, and
articles have been written on the topic of emotional intelligence, more research is needed
specifically on the topic of emotional intelligence and leadership style. A better understanding
of emotional intelligence and its relationship to leadership style will address the gaps that
currently exist in the literature and provide a more sophisticated link between theory and
practice.
Clearly, it is important to recognize and determine the factors that have an effect on
leadership style in order to prepare leaders for more effectively, to teach them how to keep
followers motivated to meet both organizational and community needs and goals effectively,
14
and to keep up with an ever changing environment. This understanding could aid in
identifying, selecting, promoting, and training effective police leaders. It will also help
researchers gain a better understanding of leadership styles in law enforcement, specifically
those of police chiefs, and which characteristics chiefs possess that enable them to be
effective leaders.
Therefore, the significance of the study was that it determined whether leaders with
emotional intelligence and transformational style exhibited leadership effectiveness. The
study provides insight about the successful managers, can serve as a means for future
development and training of managers throughout the organization, and brings awareness to
the leaders and managers of their respective leadership style relative to effectiveness.
Since this study combines the EI, leadership styles and leadership effectiveness on a
conceptual model, these combined characteristics can be considered complementary to one
another in proven effectiveness and success in the rapidly changing global organization.
Definition of Terms
Ability model of emotional intelligence: Conceptualizes emotional intelligence as a mental
ability in which emotions and intelligence function together in meaningful ways (Caruso,
Mayer, & Salovey, 2002; Feyerherm & Rice, 2002). Emotional intelligence is viewed in a
similar manner to verbal or spatial intelligence, although it operates on and with emotional
content (Caruso, Mayer, & Salovey, 2002). The main proponents of this model are Salovey
and Mayer (1990).
Emotional Intelligence: “The ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion;
the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to
15
understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to
promote emotional and intellectual growth” (Mayer & Salovey, 1997, p. 10).
Leadership: Those behaviors that influence a group’s capacity to set and achieve goals
(Feyerherm & Rice, 2002).
Leadership effectiveness: The ability of a leader to create an environment where followers’
potential surfaces and support the organization in the achievement of its objectives (Grazier,
1992).
Leadership style: The pattern of behaviors exhibited and perceived by others, when
attempting to influence the behavior of others (Hersey & Blanchard, 1981).
Mixed model of emotional intelligence: Views emotional intelligence as a construct
including a blend of personality, dispositions, traits, skills, competencies, and characteristics
(Caruso, Mayer, & Salovey, 2002; Feyerherm & Rice, 2002). The proponents of the mixed
model include Bar-On (1997), Goleman (1998a), and Cooper and Sawaf (1997).
Transactional leadership: Transactional leaders apply influence by setting clear goals,
clarifying desired outcomes, providing feedback and exchanging rewards for
accomplishments (Dvir, Eden, Avolio, Shamir, 2002).
Transformational leadership: Transformational leaders “exert additional influence by
broadening and elevating followers’ goals and providing them with confidence to perform
beyond expectations specified in the implicit or explicit exchange agreement” (Dvir, Eden,
Avolio, Shamir, 2002, p. 735). Transformational leaders exhibit charismatic behaviors,
arouse dormant needs in their followers and motivate them to perform beyond baseline
expectations.
16
1. Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for the current study will be developed from the emotional
intelligence and transformational leadership. The theoretical framework to utilize the
emotional intelligence and leadership with this research are fundementally based on the
ability model of EI and transformational leadership approach.
1.1. Ability Approach of EI
The ability approach of EI has been theoretically clarified and developed over 1990s
(Mayer and Salovey, 1993; 1997; Salovey and Mayer, 1990). This framework conceptualizes
EI as intelligence in the traditional sense consisting of a conceptually related set of mental
abilities to do with emotions and the processing of emotional information (Palmer et al.,
2000). Mayer and Salovey (1997) have operationalized EI according to a four branch
hierarchical model from basic psychological processes to higher more psychologically
integrated processes.
Mayer and Salovey (1997) admitted that their initial conceptualization pertained more
to the abilities in relation to emotion and not the cognition to emotion (More discussion of
such is included in the previous sections on emotion). However, their conceptualization of EI
is the most empirical and contemporary definition (Matthews et al., 2002) and the mostly
widely accepted academic explanation (Zeidner et al., 2004). In their further explanation of
their definition, Mayer et al. (1997) identified four branches as their hypothetical model: the
first branch included ‘perception and expression of emotion’; the second comprised of
‘assimilating emotion in thought’; the third branch consisted of ‘understanding and analyzing
17
emotion’; and the last branch involved the most revered one ‘reflective regulation of emotion’
(Fig. 1.1.).
Fig.1.1.: Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) conceptual framework of EI
Based on the ability model emotional intelligence is a mental ability in which
emotions and intelligence function are considered together in meaningful ways (Caruso,
Mayer, & Salovey, 2002; Feyerherm & Rice, 2002). With this model, emotional intelligence
is viewed in a similar manner to verbal or spatial intelligence, although operating on and with
emotional content (Caruso, Mayer, & Salovey, 2002).
According to Mayer & Salovey (1997) emotional intelligence is conceptualized as
the ability to (1) perceive, appraise, and express emotion correctly, (2) access and produce
feelings in order to facilitate thought, (3) understand emotions and knowledge of emotions,
and (4) manage and regulate emotions for the purpose of emotional and intellectual growth).
Ability Model
of Emotional
Intelligence
Branch 1:
Perception
Appraisal
Expression of Emotion
Branch 2:
Emotional Facilitation
of Thinking
Branch 3:
Understanding and
analyzing emotions.
Branch 4:
Regulation of emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth.
The capacity to perceive and appraise emotions in others, and appropriately express emotion.
The ability to use emotions to enhance the
cognitive process.
The ability to understand how emotions change, in and of themselves, and how that change will influence others and the behavior of others over time.
The ability to regulate and integrate logic and emotion for enhanced decision-making and
personal growth.
18
In the other words, they define emotional intelligence as “the ability to perceive accurately,
appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they
facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability
to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth” (p. 5).
1.2. Transformational Leadership Approach
Although there are three main theoretical frameworks have dominated leadership
research at different points in time including the trait approach, the behavioral approach, and
the contingency or situational approach, a number of leadership theories emerged that focused
on the importance of a leader's charisma to leadership effectiveness. One of these theories is
Bass's transformational leadership theory that focuses on to explain how leaders can
accomplish extraordinary things against the odds and found a successful company. The theory
also emphasizes the importance of leaders' inspiring subordinates' admiration, dedication, and
unquestioned loyalty through articulating a clear and compelling vision (Bass et al. 2003).
Bass's transformational leadership theory identifies four aspects of effective
leadership, which include charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and consideration. A
leader who exhibits these qualities will inspire subordinates to be high achievers and put the
long-term interest of the organization ahead of their own short-term interest, according to the
theory. Empirical research has supported many of the theory's propositions.
Over the last two decades, leadership studies have come to the conclusion that there
exists a continuum of a full range leadership style; one point of the extreme belongs to
transformational leadership and the other point refers to transactional leadership. In the former
side, the leaders generate change and in the latter, the leader manages to go on with the
organizational affairs on a daily basis. The opposite point of the continuum refers to laissez-
19
faire leadership which involves a leader to take no position or even action in leadership
(Northouse, 2004). Initially proposed by Burns (1978) and expanded by Bass (1985),
transformational leadership approach, is believed to have yielded significant insight into the
fundamentals of effective leadership (Yukl, 2010). Transformational leadership is a network
of values such as morality, motivation, self awareness, and so on that inspires both the leader
and follower. Long standing relationship between the leader and the followers is suggested to
be the key to the followers’ development (Horner, 1997). Transactional leaders lead through
socially bound exchange; Burns (1978) contends that politicians lead by ‘exchanging one
thing for another: jobs for votes, or subsidies for campaign contributions’ (p. 4). Passive
leadership is attributed to leaders using laissez-faire style, where no contribution of the leader
to his followers is expected. The evidence from various studies suggests that transformational
leadership is an effective form of leadership practiced across various settings (Bass & Riggio,
2006; Seltzer & Bass, 1990).
Different authors have arguably stated that during the 1970’s and early 1980’s, a major
change occurred to the very concept of leadership that consequently led to the emergence of
new frames of mind in leadership (Paul, Costly, Howell & Dorfman, 2002, House & Aditya,
1997; Alimo-Metcalfe & Alban-Metcalfe, 2001). McAreavey et. al. (2001) claim that these
new theories seem to be emanated from Burns’ (1978) study on ‘political icons’. According to
Burns (1978), transformational leadership occurs when the leaders and subordinates engage in
a meaningful relationship that ends up with development of morality and motivation in both
parties: the context with all of its elements including human resources are transformed (Burns,
1978). Due to the evolved trend occurring in the literature from a transactional leadership
perspective to that of the transformational, the former is discussed below, first.
If the leaders direct and stimulate their subordinates based on a set of predefined
objectives, then transactional leadership is at work (Walck, 1997; King, 1994; Gaugham,
20
2001). There is a characteristic general among transactional leaders: they sustain an exchange
relationship with their subordinates based on awards such as salary increase or promotion
(Boehnke et al., 2003) and this leads to a 'cost-benefit, economic exchange with followers
(Sarros & Santora, 2001). Grundstein-Adamo (1999) explains this as a type of stimulus-
response oriented model for behavior control and change. The term 'transactional' emphasizes
on the very relationship the leader and the follower maintain: they clarify the objectives and
start working and punish those who do not comply (Dess et al., 1998).
For about two decades the transactional leadership has been examined and critically
analyzed in different situations and various contexts and empirically prove the positive
effectives of such a leadership style (Atwater, Camobreco, Dionne, Avolio, & Lau, 1997;
Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003; Howell & Hall-Merenda, 1999; Lowe, Kroeck, &
Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000; Walumbwa, Wu,
& Ojode, 2004). However, some negative associations have been reported which will be
argued in comparison with transformational leadership style (Yammarino & Bass, 1990;
Howell & Avalio, 1993).
Transactional leadership comprises of two factors (Table 2.6.): contingent reward and
management by exception (Sarros & Santora, 2001). Contingent reward component involves
that aspect of transactional leadership that tangible and material rewards are given. While
transformational leadership appeals to emotions, values and beliefs, transactional leadership
pays attention to the material needs of individual followers. Contingent reward, therefore,
maintains a positive reciprocal relationship between the leader and the followers for the good
of the organizational goals and personal interests. The second factor operative in transactional
leadership is management by exception. Leaders with such characteristic have implicit trust in
their followers and are so conservative in challenging the followers or promoting any change.
Such leaders do not attempt to inspire their followers to work beyond the intended goals. In
21
the organizations that transactional leaders lead, as long as the objectives are achieved, the
effectiveness is maintained and accepted. This is however, quite contrary to the
transformational leaders who try to promote change and go beyond the objectives and make
visionary performances. Finally, the leaders who comply fully with management-with-
exception rule are so unlikely to sustain any beyond the work communication. The two core
factors of transactional leadership are examined widely and are included in Avolio and Bass'
MLQ test. The detail description of the test, including the relevant reliability issues, will be
given later in this chapter.
Burns (1978) identifies transactional leadership as a bargaining process whereby each
individual or group will be treated separately and act separately. While self-interest is
maintained in transactional leadership, transformational leadership inspires the followers to
set a vision that goes beyond individual self-interest. The fundamental basis of
transformational leadership is founded on the ideas of Jim Burns, the Pulitzer Prize winner, on
which about 400 dissertations are written and many articles are authored. According to Burns
(1978) transformational leadership is a process where "leaders and followers help each other
to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation" and if such a perspective persists in an
organization, significant changes will be experienced in the life of the individuals and
organization. Tichy and Devanna (1986) developed a very detail perspective on the concept of
transformational leadership. Their definition involves the leaders as agents of change who
recognize the needs for change, create the vision for change, and guide the organization
through the change process.
However, some researchers claim that although there exists considerable number of
charismatic leadership conceptualization, none would offer more comprehensive analysis of
Bass's (1985) theory of transformational and transactional leadership (Curphy, 1992; Judge &
22
Bono, 2000). The Burns' (1978) emphasis on organizational and individual changes has
turned many to study these aspects especially behavioral aspects.
Table 1.1.
Transformational and transactional leadership components.
Charisma: provides vision and sense of
mission, instills pride, gains respect and
trust
Contingent reward: contracts exchange of
rewards for efforts, promises rewards for
good performance, recognizes
accomplishments
Inspiration: communicates high
expectations, uses symbols to focus
efforts, expresses important purposes in
simple ways
Management by exception (active):
watches and searches for deviations from
rules and standards, takes corrective action
Intellectual stimulation: promotes
intelligence, rationality and careful
problem solving
Management by exception (passive):
intervenes only if standards are not met
Individualized consideration: gives
personal attention, treats each employee
individually, coaches and advises
Laissez-faire: abdicates responsibilities,
avoids making decisions
Source: Bass (1990)
Transformational and transactional behaviors are claimed to be of two independent
conceptual dimensions of leadership (Bass, 1985). Yet, later, Bass (1997) and Bass and
Avolio (1990) reconceptualized their earlier ideas and contended that transformational
leadership hinges upon transactional leadership characterization, extending the concept of
leadership to effort and performance. Bass (1994) explicates the concept of leadership:
leadership must address the followers' self perception as a valuable individual in order to
maintain an authentic involvement and commitment. This is, however, the extension of
transactional leadership exchange process whereby the bargaining process evolves into a
leader-member transformatory process. While transactional behaviors are more compatible
23
with a highly structured and stable contexts hence mechanical working sites, transformational
leadership behaviors are more congruent with non-stable and intricately networked
organizations.
Transformational leadership paradigm comprises several features: first, it attempts to
clarify how leader can achieve great achievements through sustenance of some certain
behaviors. This is met in fully entrepreneurial firms and corporate turnarounds in the context
of high competition (Pounder, 2001; Boehnke et al., 2003). Next are those who contend that
transformational leadership consists of characteristics to gain high level achievements for
followers' motivation, admiration, dedication, trust, respect and performance (Steyn, 1998;
House & Aditya, 1997; Paul et al., 2002; Ponder, 2001). Yet, in the third evolving round,
transformational leadership includes behaviors such as being emotionally intelligent, self
confident, empowering, and being capable of sustaining open authentic dialogs (Cacioppe,
1997; Kent, Crotts & Azziz, 2001; Pounder, 2001; Russell & Stone, 2002).
24
2. Research Model and Hypotheses
2.1. Emotional Intelligence
2.1.1. The Emotional Intelligence Construct?
Deciding on whether emotional intelligence is a computable quality of human being, it
is vital to have a plausible account of emotional intelligence construct. This is, however, so
clearly provided in any conception given on behalf of the emotional intelligence: definitions
and any sort of conceptualizations end up with supporting or conflicting empirical evidences.
Thus, it seems quite compelling to initiate the EI literature with a brief touch of such and such
evidences. However, the detailed models and their underpinnings are given later in the
chapter.
The underlying structure of emotional intelligence was initially put forward by
Salovey and Mayer in 1990. The seemingly internal paradox regarding the emotional
intelligence term, made these authors to defend their position of emotional intelligence as a
type of intelligence.
The initial conceptualization of emotional intelligence included three
characterizations: appraisal and expression of emotion, regulation of emotion and utilization
of emotion (Fig. 2.1.). Later, in 1993, they gave a framework of emotional intelligence within
and without the intelligence literature. They outlined their position that “Emotional
intelligence is intelligence and partially discriminable from general intelligence.” (Mayer &
Salovey, 1993, p. 434); and contended that emotional intelligence has within and by itself
“unique mechanisms” which operate both emotionally and neurologically.
25
The Trait-Meta-Mood-Scale (TMMS) was the first tool to test the operational value of
the 1990’s Salovey and Mayor’s definition. The three constructs to be measured through the
test were: a) attention to feelings b) clarity of feelings; and c) mood repair. The
intercorrelations among these constructs were evaluated and it was concluded that the test
could contribute to some understanding of the individual differences (Salovey, Mayer,
Goldman, Turvey and Palfai, 1995). Hence some aspects of emotional intelligence could be
operationalized. The further supporting evidence regarding TMMS and emotional intelligence
was provided by Martinez-Pons’ 1997 study.
Source: Salovey, P. & Mayer, J.D. (1990)
Fig. 2.1. Early conceptualization of emotional intelligence.
However, some came to believe that emotional intelligence construct has limited
scope than was thought earlier (Davies, Stankov & Roberts, 1998). Fox and Spector (2000)
also found TMMS (Trait Meta-Mood Scale) an inadequate tool for testing and
operationalizing emotional intelligence construct.
26
Schutte et. al (1998) furthered the test of emotional intelligence factor into a new
statistical model. In their study, 346 participants responded to 62 items using a five point
scale. The factor analysis provided a strong reliability within a 33 item scale with two
different samples (α = 90). Using highly reliable tools, the authors were persuaded that self-
assessing instrument can be a valid measure of emotional intelligence.
In a study by Petrides and Furnham (2000a), however, some weaknesses were found
in the model used by Schutte et. al. (1998). They contended that in their model only face-
validity was maintained and it has serious psychometric problems. Some of the weaknesses
related to such self-report studies of the EI are mentioned elsewhere, too. For instance, in Bar-
on’s 1997 model of EI, two flaws related to the participants were identified by Matthews,
Zeidner, Roberts (2002): egoistic bias which was found in responses where one exaggerates
on his/her social/intellectual status, the second tendency was moralistic bias which was
associated to overestimation of one’s socially desirable behaviors or traits (Crowne &
Marlowe, 1964, Paulus & John, 1998).
However, the strongly cognitive flavored definition of emotional intelligence given by
Mayer and Salovey (1997) that led to the ability model of EI, could solve some of the
psychometric problems found in studies such as Petrides and Furnham’s. In Multifactor
Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) 12 ability tests of EI were proposed by Mayer and
Salovey. In this model, it was proposed that emotional intelligence is a way beyond social
intelligence that can cause one to reason about his/her ‘internal emotions’ (p.11). Therefore,
the scope of EI compared to the 1990 EI model given earlier, could be open to both personal
and social dealings of a person. Unlike TMMS, the MEIS had the potential to identify better
answers from worse answers. The ratings of the test was highly correlated (r=0.61 to r=0.80,
p<0.001) suggesting the social and personal criteria were well related. The reliability and
validity of the MEIS was also tested in Ciaarrochi, Chan, and Caputi (2000). The test of
27
actual performance and a number of other criterion measures such as intelligence and
empathy were actually promising. Some others (Roberts, Zeidner, & Matthews 2001,
Matthews et al., 2002), yet argue that overlap of other constructs in a psychological test is
reasonably acceptable but it may confuse a ‘scientist-practitioner’ to identify the overlap
between the EI measure and ‘preexisting instruments’ (Matherws et. al., 2002 p.46) and still
remains problems with the predictive validity of the test.
At the present moment, however, the question of psychometrics of emotional
intelligence is not as far as its controversial definition in the past.
2.1.2. The Intelligence of Emotional Intelligence
As it was mentioned before, conceptualizing emotional intelligence as a new type of
intelligence dates back to the early works of its creators (Salovey & Mayer, 1990’s paper).
This section is not intended to defend or reject the position held by these authors, though the
literature on this issue has been thickened since the date, it is to offer a road map for the
emotional intelligence. The bases are some well-structured models of intelligence with the
available relevant empiricals, and then it follows the possible implications these models may
have for the EI. Thus, experimental and developmental information are provided with a
thorough discussion. The implications for the EI are also deliberated and plausibly argued.
The initial kick-off would follow the history of intelligence models and its working theories.
2.1.2.1. The History of Intelligence
Human exceptional cognitive capability and intelligence has a fine history with
varying intents and data: some has ended up with philosophical humanistic tastes (such as
Plato and Aquinas), some with racist reasoning with eugenic implications (e.g. Gould, 1997),
some others may have preferred to score people’s intelligence (such as Flynn, 1987) and some
28
have given policy advices (e.g. Browne-Miller, 1995). There exist a pack of about million
articles and books related to various aspects of human cognitive faculty, however, some may
have much longer and deeper effect in the field. The changes even can be tracked down in the
following papers of the major theories. Fig. 2.2. gives a rough sketch of how various authors
and researchers has influenced one another in the field of human intelligence. However, we
are not going to discuss the influences but the major theories in the field and the implications
for the EI conceptualization. Binet, Thorndike and Weschsler are among those who basically
proposed some elements of the EI (Fancher, 1985). If intelligence is to be defined as an ability
to learn and adapt, then Terman’s and Weschler’s theories are at work (Terman, 1921;
Wechsler, 1997), if it is presented as a general factor or g , then scientists such as Spearman
or Carroll can be considered leading authors (Carroll, 1993 ; Spearman, 1927). Although in
the Fig. 2.2. given above Mayer, Salovey and Caruso are not included but as they have
mentioned in their 2004 paper, their theory of EI was strongly influenced by multiple
intelligence such as Gardener (1983), Sternberg (1985) or Weschler (1950).
29
Source: http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/map.shtml
Fig. 2.2. History of influences in the development of intelligence theory
However here, as part of the history of intelligence, four major and particularly
influential thinkers' ideas on intelligence are chosen and presented: Francis Galton, Alfred
Binet, Charles Spearman and E. L. Thorndike. The first figure is Galton (1908, 1909, 1978,
Galton & Schuster, 1906) who attempted to relate chronometric and anthropometric indices to
that of human intellectual capability as it is acted in the society. Galton also, presented the
concept of individual differences, the idea of percentiles, and drew attention to Gaussian
normal distribution that tests the cognitive ability form. His statistical techniques are still at
work and many use them in cognitive correlation studies.
Alfred Binet, the second major figure building on Galton, generated the modern
intelligence test. Binet along with Simon (1905, 1916, 1983) created some complex tasks
unlike Binet, for determining disabled children. However, they came up with well-
sophisticated analogues which are still used to measure intelligence (Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scales) and their procedures are still at work.
30
The next influential figure is Charles Spearman who generated the procedure of factor
analysis. His contributions to intelligence science are still felt and so alive. Using factor
analysis, he presented a taxonomic model describing intelligent behavior. This taxonomy had
an immense influence on the following research on cognitive science.
E. L. Thorndike, is another well known figure in the intelligence research, who, as
mentioned before, has some influence on the work of the EI. He was the first one who
presented the idea of ‘social intelligence’ in 1920. However, very little was done to describe
the term and it ended up with just a valuable idea on how people can use their intelligence to
perceive and control their internal state and influence others with such power. As mentioned
earlier, Meyer et. al. (2004) trace their theory of EI to this figure and may had gained some
scope from the social intelligence idea (Landy, 2005).
2.1.2.2. The Concept of Intelligence Definitions: A Critique
Like many psychological terms, the concept of intelligence is less precise than what
people may believe to be. Generally, the dictionaries add up to the problem. The freer a
scientific concept from the cultural stereotypes, the more precise its meaning would be. Even
this has made many intellectuals to become highly cautious in their choice of the word and
bring the discussion into their papers. A relevant example is the 1990 paper of Salovey and
Mayer. There, they exonerate themselves from the blame that ‘emotional intelligence’ is a
contradiction within based on the Western perception of intelligence and emotion in general.
Therefore, psychologists are rarely capable of escaping the public notions while they refer to
intelligence as ‘aptitude’, ‘IQ’ and so on. However, purification of terminologies in the
empirical literature is also highly recommended and in many cases performed. However, there
are voices heard like psychometricians are “in finding large correlations and making practical
predictions with their IQ tests than in advancing our scientific understanding of intelligence
31
itself” ( Jensen, 1980, p. 688). The following analysis will disclose the intangible character of
intelligence.
Binet (1905) takes intelligence as ‘judgment, otherwise called good sense, practical
sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting one’s self to circumstances…auto-critique’. Spearman
(1923, 1927) defines intelligence as ‘the education of relations and correlates,’ in the process
of highlighting the notion of ‘mental energy’. In the other hand, Wechsler (1974) who
generated the most widely-utilized psychometric measures takes intelligence as ‘the aggregate
or global capacity of the individual to think rationally, to act purposefully and to deal
effectively with his/her environment.’ In 1994, 52 intelligence researchers provided a
definition, presented by Mainstream Science on Intelligence as
“A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to
reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and
learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking
smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our
surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do. ”
(Gottfredson, 1997).
On the other hand, some scholars like Boring (1923) has a perspective on how
defining intelligence itself might take place i.e. intelligence is what intelligence tests test.
Several of these definitions along with many others have serious weaknesses: Spearman
(1927) presupposes some sort of force behind the emitted behavior (Ryle, 1949) and
Wechsler’s (1974) definition make it more obscure to think of intelligence in a more precise
fashion. Not surprisingly, the operational definitions as posited by Boring, also, lack the
definition of the ‘intelligence test’ (Hunt, 2001).
32
2.1.2.3. Intelligence and Definitional Controversies
Considering such problems in defining intelligence, some scholars have argued that
the term must be reasonably called for its end or given alternative looks (Howe, 1988a,b,
1990a,b; Ceci & Liker, 1986; Ceci, 1990, Eysenck, 1988; Sternberg, 1988; Howard, 1993).
In the mid of such debates, Howe (1990a) argues that intelligence is a term which may
represent some certain behaviors and has two ‘descriptive functions’: helping an organism to
adapt to its environment and describing how a person can deal with certain cognitive
problems. But as a construct, intelligence, as Howe contends, is just misunderstood and falls
into a big linguistic game where the given ‘descriptive functions’ may serve the bases. Howe
acknowledges that
“The absence of logical grounds for assuming that intelligence must have a
conceptual status other than that of a descriptive or labeling construct does not justify our
ruling out the possibility that there might still exist a quality of intelligence which can help to
account for people’s abilities” (1990a, p. 491)
Thus, he endeavors to examine the empirical evidence for the intelligence, proposing
that the relevant studies are both methodologically and through interpretational process, have
several flaws. Although there are criticisms concerning Howe’s stance on intelligence (like
Nettelbeck, 1990), it can be discerned that empirical intelligence is strongly based on a
general factor of intelligence (Spearman, 1904). The criticisms of Howe’s standpoint are in
the same tradition of finding flaws in the definitions of intelligence (what he finally wanted to
solve). Ceci and Liker (1988) illustrated a group of highly unbeaten gamblers on harness
racing, who were very sharp in their analysis of the winners. Although, these gamblers had an
average IQ, they used very complex algorithms for their guesses. However, their position was
not left without critical accounts (Brody, 1992; Flynn, 1999).
33
2.1.2.4. Intelligence as Prototype
Lack of consensus on the definition of the concept “intelligence” made some scholars
to provide some alternative views. Putting in use the principles of cognitive psychology,
Neisser (1979) contends that an individual’s intelligence is primarily a function of their
mimicking behavior of the stereotypic intelligent people. Then he continues to argue that no
single definition of intelligence is enough ‘because no single characteristic define the
prototype’ (1979, p. 218) and he attempts to postulate a multidimensional definition of the
term. Sternberg et. al. (1981) in a similar fashion, generated a list of behaviors judged by
people as ‘ideally intelligent’ (Though this can put the term ‘intelligent’ beyond psychology
into a sociopsychological sphere with less attention to the psychometric consequences). The
‘ideally intelligent’ were three individual classes of behaviors: ‘problem solving ability’,
‘verbal ability’, and ‘social Intelligence / competence’. However, no evidence for independent
‘factors’ were provided correlated to individual notion of intelligence and the prototypic
construct of intelligence was missing, too. Therefore, in the light of such conceptualizations,
some scholars (Roberts, et. al., 2001; Detterman, 1982; Stankov, 2001) proposed that there is
no single psychometric factor that can pertain to intelligence; hence there is almost no
theoretical value for those theories seeking such single factor in intelligence. However, the
accessible evidences support the argument that there exists multitude of factors involved. If
this is to be true, then the definition of intelligence as one of the human abilities (factors) have
been merited adequately. The resulting idea would be a multifactorial description of the term
intelligence that has received a lot attention these days (Gardner’s idea on multiple
intelligences).
34
2.1.2.5. Problems Defining Intelligence And Its Implications For
Emotional Intelligence
“We view EI as a member of a class of intelligences including the social, practical, and
personal intelligence that we have come to call the hot intelligences" (Meyer et. al. 2004).
If in any terms, there was a general consensus on the precise empirical definition of
intelligence, juxtaposition of terms such as emotion and intelligence would be of much ease
for its authors. Needless to say such problems have made many scholars in the emotional
intelligence field to defend their position of their use of the term ‘intelligence’. However, any
given definition of intelligence may have a certain implication for emotional intelligence
conceptualization. Moreover, the term emotion in ‘emotional intelligence’ requires special
treatment to be paired with intelligence. Thus, some may suggest that the multidimensional
definition of intelligence might solve such a problem (Matthews, Zeider, Roberts, 2002).
Salovey and Mayer (1990) argued about ‘adaptive and maladaptive qualities of
emotion’ (p. 185). In this seminal work of emotional intelligence, one important quality of
emotion was discussed and it can be said, a very quality of intelligence which has received
adequate attention in definition arguments: adaptability. Many scholars have included human
intelligence adaptability quality (Howe, 1990; Wechsler, 1981; Sternberg, 1985; Thorndike,
1921). If there was a consensus on the definition of intelligence as a capability of human
being to adapt to his environment, defining and operationalizing emotional intelligence could
be much easier task. Besides, if emotion is considered as a quality of intelligence (in the
multidimensional definition of intelligence) and related to the social quality of intelligence
(Sternberg et. al., 1981), then the argument related to the social dimension of intelligence and
its relation to EI proposed by Mayer et. al. (2004) and Landy (2005) could be possibly true.
However, there are some EI proponents who exclude the social intelligence from their
consideration of EI (Bar-On, 1997).
35
One result of the above discussion would be that emotional intelligence if considered
to be part of the multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983; Sternberg, 1985; Wechsler, 1950) as it
is acknowledged by Mayer et. al. (2004), and if it involves some aspects of social intelligence,
it is quite plausible to accept arguments related to empirical evidences using such multivariate
construct. It is also noteworthy to mention that single factor analysis of intelligence would
have very little to do with EI since the multiplicity of intelligence is accepted. However, the
debate is still hot and little consensus has been reached. Another important issue would be
the definition of EI and limitation of its scope in terms of psychometric analysis. This was
however, argued in detail earlier in this chapter. But what can be said is that various studies
came up with varying results related to one model of EI which could not grasp all logically
related psychometric elements.
2.1.3. The Emotion of Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is almost meaningless without any plain interpretation of
emotion. ‘Emotional information’ is part of the human communication process. But it differs
from language since it is just part of the emotional information transmission (Mayer, Salovey,
Caruso, SItarenios, 2001). The degree of institutionalization makes emotional information
different from language:
“The institutionalization of information refers to the degree to which a culture
recognize information as important, records its meanings, and acknowledges expertise in the
area” (Mayer et. al., 2001)
Thus, it is quite reasonable for the individuals in such communities to learn emotional
information, alongside other codes to manage their emotions and understand those of others.
Accordingly, in order to come up with a plausible conceptualization of EI, it is necessary to
see how emotional information operates and how these operations are meant to the EI models
36
and other empirical issues. In the following sections, first of all, the philosophical views
regarding emotion and how they have shaped the EI literature are discussed. Next, a review of
sources of emotion within the framework of biology and cognition is illustrated. In the final
phase, the functional issues related to emotion are debated. However, as with previous
sections, the implications for the conceptualization of EI are also offered.
2.1.3.1. Conceptualizing Emotion
2.1.3.1.1. Philosophical Perspectives On Emotions
Scientific analysis of emotion has been a philosophical and ethical issue for a
considerable period of time (Lyons, 1980, 1999). Three main philosophical issues will be
raised and argued here: a. mind-body interplay in emotional dealings, b. relationship between
emotion and consciousness, c. causal place of emotion, all of which may contribute to the
conceptualization of the EI in one way or another. The identification of an immaterial entity
inhabiting the body is an issue as old as Plato, Auinas and recently Descartes, to name a few.
“Theoretically speaking emotions could no longer be seamlessly psychosomatic. A mediaeval
philosopher-theologian had to choose whether to place emotions in the soul or the body’’
(Lyon, 1999, p. 26). Descartes attempted to identify emotion with the soul’s awareness of the
body responding to the environmental events. But in the other side of the extreme were the
monists who believed that the mind and body are the concomitant and inseparable. Aristotle
and later Spinoza as two major monists, took emotion as a concurrent event alongside the
somatic responses. The same debate is reflected in the issues of emotion – cognition, today.
How aware a person can be of his/her emotions is another debate posited by
contemporary psychologists. Those who fall into the Cartesian camp would rather prefer to
see emotion as totally conscious phenomenon (Ryle, 1949; Ben-Ze’ev, 2000). However, they
see this consciousness rather detached from the bodily reactions. Moreover, the body may
37
have the direct expression of the emotion but such consciousness may have indirect effect.
Scholars such as Aquinas, however, see emotions as powerful incentives effecting body as
well as the soul. Whether an emotional intelligent person may be aware of his/her emotions
can fall into this category of debates on emotion.
The last relevant issue can be the possible consequences of emotions; whether
emotions are able to directly influence the body and soul or they occur concurrently with the
somatic/psychological reactions. In one side of the extreme, some scholars such as Aquinas,
view emotions as direct agents with a forceful behavior. In the other side, some see emotions
as the consequence of the body-mind reactions. However, the contemporary psychologists are
very cautious in assigning any direct power to emotions. As mentioned before, the EI sees
emotions in the categories of the relationships people make with each other based on the types
of emotional information they transmit (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004).
2.1.3.1.2. Conceptual Issues In Contemporary Theories Of
Emotion
“We conceive of EI, therefore, as operating on emotional information.” Mayer et. al. (2004).
However, calling for emotional information instead of emotion in the scientific
conceptualization of EI may not exclude the fact that emotion itself needs to be understood
before any attempt for understanding ‘emotional information’. Therefore, here we will sketch
out some conceptual issues related to emotion in contemporary thoughts.
The conceptualization of emotion and the reality is considered to be the main fissure
among scholars of various fields. Biological theoreticians believe that subjective experience
of emotion should not be waved off in scientific debates (Panksepp, 1998; Damasio, 1999).
They view emotion basically as a neural experience of the body prompted by some sort of
stimuli. Therefore, emotion is too implicit to be observed directly (Damasio, 1999). If
38
emotion is considered to be some type of learning and part of the information processing
brain, then it is essential to know how brain works out while an emotional state is being
experienced by a person. This is however, out of the reach of the statistical correlations but a
neuropsychological endeavor or brain mapping.
On the contrary, researchers such as Mackay and Cox (1979) take emotions as a
conscious experience which can be identified and measured. There are plenty of reviews on
issues on psychometric analysis of the dimensions of emotion. Measures of anxiety and
depression (Spielberger, 1972), for instance, are among those attempts for building constructs
out of emotional mechanism.
Specific to the work of EI, are those arguments that try to relate emotion to some
characteristics of cognition motivation. However, such relationships have not been ever
rejected or downplayed. Historically, cognition, emotion and motivation have been
considered to be three pillars of the mind work (Hilgard, 1980; Mayer, Fraisier, Chabot &
Carlsmith, 1997). This implies that emotion system though independent, has a network of
interaction with cognition and motivation. Mayer et. al. (1997) in their defense of their
position on EI, contend that how emotion may smooth the cognitive activity.
In conceptualizing how categories of cognition and motivation are related to emotion,
some believe that these three basic processes are interrelated (Plutchik, 1980). However, this
recalls us the causal agent character of the emotion. The impulse to run away, in the case of
fear can be one simple example of such conceptualization.
Some varying relevant views also propose that emotion involves four fundamental
components: cognition, evaluation, motivation, and feeling (Ben-Ze’ev, 2000). Accordingly,
EI can be thought of as reciprocation between emotion and cognition, and emotion being one
39
of the elements of the EI process. In other words, emotion and intelligence are different
modes of cognitive activity (Lazarus, 1991; Zajonc, 1980).
Another argument comes with those who differentiate between emotion and mood
(Parkinson, 1996, Ortony & Clore, 1989). They believe that moods are reflections of an
individual’s cognitive reactions and may be discriminated from emotion that comprises a
complex system. Thus, compared to emotions, moods with their special characteristics of
taking longer time and not being locked to a particular event, can be assigned into smaller
dimensions. Simon (1967) argues that emotions are more unconscious and work in the
background. The implication of such a view for EI can be that moods can be identified from
the emotional states hence ‘emotional information’ (Mayer et. al., 2004).
2.1.3.2. Multiple Conceptions of Emotion
Since the beginning of the issue of the conceptualization of emotion, we can envisage
two approaches for later arguments. The first approach will involve the conceptual
understanding of emotion as an independent aspect of a person’s mental activity and this
distinguishes between emotion in general and emotion in particular. However, emotion in this
approach will be different from a subjective experience; therefore it is considered to be an
unconscious phenomenon. Such an approach can be developed in different fields of
psychology including philosophy (Ben-Ze’ev, 2000), cognitive psychology (Lazarus, 1991),
and neuroscience (Panksepp, 1998). The empirical evidence of such developments can be
approach in self-reports, overt behavior, and physiology.
Operationalization of some aspects of emotion will take the next approach. Utilizing
questionnaire, some aspects of emotion such as depression can be identified. Then, the causes
and the effects of such construct would be revealed. Researches on mood fall into this
category of operationalization. For instance, Thayer (1996) determined two basic aspects of
40
mood, namely tension and energy, and explored the causes and effects of such phenomena.
However, in order to discern some specific aspects of emotion, some researchers (Izard et. al.,
1993), have used self-reports.
Whether it is the universal character of emotion (the first approach) or the emotional
qualities that some certain people experience more than others (the second approach), the
implication for the EI research would be to empower some informed theories (like Bar-On’s
model or Meyer-Salovey Model) with some certain scales which can empirically
operationalize aspects of emotion and intelligence in a well-formed context. This issue,
however, will discuss in the next sections while we discuss models and measures of the
emotional intelligence.
2.1.3.3. Categories and Dimensions of Emotion
2.1.3.3.1. Categories Of Basic Emotion
“Emotion taxonomies have proposed anywhere from two dimensions or categories of
emotions to six, to eight or ten” (Mayer et. al., 2004)
It is so evident that an individual experiences different emotions in the span of life:
anger, anxiety, happiness and so on. These different emotions are thought to be under the
control of EI (Salovey & Meyer, 1990). One aspect of emotion is individual differences in the
experience of emotions. Two different persons may not have the same feeling in an emotional
state neither they would be skilled in handling different emotions with the same degree of
power. Therefore, finding consensus in EI models and the consecutive evidences is a very
painstaking task. This is however, similar to the arguments we made about conceptualization
of emotion in previous sections. How are individuals able to deal with various emotions using
their cognitive ability is what EI is going to answer, so here we clear up the way with
attending first to the categories of emotion.
41
Categorization of basic emotions is a point of controversy among scholars. Various
approaches have been taken to give a plausible list of basic emotions. Descartes accounts
love, wonder, desire, joy, hatred, sandiness as basic (Lazarus, 1991), while Plutchik (1980)
from the contemporaries, claims that fear, anger, joy, acceptance, sadness, disgust,
anticipation, and surprise are primal emotions and they can be characterized based on
‘stimulus events’, ‘inferred cognitions’, ‘behaviors’, and ‘adaptive effects’ (Table 2.1.).
However, some have attempted to identify universal cross-cultural lists of basic emotions.
Ekman (1993) based on common facial expressions, takes happiness, fear, surprise, anger,
distress and disgust, and contempt as primary emotions; however, he is also wary not to take
emotions that do not present unique facial expression such as amusement, contentment, and
pride in achievement. Panksepp (1998) differentiate emotions based on how brain functions in
mammals such as fear, rage, expectancy and some complex social behaviors like maternal
emotion to nurture. Based on the functions of emotions in their power for achievement,
Oatley and Johnson-Laird (1996) identify four potentially free emotions of happiness, anger,
fear, and sadness and five attachment-related emotions: parental love, sexual attraction,
disgust, and personal rejection.
42
Table 2.1.
Characteristics of eight primary emotions
Feeling state Stimulus
event
Inferred
ognition
Behavior Adaptive
effect
Fear, terror Threat Danger Running away Protection
Anger, rage Obstacle Enemy Biting, hitting Destruction
Joy, ecstasy Potential Possess Courting, mating Reproduction
Sadness, grief Loss of valued
person
Isolation Crying for help Reintegration
Acceptance,trust Group member Friend Grooming, sharing Affiliation
Disgust, loathing
Gruesome object
Poison Vomiting, pushing away
Rejection
Anticipation New territory What’s out there?
Examining, mapping
Explorationnn
Surprise Sudden novel object
What is it? Stopping, alerting Orientation
Source: Plutchik, 1980
If the basic emotions are to be taken as forms, their meanings vary across different
thoughts. However, studying such lists can reveal the themes underlying the categorizations
of the basic emotions. First of all, it seems that the scholars providing the list, differ in their
definition of the ‘basic’: some pertain it to brain system, some to facial expressions, and some
others to their own personal views of emotion (Eysenck, 1997). On the other hand, how
definition of emotion as adaptive state of the mind can be decisive in these categorizations,
while adaptability and its degrees varies across different individuals (Lewis, Haviland-Jones,
and Barrett, 2008). For instance, is parental love part of acceptance or fear part of anxiety or
they are separate phenomena in the basic emotion categories. At the same line, Plutchik
(1980) divide emotions into primary and secondary, while Panksepp (1994) downplays the
reflexive responses like disgust and startle and claims that some ‘high sentiments’ are only
human-based emotions. On the contrary, Ekman asserts that
“There may be some characteristics that are very important for one emotion and of
little significance for another. It may never be possible to have an adequate comprehensive
43
theory of emotion. Instead we may need to have a separate theory for each emotion, to best
capture its uniqueness’’ (1994, p. 19).
2.1.3.3.2. Dimensions of Mood and Affect
In order to investigate the formation of emotional experience in empirical studies, it is
necessary to take a dimensional approach to operationalize the affect (Mathews, Zeidner, and
Roberts, 2002). Therefore, using cluster and factor analysis, we would be able to identify
variations in emotional experiences. However, as it was mentioned before, due to their short
term effect, moods are more likely to be operationalized than emotions. Different methods
with high sophistication have been exploited for assessing mood (Mackay & Cox, 1979).
Spielberger’s scale for anxiety, anger, depression, and curiosity are one of the well-known
measures (Spielberger et. al. 1999). Some others have used some rubrics in their
questionnaires to assess the participants’ present mood (Thayer, 1989; Matthews, Jones &
Chamberlain, 1990). Some of the researchers claim that there exist only handful dimensions
of mood (Thayer, 1989).
Contrary to primary emotion lists, dimensions of mood fall into two extremes or
qualities like happiness and sadness. Such dimensions are given in many studies (Watson &
Clark, 1992; Thayer 1989, 1996). However, using equation modeling, Schimmack amd Grob
(2000) found that dimensions of positive and negative affect lack empirical plausibility and a
three factorial model identifying pleasure, wakefulness, and tension worked better. In some
studies, social dimensions of mood have been discerned, too, such as dominance (Sjoberg et
al., 1979).
Studies of mood reveal dimensions of emotional state of a person that could not be
easily determined in the basic emotion lists such as energy-tiredness extremes in Thayer
(1996) or Matthews et al. (1990).
44
As mentioned earlier, the overlap of emotions are not explicitly referred to in basic
emotion conceptualizations but in mood analyses, the concurrent state of some moods are
provided with evidence (e.g in Berkowitz, 1993). Watson and Clark (1993) found that the
correlation between depression and anxiety measures are almost as high as the other measures
used for these two emotional states.
Another issue at hand is the relationship between moods and emotions. Some believe
that emotions must reasonably attach to some sort of object but moods are free and occur with
shorter stay time (Clore & Ortnoy, 2000). However, even if such challenges to be
operationally solved in studies, the overlap between emotion related terms and that of mood
are highly unlikely; for example, angry emotion and angry mood cannot be easily identified in
empirical studies (Thayer, 1989).
Therefore, some suggest that a small number of dimensions of primary ‘affects’ to be
identified that relate both to emotion and mood (Mathews & Deary, 1998). One of the
functionality of affect is that it can act in a continuum than to be identified as discrete state of
mind. However, the question remains that if EI could benefit from such a solution for its
conceptualization of the relationship between emotion and intelligence, in such a way that
instead of emotion, affect could be used to show the degree of feeling state and how it related
to the multiple dimensions of intelligence, as discussed in previous sections.
2.1.3.3.3. Overlap Between Affect And Other Domains
In order to tackle the problems faced with emotion and mood, it is needed to
operationalize the short term experience of affect. At the level of clear experiences, affect is
interwoven with other constructs such as motivation and cognition (Ainley, 2006). As
mentioned before, conceptualizing the multiplicity of emotion, cognition and motivation, can
help the EI research in many ways that we will come to this later. Sarason et al. (1986)
45
suggest that in anxiety states, identifying affective components from the cognitive
components are significant. Matthews et al. (1999) in order to evaluate participants’ states
while at work, used the Dundee Stress State Questionnaire (DSSQ); they concluded that their
earlier work of the mood dimensions (Matthews et al., 1990) were correlated with cognitive
and motivation experiences.
Long term stability in reaction and response define an individual trait dimensions
(Pervin & John, 1999). These traits may be identified with emotional elements. Spielberger
(1972) showed that some elements of trait anxiety dimension were present in the short term
experience of anxiety. Although such dispositional ground for emotional experience may be
seen as oversimplified conceptualization (Matthews, et al., 2000), the importance of
personality traits to EI is of high significance (Augusto L. M.; Martos, M. P.; López-Zafra, E.,
2010). For instance, the variety observed in emotional response and information, can be
traced in personality traits.
2.1.3.4. Implications for Emotional Intelligence
The determination of dimensions and categories of affect will have challenging
implications for EI conceptualization. If we consider having such categories in primary
emotions along with independent structures supporting various emotions, then identifying
common thread or universal character for emotion in EI would be rather a challenging task.
Having an angry trait personality may put a person into trouble but he may act quite normal in
other emotional states. Such a view may be incompatible with the concept of emotion in EI, at
least in the level of empirical data. In a similar fashion, if we consider emotional intelligence
to be specifically correlated with high and low level emotional states (Goleman, 1998), then it
can be concluded that people have different and yet separate EI’s for handling, for example,
positive and negative affects.
46
The other problem related to EI is the personality trait. It is quite probable that some
relate the state of having high EI to a disposition of being highly positive and having low
negative affect. Such a state is also the opposite of the maladaptive states of low positive
affect and high negative affect observed in emotional disorder (Watson & Clark, 1993).
Bar-On’s scale quite consistently, is strongly identifies high negative affect and low positive
affect with personality traits (Dawda & Hart, 2000). Since highly adaptive individuals may
have a tendency toward positive feelings, it is quite difficult to correlate emotional states to
adaptive consequences in any simple manner. For instance, negative emotions may
occasionally be considered adaptive but positive emotions to be quite in contrary. Therefore,
any idea of adaptability and leveling of emotional states may have tremendous effect on how
we conceptualize EI (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000).
Salovey and Mayer (1990) rely on self regulation as a function of EI:
“There are a variety of experiences that one has about one’s moods; these meta-
experience of mood can be conceptualized as the result of a regulatory system that monitors,
evaluates, and sometimes acts to changes mood.” (1990, p. 197).
With reliance on the long term character of emotion and its difference in
categorization with mood, and also with regard to motivation, cognition and behavior, this
contention may not be void of criticisms (Matthews, Zeider, & Roberts, 2002). However,
Petrides and Furnham (2000b) suggest that mood regulation is different across individuals
like taking planned action and suppression. This also needs to be considered in examining the
empirical data obtained from EI studies.
47
2.1.3.5. Sources of Emotion
“…the perception and expression of emotion … and the capacity of emotion to enhance
thought… are relatively discrete areas of information processing that we expect to be
modularized or bound within the emotion system.” (Mayer et al., 2004)
Traditionally any argument made about the sources of emotion, have resided in the
problem of centrality and peripherality of the source. Whether emotions are the direct process
of brain system or are emitted from an indirect source such as beating heart, are questions not
answered properly yet. The centralists take their evidences from the brain damaged
individuals or drug addicts. On the other hand, the peripheralists provide evidences from
bodily activity effecting on the emotional states (Parkinson, 1985). Scholars such as Darwin,
were in favor of the peripheralists. However, since 1940’s, the interest toward emotion has
been diverted to the relationship between emotion and information processing programs.
Hence, in the following discussions, we will provide traditional views of centralists and
peripheralists and the implications they have on the emotion of EI.
2.1.3.6. Emotion and Cognition
Since 1960’s, there have been a huge reexamination of many fields in psychology.
This was, however, due to the comparisons made between machine systems and human
mental processes. The result was clear; emotion could be easily detected from other biological
performances. One of the intriguing experiments was conducted by Lazarus and Alfert in
1964. They started testing the reaction and coping systems of individuals throughout watching
a dreadful movie. They concluded that both subjective distress and CNS (Central Nervous
System) responses relied on the individual and the strategy s/he used to deal with the
distressful scenes. As this is related to the non-verbal appraisal of emotional states in Mayer et
al. (1990), the findings of such studies made the assessment of the events and the strategies
48
adopted by the people, crucial for the observers. On the other hand, the cognitive approach
relying mostly on clinical data, asserts that emotional problems occur due to faulty knowledge
and styles of assessing events (Ellis, 1962; Beck, 1967).
Cognition can be perceived in both central and peripheral terms. Simon (1967) asserts
that emotions reflect pauses in an ongoing behavior. This means that information processing
may cause emotional states. Similarly, there are some assertions suggesting that the appraisal
or evaluation of an event (one of the branches of EI early model) generate certain emotion.
Some may come to believe that emotion might be concomitant to the cognitive processing
system. However, this concomitance might not mean that there is a one to one relationship
between emotions and cognitions. Averill (1980) distinguishes between two types of an
individual’s emotional states: one as “prereflective” and the other as “reflective”.
Prereflective experiences are related to the unconscious cognitive reaction which is common
in human and animals. On the other hand, the reflective state refers to the subsequent
examination or conceptualization of the event. Then Averill reveals that “The emotions are
often considered to be the epitome of prereflective or lived experience … But that is not the
case. Emotional experiences are reflective, the product of second order monitoring” (1980,
p.316).
The self regulative theories of emotion (Boekaerts et al., 2000) claim that emotion
arises out of the cognitive processing directed toward personal achievements. These
conceptualizations are based on the idea that emotions may relate to the “knowledge level
meanings” that do not get along with cognitive processes. The evaluative models of emotions
are also in the same fashion. They assert that emotions reflect appraisal of physiological of
psychological cues, which are closely correlated with personal meanings (Lazarus, 1991) and
finally mirror the schemata (Ben-Ze’ev, 2000).
49
In sociopsychological realm, also the idea of emotion has an intriguing
conceptualization. Averill (1980) believes that appraisal of an event may be based on the
social norms, thus it may vary across cultures. Similarly, the role of emotion is revealed in the
social relationships which may contain appropriate expressions of emotion or observation of
the “feeling rules” (Levy, 1984). However, some may come up with the idea that emotion is
not a personal disposition but a social conformation (Harre & Gillett, 1994).
2.1.3.7. Sources of Emotion: Implications for Emotional Intelligence
In terms of the centralist tradition, emotions occurs either in connection to an
information processing system such as brain or to a set of codes representing an evaluation.
Hence, EI would be either a quality of a neural or cognitive reaction.
Here four issues related to the implications of the above mentioned issues for the EI,
will be discussed. They come in titles: EI as a normal state of mind, EI as adaptability system,
EI as an effective appraisal system, EI as self-adaptive appraisal system.
EI as a normal emotional state. If the individual differences in EI data reflect deficit
in central brain processing for emotion, then we may encounter with those who are actually
impaired and some physiological damages must be detected in central brain system. Bechara
et al. (2000) found patients with lesions in the ventromedial frontal cortex, having deficit in
decision making. Thus, he suggested that these patients were lacking some level of emotional
intelligence. However, normal variation in EI level in a group might mean non clinical levels
of deficit. Examination of face perception across individuals, embedded in MSCEIT (Mayer-
Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test) reflects such a perception. Nevertheless, such
deficits may occur at the level of neurological problems, or as impairment in information
processing.
50
EI as adaptability system. A primary question exist that how central brain system
function in a variety of ongoing environmental changes. For example, how a threat detection
processor may react across a variety of circumstances. How does such system, if it ever exists,
can differentiate various types of threats? Williams et al. (1988) suggested a scenario for such
a system that for instance, anxiety would have effect on the detection processor which
correlates any threat value to any coming stimuli. Therefore, high anxiety, Williams et al.
(1988) stated, implied an overestimation/appraisal of the threat that finally led a person to
overreact to small risks. On the other hand, those individual having low anxiety, may
underestimate the level of a hazardous event. It can be generally asserted that emotional states
are related to an individual’s adaptability to respond to a notable event (Matthews,
Pitchaithly, & Mann, 1995). Therefore, for an optimal model of EI, a moderate level needs to
be conceptualized.
Another way to conceptualize this would be, to identify some degree of bias or
inclination as part of adaptive behavior. Some individuals may tend to have a degree of
personal happiness (Diener, 2000), thus it can be envisaged that EI might be the bias within
the central system to emit more happiness than sadness. Bar-On’s (2000) tendency toward
optimism and happiness in his EI scales may reveal such a conceptualization. On the other
hand, as discussed before, emotions may comprise some sort of knowledge level personal
disposition. If this proves to be right, then bias and efficiency in the appraisal can function as
another condition for EI. However, the bias and efficiency cannot be some sort of preexisting
value within the central system hence, the emotion might be intertwined with both the
personal goal and the context within which such goals are going to be achieved.
EI as an effective appraisal system. In his study, Parker (2000) found that alexithymia
is related to low level EI. This may implies that some individuals lack of personal motivations
that may ease the adaptation to the environmental demands. The quality of appraisal of
51
emotions and social adaptability embedded in some EI self-reports might imply such a
conception (Petrides & Furnham, 2000). In Mayer et al. 2004, Branch three and four of the
ability model are specifically correlate with this discussion. However, ‘understanding of
emotion’ in Branch 4 and ‘management of emotion’ which includes achieving personal goals,
are complementary as it is argued here (Mayer et al., 2004).
EI as self-adaptive appraisal system. As mentioned before, in Lazarus (1991) study,
there was two appraisals concomitantly following each other, one related to the evaluation of
the event and the other was the adaptive emotion adopted. This coping mechanism is what
Bandura (1997) believes, to be highly effective in stressful situations. Having a powerful
sense of self regard may help this coping mechanism. This is however, one of the components
used in Bar-On’s scale (1997). He sees such a self regard as a precondition for an emotional
intelligent person.
Finally it must be cited that EI occurs in different levels of emotional development. In one
level, it is part of a physiological property and in other levels, it is related to self regulation
(Mayer et al., 1990, 2004).
2.1.3.8. Functions of Emotion
“We conceive of EI, therefore, as operating on emotional information. But what is that,
precisely? The philosophical-and late evolutionary -view is that emotions govern and often
signal, motivated responses to situations” (Mayer et al., 2004. p. 198)
The functionality of emotion is another significant point for understanding emotional
intelligence. Darwin, on the basis of the functions of emotion, suggests that emotion through
evolution, have shaped human species’ physiological reactions and been shaped by the natural
selection and in its final state got separated from the primate ancestors. Hence, the questions
remain that how our emotional system adapts to the modern culture and social system.
52
Snakes, in some countries (such as India), may not be the source of threat, therefore the
adaptive systems developed in such countries might be different from other countries. The
evolutionary scheme may not be directly linked to the conceptualization of EI; however it
may reveal some ideas about the adaptability one might gain through his life span or the
process of acquisition of the emotion regulation (Mayer et al., 1990) or it can shed light on the
controversies regarding human adaptive system to the current culture. Theories which pertain
to self regulation, suggest that emotions are mere personal goal achievement. If the empirical
studies prove such an idea, then EI might pertain to some sort of self identification (Bar-On,
1997) that in one side, is linked to the social setting and in the other side to the personal
history one person has well developed through his/her life span. Another approach which is
highly revered by the EI developers (Mayer et al., 1990, 1997, 2004) is the communicative
function of emotions. This is however, given a specific attention in emotional information
transmission in the ability model of EI.
2.1.3.9. Consequences of Emotions
Through the adaptability power of emotion either biologically wired or socially
acquired, individuals would be able to achieve their goals. The consequences of emotions can
be perceived in terms of being direct or indirect. A direct consequence of a certain emotion,
for example, may follow after a quick reaction to a threat (a biological response) or
preparedness of the convicted in the court room for answering (social acquisition of
communicative ability). On the other hand, the indirect result of an emotion can be perceived
as an unrelated consequence to the adaptive state, such as a bodily malfunction after a
distressful situation or the commotion felt after an anxious state. Therefore, a well-developed
EI scale may provide the researcher with empirical evidence of how well an individual may
have been able to manage the direct and indirect consequences of a state. In Bar-On’s (1997)
53
five-dimensional trait-based model, a number of scales pertain to the issue of adaptability, one
of such scales refer to problem solving.
2.1.3.10. Maladaption and Psychopathology
One of the questions that may arise here is whether the functionality of emotion may
apply to physiologically maladaptive individuals and how EI might account for these people.
If a person is slow or commonly called, retarded, they generally have low level of
intelligence, how a person can be described in terms of low level of EI. In anxiety and
depression disorder cases, negative emotions play central roles. The individuals suffering
from personality disorders might have problems in managing their emotion. Goleman (1995),
in the case of emotional impairment, points to the flat state of affect and little empathy in the
case of psychopaths.
2.1.3.11. Behavioral Consequences of Mood and Emotion
There has been a wide range of experimental studies of the impact of affect on
everyday behavior (Andrade and Cohen, 2007; Joseph P. Forgas, 2001 [Many aspects of the
social studied]). In many of these studies, the researchers utilized or developed a measure
related to mood and indices of primary emotion like the Spielberger state anxiety scale.
However, the literature shows that the researcher’s conceptualization of mood would have
effect on how he treats this construct; in most of the experimental studies it has been treated
as an independent variable (For a review see Ucro, 1989).
In studies that medicine was applied, behavioral changes were frequently contributed
to the brain function not the epiphenomenal behavioral changes (For a detail review see
Davidson et al., 2002). In cognitive oriented studies which mainly focused on mood
induction, the mood played a marked role in the concomitant changes in cognitive processes
54
(Westermann, Spies, Stahl, & Hesse, 1996) or the individual’s self evaluation of mood
changed the task strategy. However, the literature to be reviewed on the behavioral outcomes
of mood and emotion is rich and in the following section some would be selectively reviewed.
Change in performance efficiency. Performance changes might mirror the changes
occurring in the efforts exerted, efficiency of processing (such as increased attention), or
distraction from the tasks. Positive moods, are generally linked with enhanced and
satisfactory performances (Yinon & Landau, 1987; Wadlinger and Isaacowitz, 2006;
Shavinina, 2003, George & Zhou, 2007). On the other hand, negative moods, including
anxiety and depression, are believed to be associated with poor or impaired performance.
Evaluative anxiety is mainly correlated to highly poor performance (Zeidner, 1998).
However, the negative personal dispositions are not related to poor performance (Barrick &
Mount, 1991), but it is believed to be of some significance in jobs with stressful environment
(Matthews, 1999).
Changes in style of performance. The quality of performance can also be altered by
mood changes. “Mood congruence” as it is generally called in the experimental studies, are
related to such quality changes (Fennig, Bromet, Karant, Ram, & Jandorf, 1996). In many
studies (Ashum Gupta and Meetu Khosla, 2006; Lieberman, Corkin, Spring, Growdon,and
Wurtman, 1982; Norris, Coan, & Johnstone, 2007), there has been a preference for those
stimuli whose duration matches the mood. For instance, anxious individuals generally present
a selective attention to threats (MacLeod & Matthews, 1991) and/or in memory studies (e.g.
Bower, 1981), positive moods called for positive memories to be more accessible to the
individual.
Mood changes may also, have effect on the decision making qualities. Isen (1999)
suggests that positive affect may enhance decision making in both flexibility and
thoroughness levels. On the other hand, Forgas (1995) directs his attention to the type of
55
strategy adopted and shows that mood may have varying effects based on the type of strategy,
an individual employs, for accomplishing a task. Then, he concludes that for a thorough
processing in decision making, negative moods, depending on motivation and task complexity
are promoting. There are also studies that present the performance changes based on arousing
qualities of the affect, not their contrasting capabilities. Hockey (1984) found that arousing
stressors might have tremendous effects on an individual’s decision making; he may turn his
attention to high priority tasks to the detriment of low priority tasks. This issue however, may
be of high significance in crisis managements.
Changes in social function. The hedonic quality of mood may have effect on an
individual’s social experience. Organizational and experimental studies have shown that
positive affects promote socially suitable, friendly and helpful behaviors (Isen, 1997).
Conversely, negative affects might cause social dysfunction which has been found in some
cases, to be correlated with negative self beliefs and sometimes may lead to severe
malfunction in social behaviors (Wells & Mattews, 1994). Anger may also tend to elicit
violence or promote antisocial incentives. Berkowitz (1993) found that anger may have been
caused with negative effects. Clinical depression has been shown to develop antisocial
functions. Anticipation of negative consequences of events might make others to withdraw
from the depressed person (Coyen, 1985; McCann, 1990). Continuing stress may cause burn
out syndrome with negative emotions such as feeling of helplessness (Maslach, 1982).
Negative moods, however might have potential benefits. Tangney (1999) provides a
review of researches which showed that guilt promoted more socially responsible and
constructive engagements while shame caused less motivation for social engagement and led
to a counterproductive anger. Anxiety might cause a person to seek help in problematic
situations (Bower, Richards & Lovell, 2007) such as being anxious about one’s health.
56
However, it is found that anxiety might be beneficial or detrimental depending on the
concurrent cognition and motivation (Eysenck, 1992).
2.1.3.12. Implications for Emotional Intelligence
In order to understand adequately the causes of emotion, it is required to distinguish
the independent processing mechanisms such as information processing system or
adaptability system (Williams et al., 1988 [example for adaptability systems and emotion];
[examples for brain and emotion] Bechara et al., 2000). Changes in affect might alter basic
cognitive processes and/or the adopted task strategies and the style of social engagement
(Sarason et al., 1986, Tangney, 1999). Thus, as the literature suggests, there is a need to
include multiple sources of emotion and varying responses in the EI models examinations or
the studies using such models. In anxiety studies (e.g. Eysenck, 1997), however, such
response differentiation has been evidently shown. As mentioned before, emotion can be
simultaneously correlated to physiological processes, cognitive operations, and motivational
change. The patterns of responses at each of these levels can be aligned to some general
adaptive goal (Matthews, 2001; Matthews et al., 2000). As mentioned before, such
adaptability is crucial in Bar-On’s (1997) model. Of such patterns, it can be referred to
positive and energetic emotions that can be related to muscular activation increase in attention
sources and self efficacy. All of these separate yet related processes would help an individual
to attain his/her goal (adaptation process). However, this adaptability might not be successful
with regard to type of attributed responses, for instance, having anxiety for a non-existent
threat (Hockey, 1984). Hence, the context in which the emotional state is being experienced
can largely contribute to any empirical research aimed at examination of EI. This point will be
argued in the upcoming reviews of EI studies.
57
2.1.4. Conclusions
Emotion would be viewed as both a universal character and an individual attribute that
can be empirically tested through self reports measure. Throughout history, among various
scholars from different fields of study, there have been controversies on the conceptualization
of emotion. The most basic polarity exist between those who see emotion with central source,
generally called essentialist, and those who believe emotion is evaluative in nature. The
biological theories of emotion are quite compatible with essentialists’ view about emotion:
behavior is controlled by brain central systems and is shaped by natural selection along with
compatible adaptive goals such as avoiding threats. However, such prereflective cognitive
account of emotion relate to the modular conceptualizations, what EI requires to take into
account. Bechara et al., (2000) found that some higher order regulative systems controlling
multiple modules that are located in the prefrontal cortex might be related to branch four of
the Meyer et al. ability model of EI. Also implicit in Bar-On’s (1997) ideas that EI supports
some sort of personal happiness may be related to such modular basis of emotion.
Even if all conditions of such modular system of emotions are met, there needs to be a
moderator for the social setting that contributes to the adaptive goals. Hence, emotions cannot
be the direct attribute of central brain systems. However, in order to have a fully compatible
view of EI, it is required to consider the micro order systems along with higher order system.
Some approaches to conceptualization of emotion, dedicate themselves to various
measurements of emotion, empirical studies on the causes, consequences and the
concomitants of emotion. The proponents of such approach view emotion in terms of its
dimensional constructs and of the dispositional states of the participants. In this approach,
emotion is not strictly evaluated; instead, affect and mood are taken into account. Such a pure
empirical approach benefits the EI research from many standpoints. Based on such analogy,
58
studies can be designed that make clear distinctions between antecedents of the emotional
response and its consequences. This must be noted that this means that emotion is a
multilayered phenomenon with various levels of expressions that might be dissected and
measured separately. This emotional system, however, may not occur in vacuum and the
embedded context requires being included for any plausible explanation. Although this is an
abstract generalization, as mentioned before, it can be highly advantageous for the
conceptualization of the EI. The discussion of such will be followed in the coming sections.
Considering the emotional competence construct of EI, there are two possibilities that
the relevant literature offers us: one possibility is to find some sort of quality in the central
brain system that manages the emotional state (precedents and some of the consequences) and
the second one would be to look for an additional regulatory system other than the central
systems. Then through these two possibilities, the variability within emotional systems (EI
quality) of the individuals might be discerned.
The above sections devoted to emotion and intelligence and their perceived
constituents were an introductory sketch for the upcoming arguments of EI definitions and
models. After more than a decade of arguments and controversies that have buzzed the
psychological papers and conferences and even the American Psychology Association (APA),
the proponents and developers of the EI, John Mayer, Peter Salovey, and David Caruso in
their 2004 paper in Psychological Inquiry are still in a position to defend their definition of
the EI and how emotion may mean to EI. Their position on emotion is clearly stated in this
paper citing Averill (2004) that:
(a) each kind of emotion (anger, fear, etc.) shares certain essential features that are
biologically based, (b) simpler emotions may combine to form more complex emotions, and
(c) emotions may be regulated but not fundamentally altered by display rules (p. 250).
59
Finally, these debates have enriched the EI conceptualizations that any research on the
issue can help us understand more of human intelligent power. Citing Neisser et al. (1996),
Mayer and his colleagues state that “we know much less about the forms of intelligence that
tests do not easily access: wisdom, creativity, practical knowledge, social skill, and the like”
(2004 p. 254).
2.1.5. Defining Emotional Intelligence: Models and
Measurements
The inherent disparity in the definition of emotional intelligence among the scholars of
the field can be traced in their views of the terms involved: emotion and intelligence and how
their combination can be considered as a unique construct. Defending the position of EI
requires a vast knowledge of brain functions, emotional system, intelligence and cultural
stereotypes and so on. Zeidner et al., (2004) see emotional intelligence as cognitive processes
that seek out something more than perceived in traditional scholarly definition of intelligence.
Cooper and Sawaf assert that “Emotional intelligence is the ability to sense, understand, and
effectively apply the power and acumen of emotion as a source of human energy, information,
connection, and influence. (1997, p. xiii). “Bar-On (2000) now defines EI in terms of an array
of emotional and social knowledge and abilities that influence our overall ability to
effectively cope with environmental demands.” (cited in Cherniss & Goleman, 2001, p.17).
However, there exists a long list of definitions that many of which have formed into a
model. These models, thus, have served as the foundation for empirically testing such
definitions. Generally the emotional intelligence models fall into two categories: ability
models and mixed models. Ability models of EI are believed to pertain to the interrelationship
between emotion and intelligence in the traditional definition of terms. While mixed models
conceptualize intelligence as having emotional capabilities along with other traits and talents
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(Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000). However, Bar-On (2006) found that there are five
characteristics common to all models of EI: a. The ability to recognize, understand, and
express emotions and feelings; b. the ability to understand how others feel and relate with
them; c. the ability to manage and control emotions; d. the ability to change, adapt and solve
problems of personal and interpersonal nature; and e. the ability to generate positive affect
and be self-motivated. McEnrue and Groves (2006) determined four fundamental hypothetical
views on the definition of EI with corresponding models:
· Salovey and Mayer’s four dimensional ability model (Salovey & Mayer 1990;
Mayer & Salovey, 1997)
· Goleman’s four dimensional trait based model (Goleman, 1995, 1998)
· Bar-On’s five dimensional trait based model (Bar-On, 1997)
· Dulewies and Higgs seven dimensional trait based model (Dulewicz & Higgs,
1999, 2000a, 2000b)
However, here, we include Cooper and Sawaf’s (1997) four dimensional mixed model,
too.
2.1.5.1. Emotional Intelligence Models
2.1.5.1.1. Mayer and Salovey Model
The first hypothetical model of emotional intelligence was developed by John Mayer
and Peter Salovey in 1990 and revised in 1997. In their 1990 paper, they provided evidences
from brain studies, artificial intelligence and clinical psychology to establish a model and
measurement of emotional intelligence. In their conceptualization of emotional intelligence,
they defined this term as the ‘the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and
emotions to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and
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actions. (p. 189). Later in 1997, Mayer and Salovey, came with an extensive yet
comprehensive definition of the EI as:
“…the capacity to reason about emotions and of emotions to enhance thinking. It
includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to
assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate
emotions so as to promote emotional intellectual growth.” (p. 10 cited in Mayer et al. 2004).
Through this empirical conceptualization, Mayer and Salovey, endeavored to present
emotional intelligence as a form of intelligence as it is traditionally meant to be (Meyer,
Caruso, & Slaovey, 2000). The criteria that an intelligence construct required were: a. it
consists of mental abilities, b. these abilities must meet certain correlational criteria, and c. the
abilities must develop with age (Meyer et al., 2000). Based on the foundations of such ability
model of EI, a measurement test was developed: Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale
(MEIS). The correlations obtained from the empirical studies showed that EI is related to
other intelligences but is not exactly the same. However, the third criteria of an intelligence
model, was proven in a study that used two population samples of adolescents and adults. It
was found that adults performed were significantly higher than the adolescents and this along
with other studies proved that the ability of EI develops by age (Mayer et al., 2000, 2002;
Kafetsios, 2004; Carstensen et al., 2000; Nitin Girdharwal, 2007 in medical context).
There is rich empirical literature pertaining to the EI ability model (Brakett & Mayer,
2003; Mayer, Slaovey, & Caruso, 2000; Day & Carroll, 2004; Salovey & Grewal, 2005).
However, the founders of this ability model refuse to consider the results of the studies using
self reports. They believe that such methodologies are inherently inadequate due to their
overreliance on the people’s own perceptions of themselves and the general tendencies of the
participants on choosing socially acceptable items (Salovey & Grewal, 2005).
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2.1.5.1.2. Goleman’s Model
The second hypothetical framework of EI belongs to Goleman (1995, 1998). He is
distinguished for his famous book “Emotional Intelligence” in 1995. Goleman’s mixed model
of EI comprises a mixture of personality traits, cognitive abilities, and emotional
competencies (Mayer et al., 1997). However, his broad generalizations have made some
scholars wonder on the validity of his conceptualizations (Mayer et al. 2000). For instance, he
states that emotional intelligence would confer ‘an advantage in any domain in life, whether
in romance and intimate relationships or picking up the unspoken rules that govern success in
organizational politics’ (Goleman, 1995, p.36) or ‘At best, IQ contributes about 20% to the
factors that determine life success, which leaves 80% to other factors.’ (Goleman, 1995,
p.34). Nevertheless, according to his model, he sees EI as ‘abilities… which includes self
control, zeal,…, persistence, and the ability to motivate oneself’ (1995, p. xii). His model
comprises five broad dimensions (Meyer et al. 2000): a. knowing one’s emotions, b.
managing emotions, c. motivating oneself, d. recognizing emotions in others, and e. handling
relationships. Goleman, then, defines EI as ‘abilities such as being able to motivate oneself
and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay gratification; to regulate
one’s mood and keep distress from swamping the ability to think; to empathize and to hope
(Goleman, 1995). Although such conceptualizations of EI as model are respected at least by
the founders of EI, it has received several criticisms. The critics assert that what would be the
difference between the Big Five personality traits and EI modules (Zeidner et al., 2004).
The Goleman model, however, developed later to include leadership issues. The new
model embraced more empirically known modules (Goleman et al., 2002): a. self awareness,
b. self management, c. social awareness, and d. relationship management. The first two
dimensions comprised abilities that make an individual to manage himself and the second two
dimensions, included the abilities to manage relationships. However, Goleman et al. (2002)
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believes that such capabilities can be both innate or acquired from the social settings (For
more discussions of innateness and acquisition, refer to previous sections on emotion). The
applicability of such conceptualization (Goleman, 1998), have made many management
scholars to believe that EI can be learned and have conducted extensive EI training courses.
However, the predictability of EI for a successful life which made some wonder on the basis
of its generalization, made some others to come to terms that it can change their life and
career.
2.1.5.1.3. Bar-On’s Model
The third hypothetical model and theoretical set-up of emotional intelligence is that of
Bar-On’s (1997), which is a mixed model. Bar-On’s (1997) early disposition is widely
pertains to Darwin’s adaptation and survival conceptualization, and he offers his definition of
emotional intelligence as:
“an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one’s
ability to succeed in coping with environment demands and pressures” Bar-On (1997, p.12).
However, he later made this definition much narrower in terms yet wider in processing
and changed the non-cognitive capabilities into emotional and social competencies and
defined ESI (Emotional Social Intelligence) –‘this wider construct’–Bar-On’s own coinage of
the term EI- as:
“a cross-section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and
facilitators that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, understand
others and related with them, and cope with daily demands” Bar-On ( 2006, p.3).His five-
dimensional model (Bar-On, 2006) included five general components with their constituents.
In such model, Bar-On sees EI s a trait, an innate personal quality that enables
emotional health of an individual (Brown & Moshavi, 2005). Bar-On suggests that EI along
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with general intelligence provides a balanced picture of an individual’s general intelligence
(EQ + IQ = Balanced IQ) (Mayer et al., 2000).
Table 2.2.
Bar-On’s EQ-i (2006) with its constituents
The EI Competencies and Skills Assessed by Each Scale
Intrapersonal Self-awareness and self-expression:
Self-Regard To accurately perceive, understand and accept oneself.
Self-Emotional
Awareness
To be aware of and understand one’s emotions.
Assertiveness To effectively and constructively express one’s emotions and
oneself.
Independence To be self-reliant and free of emotional dependency on others.
Self-Actualization To strive to achieve personal goals and actualize one’s potential.
Interpersonal Social awareness and interpersonal relationship:
Empathy To be aware of and understand how others feel.
Social Responsibility To identify with one’s social group and cooperate with others.
Interpersonal
Relationship
To establish mutually satisfying relationships and relate well with
others.
Stress Management Emotional management and regulation:
Stress Tolerance To effectively and constructively manage emotions.
Impulse Control To effectively and constructively control emotions.
Adaptability Change management:
Reality-Testing To objectively validate one’s feelings and thinking with external
reality.
Flexibility To adapt and adjust one’s feelings and thinking to new situations.
Problem-Solving To effectively solve problems of a personal and interpersonal
nature.
General Mood Self-motivation:
Optimism To be positive and look at the brighter side of life.
Happiness To feel content with oneself, others and life in general.
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2.1.5.1.4. Dulewicz and Higgs’ Model
Dulewicz and Higgs (2000) mixed model is also another hypothetical framework of EI
that is highly empirically designed and management oriented. This model is derived from the
following: a. an extensive review of EI literature, b. a longitudinal study of the personality
characteristics and personal competencies of a group of managers over a seven year
longitudinal study, and c. a content analysis to identify related traits based on the Job
Competencies Survey, Personality Factor Test, and Occupational Personality Questionnaire.
The Job Competencies Survey comprised of 40 competencies that each were partitioned into
three subsets, emotional competencies, IQ competencies, and managerial competencies (MQ).
Dulewicz and Higgs (1999) found that these three scales accounted for the 71% of the total
variance as to why the participants succeeded in a longitudinal study. Later, Dulewicz and
Higgs (2003) furthered the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ) to measure EI much
directly through a self report or a 360-degree form. In this new conceptualization, they
defined emotional intelligence as a. being aware of and managing one’s own feelings and
emotions, b. being sensitive to and influencing others, c. sustaining one’s motivation, and d.
balancing one’s motivation and drive with intuitive, conscientious and ethical behavior. Their
hypothetical framework was more focused on personal advancement and leadership
effectiveness (Higgs, 2002).
2.1.5.1.5. Cooper and Sawaf’s Model
Cooper and Sawaf’s hypothetical model is the last model of the mixed group which is
generally known as the four cornerstone model of emotional intelligence (Cooper & Sawaf,
1997). Like Dulewicz and Higgs’ model, Cooper and Sawaf’s modeling is leadership-oriented
and developed to promote organizational productivity. The four cornerstones consist of:
emotional literacy, emotional fitness, emotional depth, and emotional alchemy. Emotional
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literacy comprises four components: emotional honesty, emotional energy, emotional
feedback, and practical intuition (Cooper, 1997).
The second cornerstone, emotional fitness, features four components: trust, resiliency,
authenticity, and renewal (Cooper, 1997). Trust is believed to be the fundamental cornerstone
for any cooperation in an organization. The depth of trust can be expanded through disclosure,
established credibility, and believability (Cooper, 1997).
Emotional depth, the second cornerstone, involves applying integrity and core values
to influence others without the exercise of control (Cooper, 1997). This latter component,
‘without the exercise of control’ is also evident in transformational leadership which will be
discussed in the sections related to leadership styles. However, emotional intelligent leaders
rely on the integrity, emotional understanding of others, personal core character, and establish
motivation and accomplish objectives.
The final cornerstone of this hypothetical model refers to emotional alchemy (Cooper
& Sawaf, 1997). It is mixture of forces that enable an individual to disclose opportunities and
turn them into reality. This component suggests a higher level of emotion, which goes beyond
cognition and technicality of the modern relationships.
By a glance at the EI models presented so far, it may be revealed that the common
ground for the EI conceptualization id the ability to understand self and others. However,
these models and the empirical studies that have followed them have been the central point of
debates on the EI literature. The validity and reliability of such scales have also been tested in
several studies with almost varying methodologies that goes beyond the limitation of this
review.
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2.1.5.2. Measuring Emotional Intelligence
2.1.5.2.1. Measurements of Ability Emotional Intelligence
Measuring the ability conceptualization of emotional intelligence has received
considerable attention in the EI literature (Lopes, Brackett, Nexlek, Schutz, Sellin, & Salovey,
2004; Lopes, Salovey, Cote, & Beers, 2005). Unlike the mixed models that mostly rely on self
reports, the psychometrics of ability models has been fundamentally based on questionnaires
and scenarios. However, the objectivity of such measurements have been credited and their
reliability has been proved widely (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004; Palmer, Gignac,
Manocha, & Stough, 2004; Day & Carroll, 2004; Mayer et al., 2003; Roberts et al., 2001).
The first measurement to be devised was Multi Factor Emotional Intelligence Survey (MEIS)
which was founded on the revised version of ability definition of EI (Mayer & Salovey,
1997). The summary of ability measurements in Mayer et al., (2003) words:
“The MSCEIT is the most recent of a series of ability scales of EI. Its immediate
predecessor was the MSCEIT Research Version 1.1 (MSCEIT RV1.1), and before that, the
Multi-Factor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999; Mayer et
al., 2002b). Those tests, in turn, evolved out of earlier scales measuring related constructs
such as emotional creativity, social intelligence, and nonverbal perception” (p. 97).
Such ability measurements are based on the idea that ‘EI involves problem solving
with and about emotions’ (p. 97) and they are tested high in correlations compared to self
reports (Mayer et al., 2002).
Here, we review the literature of two ability measures of emotional intelligence:
· Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Survey (MEIS)
· Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)
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2.1.5.2.2. Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Survey (MEIS)
Multifactor emotional intelligence survey has been the first ability measurement of EI
that developed based on a high rater reliability and ‘expert’ criterion on determining the
correct responses (Mayer et al., 2001). However, in the formerly studies of MEIS, the authors
assert that they
“…relied on general consensus scoring; basically, the degree to which the individual
agreed with the response of the general group was the index of correctness.” (Mayer et al.,
2001, p.233)
Table 2.3
Brief description of the 12 subtests composing the MEIS
Test Task and Stimuli
Branch 1: Emotional identif ication/perception
1. Faces 2. Music 3. Designs 4. Stories
Branch 2: Assimilation of emotions
5. Synesthesia 6. Feeling biases
Branch 3: Understanding emotions
7. Complex Blends 8. Progressions 9. Transitions 10. Relativity
Branch 4: Managing emotions
11. Managing others 12. Managing self
Source: Matthews et al. (2002)
With such foundation, MEIS was the operational form of twelve components of
emotional intelligence designed in a four branches of abilities: a. perceiving, b. assimilating,
c. understanding, and d. managing emotions (Mayer et al., 1999) which included 402 items in
overall involved tasks. The first branch comprised of “tasks concerned with the ability to
perceive and identify the emotional content of a variety of stimuli”(p. 274). Four tasks were
designed for this branch: faces test (8 stimuli; 48 items), music test (8 stimuli; 48 items),
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designs test (8 stimuli; 48 items) and the stories test (6 stimuli, 42 items). The first test
involved eight faces signifying various emotions. The second test, consisted of 5-10 seconds
of original pieces of music, and the accompanying design test included CGI portraying a
variety of emotions. Similarly, the stories test comprised six stories with a predominantly
emotional or mood-based setting. Each item was given based on 5 point scaling from
1=Definitely Not Present to 5=Definitely Present.
The second branch of MEIS involved the ability “to assimilate into perceptual and
cognitive processes” (Mayer et. al., 1999, p. 275). This branch included two general tests:
synesthesia with 6 stimuli and 60 items and feeling biases test with 4 stimuli and 60 items.
The first test was to measure participant’s ability to express emotional sensations and their
correlates to other sensory modals. The participants would imagine ‘an event that could make
them feel a particular feeling, which they then described on 10 semantic differential scales’
Mayer et. al., 1999, p. 275). This test was comprised 5 scales for each item. The second test,
assessed the participants’ understanding of how their affect could influence their judgments
and how they related themselves to a fictional person at the same time. For instance, the
participants were to read a short passage that described ‘Jonathan’, a fictional name given.
The story implied that Jonathan made the participant feel both guilty and afraid. Within such
context, the participant was asked to evaluate a series of traits (sad, trusting, tense, cynical,
aggressive, controlling, and hasty) and the degree to which any of these traits could best
represent Jonathan‘s character based on a five scale starting from ‘Definitely Does Not
Describe’ to ‘5=Definitely Does Describe’.
The third branch involves four tasks pertaining to understanding emotions: i. blends (8
stimuli; 8 items), ii. progressions (8 stimuli; 8 items) iii. Transitions (4 stimuli; 24 items), and
iv. relativity (4 stimuli; 40 items). The first task assesses the participants’ ability to reason
about blended emotions through reading a statement and then determining the answer that
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best present the best combination of two emotions close to the emotion in question:
‘Optimism most closely combines which two emotions? (a) pleasure and anticipation, (b)
acceptance and joy, (c) surprise and joy, or (d) pleasure and joy. The second task,
progressions, evaluates participants awareness on how their likely emotional reactions might
progress over time: ‘If you feel angrier toward someone so that you are losing control, it
would result in’: (a) gloating, (b) resentment, (c) hate, or (d) rage.’ The third task, transitions,
tests the participants’ grasp of the concomitant quality of emotions and the embedded causes
of such emotions: ‘a person is afraid and later is calm. In between, what are the likely ways
the person might feel? acceptance, fear, anger, anticipation, surprise, and disappointment’.
The participants is to rate the question following five scales from 1=Extremely Unlikely to 5=
Extremely Likely. The next test was relativity task which involved items that participants
were to evaluate the emotions of two characters’ ‘conflictual social encounters’ (Mayer et al.,
p. 277): ‘A dog is chasing sticks outside when he runs out in the street and gets hit by a car.
The driver stops when the dog’s owner dashes over to check on the dog.’ Then, the participant
had to determine the extent to which the two characters, here ‘dog owner’ and ‘driver’,
express their emotions.
The last branch of MEIS, managing emotions, comprised two sets of tasks: i. the
managing of feelings of others (6 stimuli; 24 items) and, ii. The managing of feelings of the
self (6 stimuli; 24 items). Both set of tasks involved six vignettes along with four possible
modes of actions could be followed. The participants were to rate these modes of actions in
five scales starting from ‘extremely ineffective ‘to ‘extremely ineffective’.
However, these tasks were tested against ‘consensus’, ‘expert’, and ‘target’ criteria for
finding the right answer (Mayer et al., 1999):
If both the group consensus and experts agree that anger is high in one story, but low
in another, then the correlations must be obtained.
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However, critics have expressed their concerns over the observation of scientific
standards in the consensus and expert scorings in MEIS. Matthews et al., (2002) maintains
that these ability tests, given that their most common response are provided by consensus
scoring, might not provide meaningful scores at the high end of the EI extremes. On the basis
of the expert scoring system, Matthews et al. (2002) also, raised questions on how these
experts were chosen.
Ciarrochi, Chan, and Caputi (2000) empirically assessed EI construct operationalized
through MEIS. Through their investigation of the role of EI as a moderator in the correlations
among mood, mood-based judgment, and mood management, they tested the reliability and
factorial design of the test, too. The participants were 134 Australian psychology
undergraduates who attended the tests to meet their course requirements. The study involved
many phases where each phase involved some of the participants. The reliability test revealed
similar results to that of original study of MEIS by Mayer et al. (1999). The EI factors were
reliable and correlated to several criterion variables. The test of reliability was confirmed. The
general conclusion reached was that ‘these results make a case for the distinctiveness and
usefulness of emotional intelligence’ (Cirarrochi et. al, 2000, p. 556).
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Table 2.4. Brief descriptions of the samples and designs of the four published studies examining the MEIS
Study Sample characteristics Measures employed Mayer, Caruso, et al. (2000) [Study 1]
- 503 adults from U.S. - College students = 47%; business employees = 53% - 164 male ; 333 female - Mean age = 23.00 White = 68 %
- MEIS - Army Alpha (vocabulary) - Empathy (self-report) -Secondary criteria (e.g. life satisfaction, number of hours of psychotherapy, leisure pursuits)
Mayer, Caruso, et al. (2000) [Study 2]
- 229 adolescents from U.S. - 125 male; 101 female - Mean age = 13.40 - White = 79%
- Selection of MEIS subtests: all four branch 1 subtests, synesthesia, blends, and relativity
Ciarrochi et al. (2000) - 134 Australian university students - 31 male; 103 female - Mean age = 24.50 - Ethnic compositions not reported
- MEIS - Ravens Progressive Matrices - Empathy (self-report) - Brief self-report measures of extraversion, neuroticism, openness - Secondary criteria (as for Mayer, Caruso, et al., 2000 [Study 1]
Roberts, Zeidner et al. (2001) - 704 USAF enlistees - 617 male; 76 female - Mean age = 19.80 - White = 68 %
- MEIS - Army Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) - Big-Five Factor Measure (self-report)
Source: Matthews et al. (2002)
In another study by Caruso, Mayer, and Salovey, (2002), the reliability of MEIS,
discriminate validity (MEIS relationships to personality traits, and convergent validity (MEIS
relationships with certain self reported behaviors). The participants were 180 undergraduates
participating in the experiment as part of an introductory course in psychology. The criterion
measures included 16 PF, Fifth Eiditon (Cattell, Cattell, & Cattell, 1993) for impression
management and measure of response bias, the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations
Orientation-Behavior (FIRO-B: Schultz, 1989) for social behavior, and the Holland Self-
Directed Search (SDS: Holland, 1990) for career choices. The test packages were distributed
over two sessions. The results revealed that MEIS observed adequate internal consistency.
The full-scale MEIS alpha was comparable to the average reliability coefficients reported for
the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale’s Full-Scale (0.98), Verbal (0.97), and Performance IQ
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scores (0.94). Another positive finding was that the test-retest correlations for the Branch
scores of MEIS were significant: 0.60 to 0.68. The conclusion was that MEIS was not
associated with the 16PF and seemed not to be under the influence of response bias. Hence,
based on the data obtained from the correlational and factor analysis, ‘the MEIS is not
measuring constructs that are assessed by standard personality tests’ (Caruso et al., 2002, p.
318). The study also, revealed that compared to other measures, MEIS and generally ability
measures of EI, are more reliable due to the ‘absence of practice effect’ (Caruso et al., 2002,
p. 317).
Using MEIS, the Shipley Institute of Living IQ Scale (WPS, 1967), and a
demographic survey, Lam and Kirby (2002) studied the impact of emotional intelligence and
general intelligence on an individual performance. It was found that in cognitive tasks,
general intelligence played a major role. Similarly, emotional intelligence (‘perceiving
emotions’ and ‘regulating emotions’) contributed to the participants’ cognitive performance.
Nevertheless, ‘understanding emotions’ did not reveal any significance for the cognitive
performance variance and it was more likely to be attributed to general intelligence. The
general conclusion was that MEIS may be an adequate tool in examining the overall construct
of EI or its accompanying components in a separate manner.
In other studies using MEIS, it was also found that there was a significant correlation
between emotional intelligence and effective group leadership and team overall performance
(Rice, 1999).
The disproportionate number of studies utilizing MEIS as their instrument has shown
acceptable reliability and validity. The revised and sophisticated version of MEIS came with a
new face called Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence test (MSCEIT).
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2.1.5.2.3. Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test
(MSCEIT)
The MSCEIT has been developed to enhance the MEIS in three areas: scoring,
reliability, and factor analysis (Palmer et al., 2005). It is fully complies with the EI ability
model conceptual framework of Mayer et al. (1997) described in the previous sections. For
MSCEIT, Mayer et al. (2000) generated a more well-developed design for expert scoring
criterion with more reliance on the reliability at the subscale level. This, however, was done
through item selection method. In order to be more consistent with the EI ability model, new
sets of subscales were added.
MSCEIT v. 2.0 consists of four branches which are tested through eight tasks: two for
each branch (Mayer et al., 2004). The branches are as follows: Branch 1, perceiving emotions;
Branch 2, using emotions to facilitate thought; Branch 3, understanding emotions; Branch 4,
managing emotions (Table 2.5.).
Table 2.5. MSCEIT v.2.0 Full Factor Structure
Branch Name Brief description of skills involved
Perception of emotion (Branch 1)
The ability to perceive emotions in oneself and others, as well as in objects, art, stories, music, and other stimuli
Use of emotion to facilitate thinking (Branch 2)
The ability to generate, use, and feel emotion as necessary to communicate feeling, or employ them in other cognitive processes
Understanding of emotion (Branch 3)
The ability to understand emotional informative, how emotions combine and progress through relationship transitions and to appreciate such emotional meanings
Management of emotions (Branch 4)
The ability to be open to feelings, to modulate them in oneself and others so as to promote personal understanding and growth
Source: Brackett & Salovey (2006)
MSCEIT made a valuable change for its long debated expert scoring criterion; unlike
MEIS, the MSCEIT is founded on responses to the test items from 21 members of the
International Society of Research in Emotion (ISRE). Quite positively, Mayer et al. (2003) on
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the basis of their standardization of MSCEIT (n=212) found a higher level of convergence
between expert and consensus scoring methods (r=.908) compared to that of MEIS (Palmer et
al., 2005). They also announced that in finding true alternatives to the test items among the
expert group, the latter group showed higher inter-rater reliability than the standardization
sample. On the bases of scoring criterion, the standardization sample ranked higher in
emotional understanding and emotional perception in the expert scoring system than that of
the consensus scoring (Palmer et al., 2005). Concerning correlations, they were ranging
between 0.94 to 0.99 for consensus and expert scores across all the subtests and 0.98 for the
general EI composite (Matthews et al., 2002).
The scores obtained from MSCEIT signify three concepts: a. an overall EI score
reflecting a general level of EI; b. two area scores, experiencing EI reflecting the ability to
identify emotions and to assimilate emotions in thought, and strategic EI, reflecting the ability
to understand and manage emotions; and (3) four branch scores (each measured by two
subtests) that assess the four primary abilities of Mayer and Salovey’s model. The factor
coherence and conformity of MSCEIT is suggested to be a better representative of the Mayer
and Salovey’s (1997) ability model of EI. Mayer et al. (2003) evaluated whether 1, 2, and 4
factor models of MSCEIT could possibly provide statistical significance fit with the
standardization data through structural equation modeling (Palmer et al., 2005). However, it
was found that the given close fit statistics are almost inaccurate (Gignac, 2005).
On the behalf of MSCEIT reliability, Mayer et al (2003) found that split-half
reliability suggested a ranging between r=.93 to r=.91 at the full scale level, r=.91 to r=.76 at
the branch level (with expert and consensus scores) and r=.90 to r=.86 at the area level.
However, it was reported that the reliability of the eight subscales were higher compared to
those in MEIS (α=.64 to α=.88) (Mayer et al., 2003). However, many scholars in the field
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have suggested replication of the data by third parties (Palmer et al., 2005; Matthews et al.,
2002, and Gignac, 2005).
2.1.5.2.4. Self-Report Measurements of Emotional Intelligence
Several numbers of self-report measures of emotional intelligence exist. Schutte et al.,
(1998) provided a 33 item measure with a focused scale of EI. Questions such as, ‘How
accurately do you perceive your emotions?’ or ‘How empathic are you?’ are some of the
examples of Schutte Self-Report Inventory (SSRI). The self-report measures of mixed
models of EI are reasonably enormous (Matthews et al., 2002). Some of these self-reports
have been used for some other purposes such as Bar-On EQi which was originally labeled a
measure of well-being (Bar-On, 1997). Furthermore, some of the scales in EQi resemble the
California Psychological Inventory (CPI) such as empathy, flexibility. Some overlaps
between the two scales have been reported, too. For instance, while EQi measures self-
actualization and impulse control, CPI measures self-acceptance and self-control. Many
current mixed model measurements of EI, are empirically proven to be largely the preexisting
personality scales (Newsome et al., 2000).
There are several reports on the drawbacks of self-report measurements of EI (e.g.
Matthews et al., 2002). The first problem is the poor construct validity of such tests. For
instance, if intelligence is meant to be ‘an ability to solve problems’, then this requires a test
of the individual ability, not a self report. Additionally, it is generally believed that people are
poor judges of their abilities, especially when it occurs in an academic setting. For instance,
self evaluations of cognitive intelligence are virtually irrelevant to the actual measured
intelligence (Paulus, Lysy & Yik, 1998). Moreover, the mixed model self-report
psychometrics of emotional intelligence correlates significantly high with scales of positive
affect and attitude, though they might possess some slight independent variance (Bar-On,
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1997; Newsome et al., 2000). For instance, while individuals are in optimistic mood and feel
confident, they generally report their ability to understand their emotions, whereas, while they
feel bad, they report being mixed up about emotions.
There are three EI scales to be illustrated here containing features of being self report
and mixed. Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQi) (Bar-On, 1997), the Trait-Meta-Mood-Scale
(TMMS) (Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey & Palfai, 1995) and the Emotional Competence
Inventory (ECI) (Boyatzis, Goleman & Rhee, 2000; Goleman, 1998). However, the latter is
an observer report scale than a self report measurement.
2.1.5.2.4.1. Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQi)
Bar-On (1995) was the first person who introduced EQi. Initially, this scale was
indented to measure an individual’s potential to be successful in life and experience
psychologically well-being. It is asserted that EQi is the most comprehensive self-report
measure of EI available (Bar-On, 1997, 2000). Its EI focus is generally concentrated on
emotional and social competencies; hence, the theoretical basis of the test has no tendencies
toward examining intelligence in its cognitive meaning. The test comprises 15 EI subscales
that define five higher order dimensions (Table 2.2.).
The EQi contains scoring for each dimension and a General score for the EI. The scale
consists of four validity indicators that reveal the extent to which individuals respond
randomly or intend to respond in favor or against the test administrators.
Dawda & Hart, (2000) tested EQi its reliability and validity among university students.
They included some other criterion measures testing alexithyma, psychological distress,
personality, stress related symptoms and intensity of individual reactions to general events in
life. It was found that there was an average correlations (>0.5) between the Big Five
Personality Factors subscales and EQi. Dawda & Hart (2000) concluded that the EI general
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score and the associated subscales might be a good overall indicator of emotional intelligence.
However, the results of Dawa and Hart’s study, had other conclusions that EQi’s high overlap
with Big Five Personality Factors, cast doubt on its internal validity (Roberts et al., 2001).
Using EQi, Buford (2001) examined the correlations between EI and personality,
leadership and managerial effectiveness. The test was performed in a 360 degrees method
(including subordinates and superiors, as well). In general, significant correlations between
Big Five Personality factors, EI, management effectiveness and transformational leadership,
were found. A similar conclusion to other EQi-instrumented studies was found: EI is broadly
constructed (Buford, 2001).
Ciarrochi et al. (2001) asserts that EI as measure by EQi, has been examined in many
studies for over a decade, because the relationships between the test subscales and other
measures are high. To sum up, it can be said that ‘Bar-On’s (1997, 2000) is notable for its
thoroughness and use of large, diverse samples in test development and validation (Matthews
et al., 2002, p.213). Schutte Self-Report Inventory (SSRI) was also developed to test general
EI and four EI factors (Schutte et al., 1998). However, of other EI self report measurements,
one of the long-time-used scales, TMMS, will be presented below.
2.1.5.2.4.2. Trait-Meta-Mood-Scale (TMMS)
TMMS was basically developed to operationalize some of the dimensions of Salovey
and Mayer’s (1990) initial conceptualization of EI. The factor structure of this mixed
measurement are: i. attention to emotions, ii. clarity of emotions, which is an understanding of
one’s feelings, and (c) emotion repair, which are the attempts to maintain pleasant moods or
repair unpleasant ones (Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995).
Fox and Spector (2000), using TMMS as their measure of EI, found that empathy,
self-regulation of mood and self-presentation, positive and negative affective traits and
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general and practical intelligence were significantly correlated to the participants’
performance on job interviews. Nevertheless, it has been proven that the attention to emotion
and emotional clarity scales of TMMS ranked high in reliability tests; yet in emotional repair
and emotional clarity, it was found that these subscale were not far distinct from Big Five
personality factors (Davies et al., 1998). In general, it was concluded that TMMS was found
to be one of the weakest measures for EI psychometrics (Fox and Spector, 2000).
2.1.5.2.4.3. Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI)
The last mixed model EI measurement scale is ECI which comprises Goleman’s
(1998) 25 competencies of emotional intelligence and Boyatzis’s (1994) competency
questionnaire. The ECI is a multirater instrument with a 360 degree (self, manager, direct and
peer reports) and since 1998, have been undergone several revisions. It is structured around
four competency clusters: a. self-awareness, b. self-management, c. social awareness, and d.
social skills. The test contains an unorthodox format, including optional response “I don’t
know” which is decoded in data analysis as ‘blank’ (Boyatzis et al., 2000).
The internal consistency reliability test of ECI was provided in Boyatzis et al. (2000).
The reliability of the self report subscales were slight ranging from 0.587 (for trustworthiness)
to 0.817 (for conscientiousness). However, the evaluation of the validity of ECI has been
under crucial criticisms due to lack of reliable resource materials (Matthews et al., 2002).
However, a large overlap of ECI and Big Five personality traits have been identified, as well
(Murensky, 2000).
2.1.6. Concluding Remarks
In the previous section, the hypothetical models were illustrated and compared. It was
found that definition of EI has been critically argued based on the notions held on
‘intelligence’, ‘emotion’ and ‘emotional intelligence’ itself. These definitions formed models
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and models formed measurements. The reliability and validities of EI measurements both in
ability camp and mixed model camp. However, very little consensus has been reached among
various scholars on different levels of analysis, from the existence of EI to its evaluative
worth. Even an American Psychological Association (APA) task force was assigned to do the
painstaking task of creating a consensus document concerning intelligence and relevant
mental abilities Mayer et al., 2004). However, the documents were noted with such assertions,
presenting the current hot debates on the aforementioned issues:
“… the study of intelligence does not need politicized assertions and recriminations; it
needs self restraint, reflection, and a great deal more research.”(Neisser et al., 1996, p. 97).
In the document presented by the APA task force, it was noted that there are other
forms of intelligence which has been less understood and researched (Mayer et al., 2004).
Nevertheless, the idea that humans have a system controlling emotions is as old as Greece
philosophers such as Plato and this was argued in detail in the emotion and intelligence
section. However, the discussions presented so far are crucial to our understanding of how EI
might relate to issues in leadership.
2.2. Defining Leadership and its Approaches
Over many years, the concept of leadership has been studied widely in various settings
and conceptual frameworks. Compared to other domains, the concept of leadership has been
given extra credit and observation of such concept in the literature, suggests that for each
individual to understand the concept, there exist one definition for leadership (Stogdill, 1974).
Some even have gone too far to claim that much of the research on leadership is nothing more
than a confusing set of contradictory findings (Chemers, 2000). However, such conclusions
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have not deterred the interested to do empirical research since the past few decades (Higgs,
2003).
Leadership is typically defined based on the qualities, traits, and behaviors of a leader
(Horner, 1997). Kotter (2001) asserts that leadership is about getting by changes and
challenges. In many ways, leaders are facilitator of change: they are aware of changes and
make sure that an organization and its people are motivated enough to cope successfully with
these changes. Recently with rapid emergence of computer facilities and networking and
services, the concept of leadership effectiveness has undergone tremendous hypothetical
changes, though keeping consistency with the past theoretical foundations (Yukl, 2010; Yukl
& Van Fleet, 1992).
In a study by House et al. (2004), 160 researchers were recruited to investigate the
variation of the perceptions toward leadership throughout the world. The study known as the
GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) studies, drew upon
the results obtained from 17000 people in 62 countries. Amid the multitude of results
generated by the GLOBE studies, the universally accepted characteristics of leaders were
highly prominent (Table 2.6).
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Table 2.6.
Universal Leadership Attributes
Positive Leader Attributes
Trustworthy Just Honest Foresighted Plans ahead Encouraging Positive Dynamic Motivator Builds confidence Motivational Dependable Intelligent Decisive Effective
bargainer Win-win problem-solver Communicative Team builder Administratively Skilled Coordinator Excellence-oriented
Negative Leader Attributes
Loner Asocial Non-cooperative Irritable Non-explicit Ego-centric Ruthless Dictatorial
Source: House et al. (2004)
However, in such conceptualization, the significance of leadership outcomes has
received remarkable attention (Mumford, M. D., Zaccaro, S. J., Harding, F. D., Jacobs, T. O.,
& Fleishman, E. A., 2000; Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). One of the
highly revered outcomes of leadership is positive or negative influences of a leader on his/her
followers (George, 2000). In this scenario, emotions and affects play a major role in the
leaders’ prospective success or failure. Such predictions are made by some emotional
intelligence scholars. They believe that the higher the EI level of a leader, the better judgment,
reasoning, understanding, feeling and influencing (Goleman, 1998; Mayer et al., 1999). Many
researchers have conducted studies to observe the relationship between components of
leadership to those of emotional intelligence (e.g. Sosik & Megerian, 1999; Bufrd, 2001;
Vitello-Cicciu, 2001; Wong & Law, 2002).
As mentioned above, the study of leadership goes back to anyone who dealt with it
theoretically over many centuries. However, the ‘modern’ study of leadership is believed to
be started with trait theories of leadership in 1920s (Higgs & Rowland, 2000).
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2.2.1. Approaches to Leadership
2.2.1.1. Trait Approach
Some early attempts were to find a leadership gene in all great leaders: whether
leaders are innately gifted in leadership, was the question has puzzled many, over centuries
(Northouse, 2004). Several lists of essential traits, many derived from moral values, have
been provided for a successful leader: trustworthiness, courage, self confidence, flexibility,
and so on. Trait approach suggests that leadership traits cannot be taught and only certain
people own them and this fundamental basis of trait approach is believed to be its great point
of criticism (Northouse, 2004).
Stogdill (1948) conducted a review of 30 years of research on leadership traits (1904-
1947) and found no consistency in the lists offered. The issue was that no set of traits or even
single traits was found to be correlated to leadership across different settings. Later on,
Stogdill (1974) concluded that there were no known universal leadership traits. He also,
asserted that having some certain traits increased the possibility that a leader to be effective.
The latter issue, leadership effectiveness, is what will return to in next sections.
2.2.1.2. Behavioral Approach
The upshots of trait studies proved rather inconclusive. Traits were hard to be
empirically tested. Following the publication of Douglas McGregor’s classical book “The
Human Side of Enterprise” in the early 60’s, behavioral theories of leadership were widely
popularized among the leadership theoreticians. McGregor (1960) proposed that leader’s
adoption of a particular strategy is heavily influenced by their assumptions about human
nature. He contended that leaders holding Theory X set of assumptions have a general
tendency toward autocratic leadership styles and those having Theory Y set of assumptions,
tend to be more participative in their adoption of leadership strategies (Table 2.7).
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Table 2.7.
McGregor (1960) Theory Sets Adopted by Leaders
Theory X Managers believe that Theory X Managers believe that
The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible. Because of this human characteristic, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort to achieve organizational objectives. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security above all else.
The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest, and the average human being, under proper conditions, learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility. People will exercise self-direction and self-control to achieve objectives to which they are committed. The capacity to exercise a relatively high level of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population, and the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized under the modern industrial life.
Source: McGregor (1960)
The behavioral approach, generally, concentrates on the performance of a leader rather
than traits or skills (Conger & Kanungo, 1998). According to Blake et al. (1964), leadership
behavior can be divided into task behavior or relationship behavior. Task behaviors focuses
on actions that meet the goals. Interpersonal daily interactions of a leader are under the
relationship behavior category. This approach leaves a room for learning and teaching
leadership methods (Homer, 1997); however, it does not make clear which behaviors either
based on tasks or relationships are effective (Northouse, 2004).
During 1950s, a study was carried on in Ohio State University with the purpose of
identifying classes of leaders’ behaviors and then developing a well founded questionnaire
describing such behaviors (Yukl, 2010, p. 49). Out of 1800 samples of behaviors, 150 items
were deducted as significant leadership functions. The two categories of supervisor behaviors
perceived by the subordinates included behaviors fundamentally linked to task objectives and
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those related to interpersonal relationship (Yukl, 2010). Two rather distinct questionnaires
were, then, developed: Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) and Supervisory
Behavior Description (SBD). Original and later tailored versions of these questionnaires were
utilized in several studies. However, the results of these studies are doubted on the basis of
leadership effectiveness criteria (Yukl, 2010).
Another study concomitantly was being conducted in the University of Michigan on
the possible correlation among leader behavior, group processes and measure of group
performance (Yukl, 2010). The findings were promising, in that they made the researchers
identify effective and ineffective leaders on the basis of three classes of behaviors: task-
oriented behavior, relations-oriented behavior, and participative behavior. The first type of
behaviors was related to the ‘planning and scheduling the work, coordinating the subordinate
activities, and providing necessary supplies, equipment, and technical assitence’ (Yukl, 2010,
p. 53).
The second type of leaders behaviors were related to the supportive, helpful, friendly,
and considerate attitudes and deeds of a leader. Leaders with such behaviors exhibited more
‘general supervision rather than supervision’ (Yukl, 2002, p.53).
The participative type of behaviors were contributed to those leaders who shared their
decision making procedure with their subordinates, promoted cooperation and facilitated the
conflicts resolutions (Yukl, 2010, p.53).
2.2.1.3. Situational Approach
Situational approach focuses on the context in which the behaviors or traits are likely
to occur. It is suggested that leaders adopt their commanding or supporting roles based on the
elements present in a situation (Hershey & Blanchard, 1969). Contingency theories of
leadership also, focus on the behavior of a leader in a situation. They assume that “different
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situation require different patterns of traits and behavior for a leader to be effective”
(Bensimon, Neumann, & Brinbaum, 1989, p. 14). Hershey and Blanchard (1977) identified a
variety of styles that leaders may adopt according to the context of their leadership:
Telling: a large portion of the leaders interactions are dedicated to directing which is
more recommended for dealing with new comers and in repetitive tasks.
Selling: the leader spends time on supporting subordinates to accomplish certain tasks.
This is recommended in situations where the subordinates are motivated but lack full
capability to accomplish a task.
Participating: the role of decision making is shared between the leader and the
subordinates. This is, however, recommended in situations where the subordinates are fully
capable but are unlikely or not sufficiently motivated to perform a task.
Delegating: the leader identifies challenges and get help from the subordinates to
overcome the tasks; this type of style is recommended in situations where the subordinates are
highly capable and motivated to work.
Bensimon et al. (1989) suggest that contingency and behavioral approaches to
leadership conception cover some shared points; they contend that while contingency theories
emphasize on issues outside the organization, the behavioral approaches take the internal
variables into account.
However, Northouse (2004) suggests that the situational approach to leadership is
more prescriptive (as in trait approach). In other words, the situations in which the leaders are
meant to work are predetermined situations while this is far compatible with reality.
2.2.1.4. Leader-Member Exchange Approach
The more theoretical approaches to leadership moved toward the end of the century,
the more the attentions turned toward the reciprocal relationship between the leaders and the
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followers. The leader-member exchange approach focuses on this relationship and suggests
that the prosperous outcome of an organization relies on the extent to which a leader
motivates his followers, meets their desires, and adapts his leadership style to fit that of his
followers (Horner, 1997). This somewhat gets closer to the conceptual framework of
situational approach where the leader adapts to the situation.
Two groups of subordinates are identified in leader-member exchange approach: in-
group and out-group. The closest subordinates to the leader are in the in-group. They are
exposed to more reliable information and reasonably exercise more influence. The out-group
members are more self-interested and rule governed. The major criticism to such an approach
is the discriminatory treatment of subordinates in receiving information and attention
(Northouse, 2004).
2.2.1.5. Transformational Approach
Over the last two decades, leadership studies have come to the conclusion that there
exists a continuum of a full range leadership style; one point of the extreme belongs to
transformational leadership and the other point refers to transactional leadership. In the former
side, the leaders generate change and in the latter, the leader manages to go on with the
organizational affairs on a daily basis. The opposite point of the continuum refers to laissez-
faire leadership which involves a leader to take no position or even action in leadership
(Nothouse, 2004). Initially proposed by Burns (1978) and expanded by Bass (1985),
transformational leadership approach, is believed to have yielded significant insight into the
fundamentals of effective leadership (Yukl, 2010). Transformational leadership is a network
of values such as morality, motivation, self awareness, and so on that inspires both the leader
and follower. Long standing relationship between the leader and the followers is suggested to
be the key to the followers’ development (Horner, 1997). Transactional leaders lead through
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socially bound exchange; Burns (1978) contends that politicians lead by ‘exchanging one
thing for another: jobs for votes, or subsidies for campaign contributions’ (p. 4). Passive
leadership is attributed to leaders using laissez-faire style, where no contribution of the leader
to his followers is expected. The evidence from various studies suggests that transformational
leadership is an effective form of leadership practiced across various settings (Bass & Riggio,
2006; Seltzer & Bass, 1990).
2.2.1.6. Change Approaches
The evolution of leadership concept took it from strict rationality and logical approach
to a more emotionally motivated approach (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2003). Higgs and Rowland
(2009), based on their findings, define change approaches as those realizing the intricacy of
organizational change with a focus on and involvement of leadership style leading to
prosperous change implementation. Citing Stace (1996), they contend that implementation of
a locally success change in a global scale is fundamentally flawed approach. Therefore, global
understanding of change strategies requires a complex understanding of the change
approaches (Pettigrew, 2000; Dickmann & Muller-Camen, 2006; Geppert & Williams, 2006).
Using four methods of data collection, namely interview, communication documents,
satisfaction surveys, and a panel assessment, Higgs and Rowland (2009), examined
implementation of change in an energy organization. The results revealed the efficacy of
complexity of change approach in a globally performing company (Higgs & Rowland, 2009,
2005).
There are six individual leadership styles pertaining to change approach (Conner,
1998): Anti-Change, Rational, Panacea, Bolt-On, Integrated, and Continuous. Each of these
styles expresses “a unique set of perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors regarding how
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organizational disruption should be addressed” (Conner, 1998, p. 148). Stopper (1999)
defines each of Conner’s leadership styles in this way:
The anti-change leader. The leader who acts based on this style, is highly reluctant to
accept any changes. “The Anti-Change leader operates from an underlying assumption that
organizational life should be a mostly calm experience; therefore, significant modifications of
any kind are undesirable. Their , ‘“Stay the course. Keep adjustments small. No need to
change in any major way.’” (p. 3)
The rational leader. In order to take the upcoming changes into control, the rational
leader adopts logical, linear, and recipe-like strategies. “Rational leaders tend to see life as a
binary experience in which things are either good or bad, right or wrong, on track or off. They
view organizational change as something to be implemented in as unemotional a fashion as
possible. Good planning and carefully worded announcements are the keys to the rational
leader’s change strategy.” (p. 3)
The panacea leader. Communication and motivation are two driving forces for the
Panacea Leader to cope with with pressures for change in his organization. “These senior
officers have reconciled themselves to the fact that unforeseen, disconcerting transitions have
become an inevitable part of their organization’s life. It is their contention that negative
emotions about change impede its progress and should, therefore, be either prevented or
converted into positive feelings. These leaders place a high premium on a ‘happy’
workforce.” (p. 4). One of the characteristc features of this style is a considerable emphesis on
enthusiasm in dealing with change and almost no efforts are made to address 'the deeper
human issues.'
The bolt-on leader. Employing a set of change management strategies, the bolt-on
leader, makes efforts to take the changing situation under control by assigning a number of
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hands-on projects. “The Bolt-on leader’s approach to change recognizes the importance of
addressing the human dimension of change ‘whenever we have the time and resources to do
so.’ While these leaders see change management as an important component of the change
initiative, they maintain the belief that only a cursory review of people issues may be
necessary.” (p. 4)
The integrated leader. The Integrated Leader strives to understand the organizational
culture, the roles, attitudes and aptitudes of the personnel, in order to take the first steps in
encountering the change processes. “The cornerstone of this style of change leadership is the
respect and emphasis placed on the psycho-social-cultural issues associated with
accomplishing important initiatives. These leaders move beyond operating as if the
intellectual power of their ideas alone can compensate for the lack of careful diagnosis and
skillful navigation. Instead, they blend a balanced concern for both the human and technical
aspects of orchestrating change into their decision-making process as well as their execution
tactics.” (p.4)
The continuous leader. The leader who utilizes this style, is constantly vigilant to
respond quickly to the ongoing changes hence to design and impliment the necessary
initiatives. Continuous Leaders persume that during turmoil they “…must deal with ongoing
disruption… For Continuous Leaders, what is paramount is not whether their organization can
execute any current, singular change efforts, but whether it can sustain an endless avalanche
of dramatic, overlapping alterations in its key success factors.” (p. 5)
The leadership styles presented above are further classified by Conner (1998) into two
other categories of change: First-order change and second-order change. In the first-order
change, the changes are mainly incremental and constant like the ones frequently experienced
in the field of education. On the contrary, the second-order change is “…nonlinear in nature
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and reflects movement that is fundamentally different from anything seen before within the
existing framework” (pp. 148-149).
Accordingly, the first four leadership styles fall into the first-order change category i.e.
the leader strives to tackle constant and predictable organizational changes. Due to the nature
of the processes in the second-order classes of change, the last two styles are more appropriate
for leaders to choose. The change in this order “requires shifting context; it represents a
substantial variation in substance and form that discontinues whatever stability existed
before.” (Conner, 1998, p. 149). In other words, the integrated and continuous leadership
styles are more suitable for unpredictible and constantly changing situations.
Effectiveness of a leader also contributes to the changes an organization seeking
excellence. Goffee and Jones (2000) describe effective leaders as those who: a. selectively
show weakness; b. rely on intuition to make decisions; use tough empathy; and d. reveal
individual differences. The leader who reveals some sort of weakness to his followers helps
establish mutual trust and connection. Such interrelationship guarantees organizational
commitment among followers and grows the leader’s vision. The leaders’ reliance on their
intuition helps them sense when and how act in different situations (Goffee & Jones, 2000).
Such leaders are also able to appropriately interpret emotions and signals they receive from
their immediate environment and make suitable decisions accordingly. The next trait of a
leader described as effective by Goffee and Jones is tough empathy by which they would be
able to passionately and realistically connect to their followers and intensely care about them.
The leader also reveals his/her difference leading to an individual perspective that inspires
other members. Goffee and Jones (2000) clearly state that if the leaders meet these four
criteria for in their leadership practice, their effectiveness is almost guaranteed.
Such changes in the literature have made crucial changes to the very evolutionary
process of leadership concept.
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2.2.1.7. Multilevel and Multinature Approaches
With the seemingly inherent multilevel nature of leadership, there has been seriously
limited work in leadership literature for multilevel theories. The multilevel approaches to
leadership were originally proposed by Dansereau, Alutto, and Yammarino (1984). They
illustrate their argument like this:
“When a person leads or follows, the leader and the follower inevitably become
interdependent with each other in some way. As a consequence, leaders and followers move
from the situation in which each party is considered as an individual to a higher level of
analysis where they form at least a dyad or where the leader links with the followers as a
group. Thus leadership involves a movement from one level (person level) to a higher level
(dyad level or leader-follower group level).” (Yammarino & Dansereau, 2008 p. 136).
They move on to propose that leaders, followers and the linkage to this relationship is
the crux of the matter in understanding the multilevel nature of leadership process. To explore
this relationship, it is essential to know the leaders and the followers as individuals whose
perspectives lead the organization and make up its culture.
Yammarino & Dansereau (2008) suggests that the leader-follower interrelationship is
the building blocks of the multilevel leadership development. Based on Table 2.8., they argue
that through three perspectives toward the leader’s behaviors and the followers’ group
formation, multiple levels of leadership emerge. If the leader adopts relatively equal treatment
towards all the individuals, he falls into ALS (Average Leadership Style) category
(Dansereau, Graen, Haga, 1975) and if his behavior inclined to lean towards a certain
members, in-group, and declines toward other members, out-group, he is usually termed as
having VDL (Vertical Dyad Linkage) approach in his leadership (Scheriesheim, Neider,
Scandura, 1998), and finally, if he treats the subordinates on individual level and there is no
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certain pattern for his behavior with members, he tends to follow Individualized Leadership
(IL) perspective (Dansereau et al., 1995).
Table 2.8.
Leader-Follower Linkages
Followers Leader
Average Leadership Style (ALS)
Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL)
Individualized Leadership (IL)
Whole Group Leader-group linkage
Group parts Leader-within-group linkage
Independent individuals Leader-follower dyad linkage
Source: Yammarino & Dansereau (2008)
Alternatively, the followers may fall into three categories, in terms of their
interrelationship (Dansereau, Cho, & Yammarino, 2006; Dansereau & Yammarino, 2006).
The followers may not viewed as forming a group but independent individuals: independent
individual view and if they are viewed as forming a group, they may fall into two other
categories: part of a whole group where they are viewed as similar individuals forming the
group or persons within a group where members are considered as independent individuals
with differences forming a group. However, Yammarino & Dansereau (2008), argue that such
an approach to view leadership, where leaders and followers link, provide a reasonable
multilevel space to study the unseen processes of leadership practices. They provide six
empirical studies, which analyzes the concept of multilevel/nature leadership in the field.
Here, two of these studies are reported: In a study by Liden and colleagues (2008), a
multilevel measurement of servant leadership was performed where they defined 9
dimensions for servant leadership seven of which were validated in a multiple samples. It was
shown that there is no empirical evidence to prove the possible relationship between
transformational leadership and LMX (Leader-Member Exchange). Liden et al. (2008) argue
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that while analyzing community behavior, in-role performance, and organizational
commitment, servant leadership as a multidimensional variable (behaving ethically, giving
priority to subordinates, empowering subordinates, using conceptual skills, valuing the
community, and being emotionally inspiring) works beyond the transformational leadership
and LMX. Their study also revealed no group level differences in the outcome variables.
Foti, Knee, and Backert (2008) concentrate on multilevel outcomes of leadership perceptions
as a dynamic process. Foti et al. (2008) use multilevel facets of connectionist and catastrophe
theories as a model for analyzing leadership perception. They empirically test their model
through two studies. They conclude that person level parts view of leader was evident in their
study results. It was also found that there existed potential gender biases in leadership
perceptions at the dyad level in some target leader-perceiver combinations.
Yammarino & Dansereau (2008) provide 4 other empirical studies that specifically
provide evidence for ‘multilevel issues’ in associated leadership variables, concepts, and the
interrelationship.
2.2.1.8. Leadership Theory Evolution
As we have seen in the above-mentioned arguments, there is no single meaning
attributed to the leadership definition. Similar to most scientific issues, the concept of
leadership never came to the literature with a full definition. This is, however, might be due to
two reasons. One is that the definition of leadership has evolved through different historical
events (Yukl, 2010) and the other is that leadership is fundamentally multidimensional and
multilevel (Yammarino & Dansereau, 2008, Day, & Harrison, 2007; O’Connor & Quinn,
2004; Van Velsor & McCauley, 2004). Such evolvement in leadership concept, can be
observed in the notion of job performance, too. As Austin & Villanova (1992) explicate, since
the beginning of the last century, it has moved beyond technical-task-based definition to a
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more contextual concept of the performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993). One example
illustrating such evolutionary changes to the very concept of leadership can be traced in the
individual and shared conceptualization of the leader. Pearce and Conger (2003), in their
review of the concept of shared leadership, contend that such a view did not enter to the
literature in the early 20th century. However, later on, such a shared notion of leadership was
revered in many studies. This can be viewed as a scientific evolution of the construct of
leadership as a positive maturity (Day, & Harrison, 2007). Following, two tables will be
presented sketching out the historical stance of leadership concept in the research literature.
One develops the approaches some of which were provided in the categorization given above
(Seters & Field, 1988) and the second table presents the evolvement of the concept of the
leadership based on levels and inclusiveness, levels of analysis and leadership development
focus (Day, & Harrison, 2007). This latter table, however, fall in the multilevel/multinature
analysis of the leadership idea. The former table is also updated due to the major changes
happened to the basic definition of leadership since its original development by Seters and
Field (1988).
According to Table 2.9, the development of leadership theory, practice and the
subsequent studies are divided into nine eras. Each era consists of a certain tailored space
where different researchers have developed in a popular period.
96
Table 2.9.
The Evolution of Leadership Concept: Eras and Approaches
Personality Era
Great Man Period
Great Man Theory (Bowden, 1927; Carlyle,
1841; Galton, 1869)
Trait Period
Trait Theory (Binghan, 1927)
Influence Era
Power Relations Period
Five Bases of Power Approach (French, 1956;
French & Raven, 1959)
Persuasion Period
Leader Dominance Approach (Schenk, 1928)
Behavior Era
Early Behavior Period
Reinforced Change Theory (Bass, 1980)
Ohio State Studies (Fleishman, Harris & Burt,
1955)
Michigan State Studies (Likert, 1961)
Late Behavior Period
Managerial Grid Model (Blake & Mouton, 1964)
Four-Factor Theory (Bowere & Seashore, 1966)
Action Theory of Leadership (Argyris, 1976)
Theory X and Y (McGregor, 1960; McGregor,
1966)
Operant Period (Sims, 1977; Ashour & Johns, 1983)
Situation Era
Environment Period
Environment Approach (Hook, 1943)
Open-Systems Model (Kats & Kahn, 1978)
Social-technical Period
Socio-technical systems (Trist & Bamforth, 1951)
Contingency Era
Contingency Theory (Fiedler, 1964)
Path-Goal Theory (Evans, 1970; House, 1971)
Situational Theory (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969; 1977)
Multiple Linkage Model (Yukl, 1971; 1989)
Normative Theory (Vroom & Yatton, 1973; Vroom &
Jago, 1988)
Transactional Era
Exchange Period
Vertical Dyad Linkage
Leader Member Exchange Theory (Dansereau,
Graen & Haga, 1975)
Reciprocal Influence Approach (Greene, 1975)
Emergent Leadership (Hollander, 1958)
Role Development Period
Social Exchange Theory (Hollander, 1979;
Jacobs, 1970)
Role-Making Model (Graen & Cashman, 1975)
Anti-Leadership Era
Ambiguity Period
Attribution Approach (Pfeffer, 1977)
Substitute Period
Leadership Substitute Theory (Kerr & Jermier,
1978)
Culture Era
McKinsey 7-S Framework (Pascale & Athos, 1981)
Theory Z (Ouchi & Jaeger, 1978)
In Search of Excellence Approach (Peters & Waterman,
1982; Schein, 1985)
Self-Leadership (Manz & Sims, 1987)
Transformational Era
Charisma Period
Charismatic Theory (House, 1977)
Transforming Leadership Theory (Burns, 1978)
Self-fulfilling Prophecy Period
SFP Leader Theory (Field, 1989; Eden, 1984)
Performance beyond Expectations Approach
(Bass, 1985)
Source : Seters & Field, 1988
Based on Seters and Field (1988), leadership theory initially started as a
unidimensional and individual process where leaders’ personality, traits, and behaviors were
97
highly valued , continued as dyadic relationship in leaders’ interactions, and kept on evolving
as situational in leader-member dyad, and then entered the era of multidimensionality of
Contingency Era where the interaction between the leader, subordinates, and the situations
and their intricate interrelationship were marked in the subsequent studies. However, the latter
notion of multidimensionality was developed in Yammarino & Dansereau (2008) as
multilevel/multinature leadership and shared leadership (Doyle and Smith, 2002).
98
Table 2.10.
Summary of evolvement of thinking around leadership
Level of complexity and inclusiveness
Definition of leadership
Illustrative theories of leadership
Levels-of-analysis addressed
Leadership develpoment focus
Parallel levels of self-concept and identity knowledge princicple
Most basic, least
complex and
inclusive
conceptualization
of leadership
Leadership is role-
based authority
Trait
theory
Leader
behaviors
Individual level
Top-down influence
of leader on
followers
Individual
skills
development
Individual self-
concept
Personal
dominance
Mid-level
conceptualization
of leadership
Leadership is an
influence process
between individuals
Roles are also
important in shaping
influence processes
Leader–
member
exchange
(LMX)
Reciprocal dyadic
influence
Top-down influence
of leader on
follower as well as
bottom-up effect of
follower on leader
Includes both:
Individual
skill
development
Relationship
building
Acknowledges
both:
Individual self-
concept
Relational self-
concept
Able to draw from:
Personal
dominance
Interpersonal
influence
Most advanced,
complex, and
inclusive
conceptualization
of leadership
Leadership is a shared
property of a social
system including
interdependencies
among individuals,
teams, and
organizations.
• Can also involve
roles and influence
processes depending
upon situation
Shared
leadership
Collective
leadership
Connective
leadership
Multi-level
approach (includes
individual, team,
and organizational
level).
Includes both
contextual
influences of
organizational
influences on team
and leadership
emergence within a
team
Also acknowledges
dyadic and
individual levels
Includes all:
Individual
skill
development
Relationship
building
Empowerment
Collaboration
Working
across
boundaries
Acknowledges all:
Individual self-
concept
Relational self-
concept
Collective self-
concept
Able to draw from:
Personal
dominance
Interpersonal
Influence
Relational Dialogue
Source: Day, D. V., & Harrison, M. M. (2007)
99
Table 2.10., outlines a brief sketch of the evolution of leadership understanding and its
history. The first column presents the evolution of leadership concept in terms of
inclusiveness and complexity. The second column, highlights the associated changes in
definitions of leadership, developing from exclusively role-based authority (most basic) to an
influence process that many include roles (mid-level complexity) to a shared property of a
social system that includes interdependence of individuals, teams, and organizations (most
advanced). The third column provides the subsequent theory that presents the transformation
of the concept of leadership.
2.3. Emotions and Leadership
In leadership, a general rule is almost always proved to be true: different leadership
styles produce different outcomes (Beatty, 2000). It is traditionally believed that 'head' and
'hand' of an individual are needed for a successful career, yet no mention of the heart (Ashford
& Humphrey, 1995). With the development of leadership theories and empirical practices, the
effect of heart and emotions on the leadership process has gained enormous significance. In
the same line, the emotional intelligence empirical studies in organizational settings (Chernis
& Goleman, 2001; Jordan, Ashkanasy & Härtel, 2003) and examination of its possible effects
on the effectiveness of a leader, made the link between emotions and leadership a stronger
link.
However, leadership is taken as an emotional process that has tremendous
consequences for the subordinates and the leaders' behaviors are signals for evaluation of
leaders' effectiveness (George, 2000; Higgs, 2003).
Generally emotions have been degraded before the eyes of the rational, and emergence
of such views into the workplaces, have created negative perceptions (Ashforth & Humphrey,
100
1995; Beatty, 2000; George, 2000). Traditionally, the administration and organizational
culture takes its legitimacy from rationality and intuitions were considered irrational
(Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995). However, new conceptualizations in leadership theory like
psychodynamic theory (Northouse, 2004) rooted in the philosophies of Freud and Jung,
present a network of thought where emotions are the hotspots effecting the organizations' well
being (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995). However, the connection between emotion and
intelligence in theories presented by Meyer and his colleagues has far more compelling effect
on the description and evaluation of an organization.
The proponents of the role of emotion in the leadership process propose that managing
and skillful uses of emotions are the key to the organizational success (Humphrey, 2002).
Mayer & Salovey (1997) consider the emotional intelligence as 'the capacity to reason about
emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking' (cited in Mayer et al., 2004, p. 197). This
latter point shows how emotions play significant role in rationality and reasonable behavior.
Cooper and Sawaf (1997) define emotions simply as "inner source of influence and
information that can affect the decision making process and a leader's behavior and habits". In
a qualitative research, five participants from a variety of educational leadership areas were
interview. All of them asserted that emotions in their workplace were unwelcomed since strict
management is what is highly expected (Beatty, 2000). Another qualitative study conducted
by Johnson et al. (2005), the educational leaders reflected on an experience that was strongly
related to leadership and emotion. Through this narrative inquiry, the participants stated that
their emotions made their analysis of leadership situations, much easier and clearer. Emotions
were the source of their information processing and how they could socialize through their
affects, revealed the reactions they had in different situations. It was, however, concluded that
identifying emotions from other sources of information, was both an aid for personal growth
and leadership effectiveness (Cooper & Swaf, 1997).
101
In another study by McColl-Kennedy and Anderson (2002), the mediating effect of
emotions of frustration and optimism on the correlation between leadership style and
subordinate performance was examined among 121 sales representatives. The study revealed
that perception of high transformational leadership has a direct effect on optimism and
indirect effect on the subordinate performance. On the other hand, low level perception of
transformational leadership style contributes to high level of frustration that ultimately has
negative effect on the employee's performance (McColl-Kennedy et al., 2002).
2.4. Leadership Style
As it can be easily understood from the above-mentioned discussions, the concept of
leadership in the relevant literature is quite obscured and this has made the task of identifying
best practices a difficult process (Muczyk & Reimann, 1987). However, one can be assured
that every leader adopts a certain style or styles for the leadership act. The leadership style
comprises the blueprint where the leader's behaviors and daily performances are mapped and
can be observed by others (Hersey & Blanchard, 1981); moreover it consists of "all the
techniques a leader uses to achieve organizational goals (Stojkovic, Kalinich, and Klofas,
2003, p. 165). Yet, no agreement persists on the idea that one style is the best of all (Muczyk
& Reimann, 1987). There are also varying and sometimes opposite ideas on the
generalizability of styles: normative scholars believe that leadership styles can be generalized
to all leadership situations, quite conversely, the contingency or situational school of thought
takes the style on the basis of the situation in which it is being practiced (Muczyk & Reimann,
1987). Nevertheless, any of these beliefs, if proven to be effective, has certain repercussions
for the leadership process.
Goleman (2000) asserted that for effective leaders as identified in various studies, one
style does not suffices. This idea is also, reinforced by Hersey and Blanchard (1982) that
102
different occasions and circumstances require use of different leadership styles. Dulewicz and
Higgs (2005) argued that effective leadership partially contains the ability of a leader to
choose the most suitable style based on the relevant situations. It is however, recommended
that leaders, in order to increase the productivity level of their organization, do not rely on one
single leadership style (Chen & Silverthorne, 2005).
While there is no evidence to prove that a single leadership style works the best, Kay
(2004) suggests that choosing a leadership style is highly significance. With consideration of
personality issues, workplace circumstances, and employees' needs, leaders are suggested to
choose an appropriate style (Kay, 2004; Hersey & Blanchard, 1996). Some researchers
propose that leaders with the knowledge of the self, others and their organizational structure,
could use emotional intelligence to choose a suitable leadership style (Latour & Hosmer,
2002; Goleman, 1995). However, some have listed benefits for exploiting emotional
intelligence as a strong predictor of a leader's style (e.g. Banutu-Gomez, 2004; Grazier, 1992).
Some variables such as culture (Jung & Avolio, 1999; Lok & Crawford, 2004; House et al.,
2004: a very comprehensive study of about 60 countries on the relationship between culture,
leadership and organization) and gender (Eaglys & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001; Gardiner &
Tiggemann, 1999; Burke & Collins, 2001) that effect on the leader style process have been
examined.
Another viewpoint related to leadership practice and behavior is role modeling of the
perceived effective leadership. Andrews and Field (1998) suggested that how use of
metaphors and idealized behaviors effect the process of leadership practice. This is the point
where transformational and transactional leadership are integral for a debate on effective
performance.
Transformational leadership focuses on the supportive role that a leader play and their
capability to cope, adapt, show versatility, and trigger the intellectual. The leader develops
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followers' self actualization through self realization, hence high motivation and commitment
(Manning & Robertson, 2002). Furthermore, the change leader requires to understand the
followers' needs and priorities (Alimo- Metcalfe & Alban-Metcalfe, 2001; Gaughan, 2001;
Krishnan, 2001; Paul et al., 2002; Van Velsor & Fleenor, 1997). Dess et al. (1998)
contends that the effectiveness of a transformational leader can be measured according to the
level of employees' commitment to the leader's vision which is opposed to commitment to the
status quo mostly found in transactional leadership contexts.
Some studies suggest that there exist some significant correlations between
transformational leadership and leadership effectiveness (Bass, 1989; Bettin, Macaulay &
Murphy, 1992; Bass, & Avolio, 1994; Weese, 1996; Albritton, 1998). It seems that the leaders
who see the task performance, focus on the group atmosphere, and attempt to promote
interpersonal relationships, are acting on transformational leadership hence effective
leadership (Sharif A. Muhammad, 2008). As mentioned before, this type of transforming
environment causes the followers to go beyond their self interests and commit themselves to
excellence (Donohue & Wong, 1994). Bettin et al. (1992) suggest some of the characteristics
of an effective leadership that can be achieved through transformational leadership; effective
leaders involve themselves in work groups, performances, and relationships.
Therefore, transformational leadership can be identified as a set of theories that see
effective leaders as those who are capable of inspiring their followers to perform at higher
levels than under normal contexts (Bettin et al., 1992; Den Hartog et al., 1997). Many studies
show that transformational leaders have led to the organization's overall productivity and
above average performance (Alimo- Metcalfe & Alban-Metcalfe, 2001; Boehnke et al., 2003;
Cacioppe, 1997:335; House & Aditya, 1997; Krishnan, 2001; Ristow, Amos & Staude, 1999;
Sivanathan & Fekken, 2002). Pawar and Eastman (1997) maintain that transformational
leaders develop a dynamic environment that often leads to transformation in cultural values to
104
reflect high innovation. They try their best to bond the individual and shared interests of their
organization. The positive change within the organization and the members follows whereby
the shared vision is being acted upon (Kane & Tremble, 2000).
To sum up, there is great consensus that the definition that Avolio and Bass (1990)
provide on transformational leadership, is the clear description of what this style of leadership
contains: "Transformational leadership is a process in which the leader takes action to ensure
organizational and individual transformation by raising the followers' and colleagues'
motivational maturity and to move them to go beyond their own self-interests for the good of
the group, the organization or society. Such leaders provide their followers with a sense of
purpose that goes beyond a simple exchange of rewards for effort provided while becoming
aware of what is morally right."(p. 43)
2.4.1. Transformational Leadership Components
Transformational leaders go beyond the simple exchange process between themselves
and followers (Bass & Riggio, 2006). They make determined attempts to achieve the most
from the following four components of transformational leadership: a. Idealized Influence
(II); b. Inspirational Motivation (IM); c. Intellectual Stimulation (IS); d. Individualized
Consideration (IC). Due to the wide use of MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire) for
research purposes, to some extent, the transformational leadership components have been
tested in various contexts and their correlation with other human factor elements, were
statistically determined (Bass, 1985; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995;
Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1997 for a review of MLQ based studies, see Avolio & Bass, 2004).
However, this is argued later in some detail.
Idealized Influence (II). The followers identify themselves with the transformational
leader and he serves as a role model for them. The leader's behaviors and the attributes he is
105
identified with are what this component deals with. A sample item from MLQ involving
idealized influence behavior component: "The leader emphasizes the importance of having a
collective sense of mission.' A sample item representing the attribute factor of idealized
influence: "The leader reassures others that obstacles will be overcome." However, these two
factors within the idealized influence component embody the leader's interactions with the
followers. The further outcome would be great willingness to take risks and maintenance of a
moral/ethical relationship.
Inspirational Motivation (IM). The transformational leaders make serious attempts to
inspire, motivate, and challenge their followers in order to come up with a transformed
interaction. The social spirit rises up and optimism is sustained. The leader make their
followers to envision a bright future and act accordingly, hence a shared vision is internalized.
A sample item from MLQ eliciting inspirational motivation of the leader "The leader
articulates a compelling vision of the future." The elements involved in IM can be found in
charismatic leadership theory (House, 1977; Bass & Avolio, 1993).
Intellectual Stimulation (IS). The leaders involved in this component, stimulate their
followers to be creative and innovative through an authentic way of questioning the
traditionally established assumptions and go for new answers. The environment is maintained
in a way that everyone's idea is respected. Problem posing and solving processes are followed
to achieve the best. The followers are not criticized because their ideas differ from that of the
leader. A sample question from MLQ triggering this element: "The leader gets others to look
at problems from many different angles."
Individualized Consideration (IC). The transformational leaders act as a mentor for
each individual; this achieved through attending to the very needs of the followers and create
appropriates responses in an authentic environment. IC is practiced while individual
differences in terms of needs and visions are considered and respected, and the leader
106
practically accept these differences and supports the groupings and teams in working
environment. The leaders walk through the workplace and have face to face interaction with
their followers and individually attend their personal needs. The individually considerate
leader listens wholeheartedly. The assigned tasks will be monitored for support in any time
needed. The followers feel secure and work out their real potentials. A sample item from
MLQ on this subject reads: "The leader spends time teaching and coaching."
2.4.2. Transformational Leadership and Emotional Intelligence
Using the relevant literature review, the first three hypotheses of the current research
are plausibly justified:
Hypothesis 1: There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership style.
Hypothesis 2: There is no relationship between emotional intelligence and transactional
leadership style.
Hypothesis 3: There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence and laissez-
faire leadership style.
As mentioned before, studies researching the relationship between emotions,
leadership, and workplace suggest that managing emotions and skillful uses of emotions
substantially contributes to the organizational well being and hence the leadership
effectiveness (Feldman, 1999; Humphrey, 2002; Cooper & Sawaf, 1997; Beatty, 2000;
George, 2000). Zaccaro (1996, 1999, 2001) elaborated on the importance of social
intelligence in the leadership performance. He developed a leadership model that sketched the
performance needs of the leader such as conflict management, flexibility, persuasion, and
social reasoning. Founding their conceptualization of the term of emotional intelligence,
107
Riggio and Reichard (2008) argue that emotional skills, due to their interpersonal nature,
characterize the 'social' elements of EI. Although social intelligence has been correlated to
effective leadership (Zaccaro, 2002), there is no certain framework outlining the dimensions
of social intelligence (Riggio & Reichard, 2008). Riggio and colleagues (Riggio, 1986;
Riggio & Carney, 2003; Reichard & RIggio, 2008) developed a model for effective leadership
that contained both social skills (1. social expressiveness, 2. social sensitivity, 3. social
control); and emotional skills (1. emotional expressiveness, 2. emotional sensitivity, 3.
emotional control). Through their socio-emotional model of an effective leader, they argued
that these elements are "the key emotional and social skills necessary for effective leadership"
(Riggio & Reichard, 2008 p.172).
Emphasizing on social intelligence Goleman (2006) and Albrecht (2006), argue that
emotional intelligence is a prerequisite for a successful leadership, and that there are several
reasons to prove that those leaders who are likely to perform as a transformational leaders,
also are emotionally intelligent (Barling, Slater, & Kelloway, 2000).
In the realm of decision making, Leban and Zulauf (2004) explored the relationship
between ability emotional intelligence and transformational leadership styles and their
potential contribution to project management. Their persuasive scenario attaches a high
significance to the project managers' role in scheduling and controlling of all activities that
must be accomplished (Leban & Zulauf, 2004; Lewis, 2001), hence their interpersonal
behavior must be watched carefully. A project manager must fully see what stimulates the
project members, and must be capable of directing their self interests toward the project goals.
Using MSCEIT (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Ability Test) and MLQ 5x
for their data collection, Leban and Zulauf (2004) studied 24 project managers along with
their associated projects in six varying organizations. The results showed a significant
relationship between understanding emotion and inspirational motivation (Leban & Zulauf,
108
2004). Also, the strategic use of emotional intelligence was found to correlate with idealized
influence and individual consideration. The transactional component, management-by-
exception and laissez-faire were negatively related to strategic use of emotion and
understanding emotion motivation (Leban & Zulauf, 2004). Leban and Zulauf (2004) simply
concluded that transformational leadership style contributed substantially to the actual project
performance, and emotional intelligence ability had a positive correlation with the project
managers' transformational leadership style. Seltzer and Bass (1990) also, found that
transformational leadership is positively linked with high level effort, performance
(Yammarino & Bass, 1990), and satisfaction with the leader (Bycio et al., 1995; Podsakoff et
al., 1990). Leban et al. (2004) citing Dulewics and Higgs (1999) and Alimo-Metcalfe (1999),
propose a linkage between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership (Table
2.11.).
Table 2.11.
The relationships between EI and transformational leadership
Emotional intelligence factors
(Dulewicz and Higgs)
Transformational leadership factors
(Alimo-Metcalfe)
Self-awareness Individual consideration
Emotional resilience Decisive, achieving, determined
Motivation Involves other in values
Interpersonal sensitivity Networks
Influence Change management
Decisiveness Accessible
Conscientiousness and integrity Intellectual versatility (integrity/openness)
Source: Leban and Zulauf (2004)
109
As seen in Leban Zulauf (2004) and other studies mentioned in the previous section,
the conceptualization of transformational leadership is substantially founded on the
relationship between the leader and the follower (the social context), hence emotional
intelligence (Brown & Moshavi, 2005). Barling, et al. (2000) assert that transformational
leadership due to its large impact on literature has gained substantial attention and correlation
between transformational leadership and various human elements have been studied. In their
study, Barling et al. (2000) focused on the relationship between transformational leadership
and emotional intelligence conceived as EQ which implicitly denotes the trait
conceptualization of EI. The theoretical foundation of the study is based on the Bass'
(1985,1998) transformational leadership theory and Salovey and Mayer's (1990) initial
enunciation of the EI. Sixty managers (including vice president, general managers, middle
managers, and supervisors) participated in Barling's et al. (2000) study. The means of data
collection were MLQ 5x and Bar-On's (1997) Emotional Intelligence Inventory. In data
analysis, based on the EI score, three groups of leaders (M EQ= 89.9, SD= 6.7, min.=76,
max.=97) were generated. The difference in the EQ score between these groups was 128.77 (p
< 0.01). The MLQ scores of 49 managers, then was contrasted across these three groups and
self reported attribution style was taken as the covariate to all analyses. The multivariate
analysis of the covariance showed a significant result: the Pillai's Trace F (5,40)=2.13 (p <
0.05). Three components of transformational leadership except intellectual stimulation,
revealed a significant univariate effects and management-by-exception and lasses-faire
serving as dependant variables, showed insignificant effect. Barling et al. elaborating on the
absence of the intellectual stimulation call for further studies. They state that "previous
research has supported the role of intellectual stimulation as a predictor of subordinate
attitudes and performance (Barling et al., 1996) making it a central concept in
transformational leadership theory."(Barling et al., 2000). This might be contributed to the
110
cognitive nature of this component (Barling et al., 2000). Given the strength of their high
considerations in statistical control, Barling et al. (2000) conclude that more research is
required to find the nature of the correlations found in their study.
In a sophisticated meta-analytic study conducted by Harms and Crede (2010) on the
relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational/transactional leadership, 106
articles were quite evidently analyzed using Hunter and Schmidt (1990, 2004) psychometric
meta-analytic method. Three hypotheses were speculated to analyze the relationship between
EI and transformational leadership, contingent reward behaviors, and laissez-faire leadership
behaviors. Some of the studies were excluded and certain codings were employed to
categorize the data obtained from 62 samples testing 7,145 leaders. Having the rating source
as the focal point of data meta-analysis, the results were revealing in the case of the
relationship between EI and transformational leadership (Table 2.12.). Source of rating (same
rating vs. different rating for studies using EI and TL measures), effect of leader rank, type of
EI (trait-based or ability-based), publication type (journal articles and dissertations), effect of
EI measures, effect of MLQ, and level of interrater agreement (self-rating vs. other-rating)
each were used as the main criteria to thorough evaluate the studies at hand. Results indicated
a validity of 0.59 considering the ratings of both EI and leadership behaviors by the same
source.
However, this validity was not so positive when the raters were different in EI and TL
measures (0.12). Transactional and laissez-faire leadership behaviors revealed lower validity
while trait-based measures of EI showed higher validities compared to ability-based
measures. Agreement in rating sources was low for both TL and EI (0.14 and 0.16
respectively).
111
Table 2.12.
Relationships between overall emotional intelligence and transformational leadership
Sources of EI
and TL
Ratings
k N r¯ ρ SDρ 10%
CV
90%
CV
All samples 62 7,145 0.36 0.41 0.26 0.08 0.74
All samples same 47 4,994 0.48 0.56 0.23 0.26 0.85
All samples different 22 2,661 0.11 0.12 0.04 0.07 0.17
MLQ only same 33 3,999 0.47 0.54 0.21 0.27 0.81
MLQ only different 14 1,549 0.09 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.21
Managers and
higher only
same 33 3,626 0.45 0.52 0.23 0.23 0.81
Managers and
higher only
different 14 2,013 0.08 0.09 0.01 0.08 0.10
Ability-based EI
Measure
same 10 1,066 0.20 0.24 0.00 0.24 0.24
Ability-based EI
Measure
different 4 441 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.05
Trait-based EI
Measure
same 38 4,424 0.58 0.66 0.19 0.42 0.91
Trait-based EI
Measure
different 20 2,491 0.11 0.13 0.05 0.07 0.19
Unpublished only same 34 3,619 0.48 0.56 0.25 0.23 0.88
Unpublished only different 10 1,476 0.08 0.09 0.01 0.08 0.10
Published only same 11 1,220 0.48 0.55 0.13 0.39 0.72
Published only different 12 1,182 0.14 0.16 0.08 0.06 0.26
NOTE: EI: overall emotional intelligence; TL=overall transformational leadership; k=number of correlations;
N=combined sample size; Mean r¯=mean uncorrected correlation; ρ=estimated true score correlation; SDρ=standard
deviation of estimated true score correlation; CV=credibility interval; MLQ=Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
Source: Harms and Crede (2010)
2.5. Leadership Effectiveness
The general and yet simple definition given to leadership effectiveness is goal
attainment (Andersen, 2006). Generally the terms success and effectiveness are used as
organizational success and leadership effectiveness, where the latter is implied by the former,
and one of the scales for measuring the organizational success is the leadership effectiveness.
112
Success is by and large, objectively evaluated based on returns and profits while effectiveness
is measured based on the perceptions of the self and others (Hartman, 1999; Zenger &
Folkman, 2002).
Exploring the definition and evaluation of leadership effectiveness, Cooper and Sawaf
(1997) provide five categories in order to determine the extent of leadership effectiveness.
The first category rates the effectiveness based on the evaluation of the leader's impact on the
general organizational profitability (This is, however, tested by MLQ, Avolio & Bass, 1995,
2004, and effectiveness serves as one of its components) team or individual performances,
test results, graduation rates and productivity (Hogan, Curphy, & Hogan, 1994). Careful
examination of the bottom line productivity of an organization can reveal the extent of the
leadership effectiveness. The second category views leadership effectiveness as founded on
the perceptions and evaluation of the subordinate, peer, or supervisors (the three levels of
analysis in MLQ (Avolio & Bass, 1995, 2004). Evaluation of leadership effectiveness is
believed to be a social process and is derived from the leaders' general characteristics and
behaviors along with contextual factors (Barrow, 1976). Founded firmly on the leadership and
motivational theories, Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership contributes significantly to
the understanding of leadership effectiveness. In his model, Fielder determines the leaders'
style based on the ratings obtained from the peers. The leaders involved are either motivated
with the objectives and the tasks or the ongoing social relationships (Levine & Moreland,
2006). The three other categories for determining leadership effectiveness includes others'
(strangers) evaluation of the leader based on objective observation or interviews, the leaders'
own ratings, and the low ratings (Cooper & Sawaf, 1997). In a study by Zenger and Folkman
(2002), two groups of managers were compared based on the supervisors, subordinates, and
peers ratings. The top managers were found to impact many elements of organizational
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outcomes: turnover, loyalty, innovation, profitability and relationships (Zenger & Folkman,
2002).
Due to daily intricate organizational relationships, social skills along with emotional
intelligence are necessary for goal attainment (Bolman & Deal, 2003). Using subjective
measures of leadership effectiveness, Hartman (1999) explored the relationship between
personality factors and leader behavior among 46 members of senior management. It was
concluded that warmth could be a strong predictor for leadership effectiveness (Hartman,
1999). There was no significant relationship between effectiveness and other traits or
personality variables measured. Only warmth could gain a highly significant correlation with
high levels of leadership effectiveness. Hartman (1999) concludes that in order for the leaders
to be effective, they require multitude of skills, however, this does not exclude the major
effects of interpersonal skills such as warmth. Schmidt (2006) contends that as a construct,
emotional intelligence can be used with other individual characteristics such as skill, abilities,
or personality constructs that promote performance.
Self-managements is believed to substantially contribute to leadership effectiveness
(Bennis and Nanus, 2003). Bennis and Nanus (2003) illustrate four strategies for an effective
leader: a. attention through vision, b. meaning through communication, c. trust through
positioning, and d. deployment of self through positive self regard. The amalgamation of
positive self regard and optimism along with the desired outcomes, are considered to be
essential for an effective leadership (Bennis & Nanus, 2003).
Effective leadership also involves motivating and directing followers toward collective
objectives, missions or visions and creating harmony within acting groups (Chemers, 2001;
Yukl, 2010). For achieving this objective, as partially noted before, researchers in the field
have examined traits, behavioral styles, social exchange process, transformational leadership
and so on (Knippenberg and Hogg, 2003). However, some commentators have stated in
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various occasions that such quest for leadership effectiveness has achieved moderate success
(Yukl, 2010; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1994; Bass, 1990). However, van Knippenberg and Hogg
(2003) suggests that the lack of success in such researches are due to the view the researchers
held about the position of the leader, “researchers have tended to overlook or underemphasize
the importance fact that leaders not only lead groups of people, but are also themselves
members of these groups” (van Knippenberg and Hogg, 2003, p. 244, the italic section was in
the original text). The leadership processes are formed in a context of shared experience
among all the members of the organization including the leader as a member of the
organization. Founded on such perspective, van Knippenberg and Hogg (2003), propose a
leadership model for effectiveness, the Social Identity Model of Organizational Leadership
(SIMOL). The social identity leadership model, as its major element, develops a self-
definition element for the leaders to act in their respective organization. In this approach, the
“I” and “we” are identified as one’s personal identity and selfhood, and one’s social identity
and collective self, respectively (van Knippenberg and Hogg, 2003; Hogg & Williams, 2000;
Sedikides & Brewer, 2001). Self-actualization of the group members make an emergence of
selfhood to the social, hence perceptions, attitudes, behaviors are shaped accordingly (van
Knippenberg and Hogg, 2003). Because leadership effectiveness is believed to be highly
reliant on the capacity to influence followers and motivate them to collaborate on the
objectives and with the leader (Chemers, 2001; Yukl, 2010), in their social identity leadership
approach, van Knippenberg and Hogg (2003) suggests that “group membership characteristics
of the leader are an importance determinant of leadership effectiveness” (p.250).
2.5.1. Leadership Effectiveness Measures
There are two widely used instruments for measuring leadership effectiveness: a.
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), and b. The Leadership Practices Inventory
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(LPI). However, to serve the current study research objectives, another measure used for
evaluating leadership effectiveness would be introduced: EFQM (European Foundation for
Quality Management). While we were presenting transformational and transactional
leadership components, we referred to MLQ test several times and gave some relevant sample
items for each component. However, here the MLQ test will be sketched out very briefly.
The MLQ was originally made and extended by Bass and Avolio (1995, 2000, 2004).
It contains 36 leadership items along with four items per scale and nine outcome items. It is
generally used in isolation or in the context to study transformational, transactional and
passive/avoidant leadership styles. However, due to the nine items related to effectiveness, it
can serve as a well developed questionnaire to measure leadership effectiveness based on the
organizational outcomes. It is also used for selection of leaders or promotion to supervisory
positions (Bass & Avolio, 2004). According to information provided with the Third Edition
of the MLQ Sampler Set, the instrument "contains 45 items that identify and measure key
leadership and effectiveness behaviors shown in prior research to be strongly linked with both
individual and organizational success" (Avolio and Bass, 2004, p. 13). MLQ measures nine
leadership factors and nine outcome factors. Idealized influence attributes, idealized influence
behaviors, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration,
contingent reward, active management-by-exception, and passive management-by-exception
embrace the leadership factors involved and extra effort, effectiveness and satisfaction are the
leadership outcomes factors.
The MLQ attempts to measure leadership characteristics that represent a broad range
of leadership behaviors or preferred methods (Avolio and Bass, 2004).
Most existing peer-reviewed articles discussing the use of the Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire focus on business implementations. However, the information provided by
these researchers can help higher education administrators looking to adapt business practices
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to colleges and universities. Jabnoun and Abdullah Al-Ghasyah (2005), in their use of the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) to benchmark leadership styles as they apply to
the implementation of ISO 9000:2000 customer service and quality standards, found that
preferred leadership styles had a significant influence on whether these standards could be
adopted. Spinelli (2006) tested the applicability of the MLQ within the administrative sector
of selected hospitals and found its results replicated prior research in other businesses,
demonstrating the use of the MLQ within a more service-oriented organization. The role of
organizational culture and its effects on preferred leadership characteristics have been studied
as well. Block's research using the MLQ in a large business organization found contingent
reward and transformational leadership characteristics were closely correlated with
organizational culture - particularly the role of the organization's mission and ability to readily
adapt to changes in the surrounding market. Block concludes, "To affect change in the
cultural attitudes and beliefs of employees, leaders must help the organization develop the
transformational leadership ability of supervisors at every level" (2003, p. 331). Popper and
Druyan expand on the role of culture as it relates to perceived leadership styles. Specifically,
"differences found between perceptions of leaders are not, necessarily, mere differences
among leaders' personalities and styles but rather a reflection of differences among the
followers themselves" (2001, p. 555).
Walumbwa, Wu, and Ojode (2004) tested the use of the MLQ in assessing instructor
leadership styles and student satisfaction within the classroom. While this research focuses on
student assessment of faculty, particularly as it relates to student gender, the information
gathered through the study provides valuable information on the potential role of the MLQ in
faculty assessment and effective leadership styles in the classroom. The researchers were able
to identify three leadership styles (including active management-by-exception, contingent
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reward, and transformational leadership) students perceived as beneficial within the
classroom.
Aguirre and Martinez, in their research on the role of leadership style as it relates to
diversity efforts in higher education, found institutions employing transformational leadership
were better prepared to develop organizations that incorporated diversity into the academic,
social, and educational aspects of colleges and universities (2002).
Diversity within student, faculty, and staff ranks is of increasing importance in higher
education assessment. The yearly Integrated Post-Secondary Education Data System
(IPEDS) series of institutional reports, for example, require all institutional enrollment data to
be broken down according to race/ethnicity and gender. These statistics are also used in
various voluntary surveys throughout the year, including the U.S. News and World Report
survey of post-secondary institutions and Thomson/Peterson's survey on financial aid and
enrollment. William Woods University is one institution that uses student, faculty, and staff
diversity benchmarks as part of its strategic plan, for example, and uses internal reports to
track student enrollment trends.
Prior studies demonstrate the use of the MLQ concurrently with other assessment
tools. Block's (2003) research on organizational culture and leadership found that an
organization's culture often dictates the type(s) of leadership styles employed by individuals
within organizations, and has been supported by additional studies focusing on the link
between organizational culture and preferred leadership style. However, an earlier study using
the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire in conjunction with O'Reilly, Chatman, and
Caldwell's Organization Culture Profile demonstrated that leadership style can predict
organizational culture, but culture is often a poor predictor of leadership style (Sarros, Gray,
& Densten, 2002). This discrepancy shows a need for additional research between leadership
style and organizational culture, but is outside the scope of this paper. Kent and Chelladurai
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(2001) administered the MLQ in conjunction with the LMX-7 - an instrument designed to
evaluate transactional exchanges and feelings of trust between leaders and subordinates
according to leader-member exchange (LMX) theories - to help determine whether
components of transformational leadership could be associated with leader-member exchange
(LMX) and may indicate that transformational leadership behaviors can "cascade" throughout
different organizational levels.
Portions of the MLQ have been used in other studies to specifically measure responses
to questions regarding transformational leadership in tandem with other instruments designed
to measure other characteristics outside the scope of the MLQ (Walumbwa and Lawler,
2003).
The MLQ has also been studied as it relates to university faculty, as well. Brown and
Moshavi (2002) distributed the MLQ to 70 department chairs at various land-grant
universities and determined that individual characteristics of transformational leadership were
"positively related to faculty satisfaction with supervision, their perceptions of their
organization's effectiveness, and their willingness to expend extra effort" (p. 82).
Due to the 360-degree-feedback nature of MLQ, its reliability and validity have been
reportedly high. However, this is discussed in next chapter.The next measure for leadership
effectiveness is Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI). Developed by Kouzes and Posner
(1995), it has been used to measure about 350,000 individual leadership skills. It examines
everyday activities and behaviors of the sample leaders in various contexts using qualitative
and quantitative strategies for data collection and analysis. LPI is founded on five core
leadership performances: a. challenging the process, b. inspiring a shared vision, c. enabling
others to act, d. modeling the way, e. encouraging the heart.
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In order to advance a credible explanation for the eighth hypothesis of the research,
the following discussion is set up:
Hypothesis 8: There are positive relationships between leadership effectiveness and
EFQM ratings.
The last leadership effectiveness measurement is EFQM (European Foundation for
Quality Management). It is used to represent the total quality management theory that may
apply to all organization without context considerations (de Dommartin, 2000). The empirical
research also has proven the general applicability of EFQM to public organizations (Reed,
1996). However, there have emerged a number of variations on the original model that enable
the test to apply to educational, local government, and small to medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs). Saraiva et al. (2001) argue that for the achievement of excellence model,
organizations vary in their approaches. EFQM is founded on an excellence model that
consists of nine criteria: five enablers and four results (George, Cooper, Douglas, 2003). The
enablers cover what an organization achieves and results are the outcome of these enablers.
Leadership effectiveness is evaluated through performance, customers, people, and society
(Fig. 2.3.). The use of excellence model in organizations has also proved to be effective.
Kristensen & Juhl (1999) found that due to the proper execution of the excellence model,
several financial benefits were reported in the sample organizations. However, further
research showed that the such benefits are achieved more in large organizations (Kristensen et
al., 2001). George et al. (2003) state that the available researches on organizations using
excellence model are confined to private sector organizations and less attentions have been
paid to public organizations.
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Fig. 2.3.: EFQM model of effective leadership
2.5.1.1. Relationships within the EFQM Excellence Model
As the Total Quality Management (TQM) theory suggests the interdependence of the
basic elements and practices are necessary for a plausible holistic view of quality management
(McGee, 1993; Dow et al., 1999). Therefore, tuning the quality practices with each other is
highly demanded for realization of the full benefits of a model such as EFQM (Tamimi,
1998). Hence, some identify quality management as an integrated approach (Flynn et al.,
1994) or a unified process (Belohlay, 1993). According to the EFQM model, quality
management must focus on all the enactments and in all levels within an organization in order
to build a sustainable process of improvement (Nabitz & Kazinga, 1999; Jackson, 1999;
Naylor, 1999). Moreover, some authors contend that there is some observed desirable
equilibrium among the internal elements of EFQM (Dijkastra, 1997).
EFQM excellence model is founded on an assumption that there is an internal integrity
experienced among the enabler criteria. As the above illustration (Fig. 2.3.) shows, leadership
and constancy of purpose drives tactics and policy making, people management, corporate
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social responsibility, and partnerships and these influence the results through a comprehensive
process (EFQM, 2003). Empirical research also supports such internal integrity (positive and
moderate association) among the enabler criteria due to a common general factor working in
the background (Dijkstra, 1997).
Whether Total Quality Management model effect on organizational performance? is a
question Bou-Liusar and colleagues (2003) raise. Dow et al. (1999) and Powell (1995)
contend that TQM contributes to a variety of outcomes such as employee, customer
satisfaction, product quality, economic results and so on. Such reported interrelationship
(Oakland & Oakland, 1998) is present in the bottom line of the EFQM excellence model
where maintaining equilibrium in all stakeholders' needs, is necessary (Nabitz & Klazinga,
1999). However, the results components follow a reasonable integrity that ultimately
contributes to the overall performance results.
2.5.2. Transformational Leadership And Leadership
Effectiveness
Transformational leadership as a highly revered leadership style and the focus of the
current research has been sought to be correlated to leadership effectiveness in one way or
another. However, to discuss the positive correlation between the transformational
leaderhship and leadership effectiveness, the fourth hypothesis:
Hypothesis 4: There is positive relationship between Transformational Leadership style and
Leadership effectiveness; and to justify the fifth and sixth hypotheses:
Hypothesis 5: There are no relationship between transactional leadership style and leadership
effectiveness.
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Hypothesis 6: There are negative relationship between laissez-faire leadership style and
leadership effectiveness; the following argument is developed using the relevant studies in the
field.
Transformational leadership not only contributes to the followers' satisfaction and
loyalty but also the leader performance and effectiveness (Bass & Riggio, 2006). In fact, the
research results illustrate a leadership effectiveness hierarchy, with four Is-each components
of transformational leadership that starts with the letter "I"-at the very top, and then followed
by contingent reward, active and passive management-by-exception, and at the very bottom
lies laissez-faire leadership representing the ineffective leader (Fig. 2.4.).
Fig. 2.4. Full Range of Leadership: Optimal profile
Source: Bass & Riggio (2006)
Bass (1985) contends that transactional leadership, particularly contingent reward,
builds the basis for effectiveness, but if augmented with transformational leadership, it can
contribute substantially to effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction. Avolio and Howell (1992)
also report that transactional leadership augmented with transformational leadership is
capable of predicting levels of creativity, innovation, and risk taking. In statistical terms,
transformational leadership accounts for the existing variance in the measurements of
performance and other variables above the active transactional leadership. There is a growing
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evidence that such augmentation effect exists among industrial managers and military officers
(Waldman, Bass, Yammarino, 1990), Russian managers (Elenkov, 2002), MBA students
(Seltzer & Bass, 1990).
Over the past few years, the literature related to the correlation of transformational
leadership to effectiveness has been examined in a variety of contexts: high school principles
(Hoover, Petrosko, & Schulz, 1991; Kirby, Paradise, & King, 1992), health care workers
(Bycio et al., 1995; Gellis, 2001), salespersons (MacKenzi, Podsakoff, & Rich, 2001) and
athletes (Charbonneau, Barling, & Kelloway, 2001).
In their review of the studies examining the correlation between transformational
leadership and leadership effectiveness, Bass and Riggio (2006) contend that despite the
existing studies demonstrating the possible relationship, 'the most convincing evidence for the
predictive validity of transformational leadership comes from meta-analyses'(p.25). The three
meta-analytic studies they presented were Lowe, Kroeck, and Siveasubramaniam (1996),
Gasper (1992), and Patterson, Fuller, Kester, and Stringer (1995). In the first study, where the
participants were from public and private sectors, the correlation between each component of
MLQ was in tune with the leadership model (Bass & Rioggio, 2006). The mean correlations
with effectiveness are showed in Table 2.13.
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Table 2.13.
Correlations of transformational/transactional leadership styles with
effectiveness in public and private organizations.
Sector
Leadership Public Private
Transformational
Charisma-inspiration 0.74 0.69
Intellectual stimulation 0.65 0.56
Individual consideration 0.63 0.62
Transactional
Contingent reward 0.41 0.41
Managing-by-exception 0.10 - 0.02
Source: Bass & Riggio (2006)
In another meta-analytic study, Gasper (1992), examined transformational and
transactional components separately among 20 studies. Examining 20 studies, data analysis
showed that transformational leadership was significantly correlated to effectiveness (0.76),
satisfaction (0.71), and extra effort (0.88). Patterson et al. (1995) corroborated the results of
these two studies, and explored the effect of transformational and transactional leadership
style on the desired outcomes. It can be generally concluded that transformational leadership,
as measured by MLQ, show considerable correlation with leadership effectiveness measures
(Bass & Riggio, 2006).
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Table 2.14.
Correlations of MLQ Scales with effectiveness.
Subjective Measures Objective Measures
MLQ Scale Number of r
coefficients
Mean Raw
r
Number of r
coefficients
Mean
Raw r
Transformational
Charisma-inspiration 32 0.71 15 0.30
Intellectual stimulation 31 0.58 14 0.22
Individual consideration 29 0.59 12 0.24
Transactional
Contingent reward 28 0.46 15 0.07
Managing-by-exception 29 0.07 12 -0.03
Source: Lowe, Kroek, & Sivasubramaniam (1996)
However, the relationship between transformational leadership and the subjective
measures of leadership effectiveness have shown higher significance (0.50-0.70) compared to
the same correlation with objective measures (0.17-0.30) (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Lowe,
Kroek, and Sivasubramaniam (1996) found a remarkable significance in the relationship
between leadership scare of MLQ with the measure of leadership effectiveness (Table, 2.14.).
2.5.3. Leadership Effectiveness and Emotional Intelligence
It is anticipated in the seventh hypothesis:
Hypothesis 7: There are positive relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership
effectiveness; Hence the next discussion reviews the relevant literature in the field.
Using an ability-based measure, some studies have found significant correlation
between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness (Kerr, Gavin, Heaton & Boyle,
2005; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Coetzee & Schaap, 2004; Leban & Zulauf, 2004). Burbach
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(2004) eliciting the Full Range Leadership Model in a highly varied group of people from
different occupations, found a significant predictive relationship between EI and the full range
subscales, laissez-faire leadership and leadership outcomes based on the raters' perceptions. It
was concluded that EI can be considered to be one of the factors to predict leadership
effectiveness. However, there exist studies which do not provide conclusions with such
strength regarding the possible relationship between EI and effectiveness. Collins (2001),
using MSCEIT and Goleman's four cluster model (revised version of Emotional Competence
Inventory (ECI), Boyatzis, Golemanm, Rhee, 2000), examined the effects of EI as the
possible predictor of leadership success. It was found that a negative correlation exists
between the two measurements: they were testing different facets of the same construct: EI.
There was also no significant correlation between MSCEIT and the supervisor, peer, and
subordinate ratings, but the case was different in Goleman's model: the EI score obtained
from the model was somehow predictive in self-ratings across competencies (leadership and
interpersonal).
With the control of personality and general intelligence, the incremental validity of
emotional intelligence in predicting transformational leadership, was tested in a study
conducted by Beshears (2004). MSCEIT and SREIT (both are ability-based measures but the
latter is self-reported) were used to measure the incremental validity. Both measures were
shown to be positive in the validity assessment. Weinberger (2003) examined EI and
leadership effectiveness among managers of a manufacturing company. There was generally
no significant correlation found among EI, leadership styles and leadership effectiveness.
Smith (2005) also, using Emotional Intelligence Scale (Schutte et al., 1998), a self-report
measure, found no significant correlation between EI and leadership effectiveness in a sample
of managers from various occupations. In examining the relationship between emotional
intelligence and facilitative leadership, using MSCEIT, Barent (2005) found negative
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correlation between the two constructs. In fact, there was a negative trade-off, the higher the
emotions (branch four of the Mayer and Salovey's (1997) model), the lower and the
facilitative leadership scores.
The leadership literature also contains studies that have used mixed model of
emotional intelligence in order to examine leadership effectiveness. Using the Bar-On's EQ-i,
Buford (2001) found a positive relationship between the leaders' self reported EI score and
that of transformational leadership score, but no correlation among multi-rater and self-
reported EI and effectiveness. Schmitz (2004) examining managers of non-profit
organizations, found a positive relationship between EI and leadership performances, across
all the clusters of ECI (Emotional Competency Inventory); however, the EI was not
significantly related to effectiveness outcomes.
Using EIQ (Emotional Intelligence Quotient) among educational administers and
teachers, Condren (2002) found no statistical significance between certain aspects of EI and
the participants' perception of leadership effectiveness. In another study, Curry (2004) using
EIA (Emotional Intelligence Appraisal-Me Edition), explored the correlation between self-
perceived overall EI and self-perceived overall leadership effectiveness and found statistical
significance with a 95% confidence.
Butler (2005) used EQ-i among industrial managers. He found no correlation between
transactional leadership behavior and emotional intelligence scores and a negative
relationship between lassiez-faire behavior and EI subscales through a regression analysis.
Using ECI measure, Brooks (2002) explored the leadership skills among financial leaders. It
was found that there was a positive relationship between high performance rates and three EI
competency components: Achievement, Adaptability, and Optimism. Danehy (2005) utilizing
EIA-Multi Rater, examined the EI level among college coaches. He found that based on the
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raters' perception, the EI was able to significantly contribute to the effectiveness of the
leaders.
Dulewicz, Young, & Dulewicz (2005), examined the relationship between
performance and EI and Leadership in the Royal Navy. Based on the Dulewicz and Higgs'
(2000) mixed model which included a questionnaire with three components: EQ (emotional
intelligence), IQ (intellectual competencies), and MQ (management competencies). Among
the three components, only EQ contributed highly to the overall performance of the high
ranking officers of the Royal Navy. Within the military setting, Trabun (2002) examined the
role of EI in the performance of the U.S. naval academy leaders. The overall results showed
that the MSCEIT is a more precise and accurate predictor of the leadership performance.
Cavallo and Brienza (2002) used Goleman et al.'s (2002) model of EI for studying the
performance of 358 managers (50% male and 50% female) which represented major countries
of the world. The highly performing managers, who rated above 4.0 in a five-point scale,
showed high level of emotional competence as well.
2.5.4. Leadership Effectiveness, Leadership Style, and
Emotional Intelligence
Since the ninth hypothesis reveals another core relationship to the current research:
Hypothesis 9: Transformational leadership styles mediate between emotional intelligence and
leadership effectiveness; the following argument is arisen.
The theory of the Ecology of Organization affirms that like Darwin’s disposition, there
is a type of natural selection procedure for the living members of organizations i.e. the
organizational ecosystem defines who survives. The immediate connotation of such an
assertion is that higher management is comprised of those who have very little control on the
corporative growth and it is the ecosystem that decides the effectiveness of the organization
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(Hannan & Freeman, 1977; Amburgey, 1996; Carroll & Hannan, 2000). Meanwhile, it is
mentioned in other studies (for example Hambrick & Mason, 1984) that the performance
outcome of an organization is under the influence of the administrative participants,
leadership style (Evkall & Ryhammar, 1997; Ogbonna & Harris, 2000; Pedraja & Rodriguez,
2005), senior management size (Haleblian & Finkelstein, 1993; Amason & Sapienza, 1997),
and diversity (Simonds et al., 1999; Carpenter & Fredrickson, 2001).
Kahai and Sosik (1997), on their study of the effect of leadership style, found that
shared leadership is more related to giving supportive attention to members than traditional
directional leadership. The leadership style also creates climates that subsequently effect the
creativity and productivity of the given organization. A fundamental fact is that leadership
style may produce motivation mechanisms that eventually influence the leaders’ conduct of
members in the organization (Shamir et al., 1993). More specifically, Peraja and Rodriguez
(2004, 2005) have revealed the influence of leadership style on the effectiveness of public
organizations. Although it is quite apparent that there is a positive reciprocity in leadership
style and leadership effectiveness influences (Ingress, 1995; Bournantas & Papadakis, 1996;
Lowe et al., 1996), there is no absolute supremacy in the leadership styles for achieving
effectiveness. Therefore, the ecology of the organization may require certain types of styles
over others (Vroom, 2000). This is quite supported by those advocating situational or
contingency leadership school of thought that leadership style need to be chosen on the basis
of the situation (Muczyk & Reimann, 1987).
However, some may prefer to argue that emotional intelligence contribute to such
leadership style selection. In other word, EI catalyzes the emergence of a suitable and
effective style for a certain situation (Banutu-Gomez, 2004; Avolio, Waldman, &
Yammarino, 1991). If a senior supervisor observes a manager using a certain leadership style
that has positive effects, then s/he may try to employ the same style that eventually benefits
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the whole organization (Avolio et al., 1991). Such examination of EI effect has been long
argued in detail in other sections, therefore, it would suffice for the current discussion.
Source: Pedraja, Rodriguez, and Rodriguez (2006)
Fig. 2.5.: Relationship Between Leadership Styles and Effectiveness
In a study conducted by Pedraja, Rodriguez, and Rodriguez (2006), three styles of
leadership has been globally determined: participative, instrumental and supportive (Fig.
2.5.). It was tested among 126 top and medium level managers in small firms in Chile. It was
predicted that supportive leadership style is dominantly more effective, participative
leadership style slightly persisted and no frequent instrumental leadership style was observed
(t= 19.23, t=1.130 and t= -9.10 respectively with Mean= 4.0 in all three styles). It was also
found that the size of an organization may contribute to the overall effectiveness of an
organization (Pedraja et al., 2006). Using multiple methods, Matalay (1999), in a longitudinal
study, found that quite contrary to large organizations, in small firms, decisions are made
Participative
Style
Supportive
Style
Instrumental
Style
Effectiveness
Statistical relationship
Upper Echelons Theory
Irrelevant relationship
Ecology of Organizations
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generally by the owner (Also, Byers & Slack, 2001). Moreover, the management style and
relationships are more informal in small organizations than bigger ones (Matalay, 1999).
The cultural factors may also contribute to the perceived style of a leader and its
effectiveness. In a study by Williams (2004), utilizing MLQ (5x), the relationship between
perceived leadership style and perceived leadership effectiveness was tested in selected
tertiary institutions in Jamaica. The cultural moderators were power distance, uncertainty
avoidance, individualism and collectivism, and masculinity and feminity. It was found that
the leadership styles were perceived at a higher transformational level by the subordinates
than the leaders. This, however, reveals the different perceptions that leaders and subordinates
may hold. In another study, the effect of the organizational culture on the style of leadership
was predicted (Yafang Tsai, Shih-Wang Wu, Hsien-Jui Chung, 2009). It was revealed that the
staff’s belief and value for their work would influence their attitudes and conducts. There was
also found positive correlation between ideological culture and transformational leadership
style, hierarchical culture and charismatic leadership style, and rational culture and
transactional leadership.
2.6. Conceptual Model
As mentioned earlier, based on literature review, a conceptual model was developed
for the study of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership on leadership
effectiveness. The model is shown in Fig. 2.6. It is proposed that emotional intelligence could
impact transformational leadership style and the leadership style and then, leadership style
could affect the leadership effectiveness. In the other words, this model hypothesizes the
relationship between the emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness to be mediated
through transformational leadership styles. We predicted that the relation between emotional
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intelligence and leadership effectiveness is significantly positive and is reduced, even close to
zero, while controlling the transformational leadership style as mediating variable.
Fig. 2.6. The conceptual Model for mediating effect of transformational style in relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness .Expe= Experimental, Start = Strategic, EI= Emotional Intelligence, TF= Transformational Style, LE = Leadership Effectiveness, IS = Intellectual Stimulation, IC= Individual Consideration, II = Idealized Influence, IM = Inspirational Motivation, EE = Extra Effort, E = Effectiveness, S = Satisfaction.
As previous studies (Sosik & Megerian, 1999; Riggio et al., 2002, Kuang Chi, Pei Tsai &
Chang, 2007; Harms & Credé, 2010; Yammarino et al., 1999) have indicated Emotional
intelligence could impact and enhance the transformational leadership skills and behaviors.
The researches have associated the emotional intelligence to transformational leadership and
indicated that the emotional intelligence components most strongly related to transformational
leadership. Leaders with high emotional intelligence should be more able to understand and
manage their own emotions and managing other’s emotions which led to more positive
interactions.
In the other hand, there are a wide range of research that showed the transformational
leadership enhance effectiveness leadership is a vital role for effective managers because
EI
Expe
Strat
LE
EE
E
S
TF
IS IC II IM
133
leader effectiveness determines the success level of the organization (Palmer, Burgess &
Stough, 2001, Hesselbein and Cohen,1999, Northouse, 2001, Weese, 1994; Einstein and
Humphreys, 2001; Dong I. and Yammarino, 2001) and improve organizational performance
(Barbuto & Burbach, 2006; Hayashi & Ewert, 2006; Roberson & Park, 2007), and exhibit
superior performance (Goleman, 1995; Keller, 1995).
Although a few studies examined the mediating role of transformational leadership
between emotional intelligence and other personality traits with job satisfaction (Fatima,
Imran and Zaheer, 2010) leadership effectiveness (Anderson, 2006), there is no empirical
evidence developing and testing a structural model to indentify the role of leadership style
between EI and leadership effectiveness. According to the above, it can be proposed that
leadership style may be a process mechanism linking emotional intelligence to leadership
effectiveness. So, the primary objective of this model is to establish a base understanding of
effective leadership.
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3. Methodology
3.1. Research Design
A correlational design was used to collect and analyze data from the research sample.
A correlational design is most appropriate for this study because it allows to variables to show
if they have a positive or negative relationship. In addition, the current study is a casual
research that explores the effect of one or more variable on another. The research is used to
examine a model developing based on the previous studies explained the relationships among
emotional intelligence, leadership style and leadership effectiveness. The model (Fig. 3.1.)
hypothesizes that leaders' emotional intelligence was related to leadership effectiveness
through transformational leadership behavior.
Fig. 3.1. The conceptual model for mediating effect of transformational style on the relation between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. EI= Emotional Intelligence, TF= Transformational Style, LE = Leadership Effectiveness
3.2. Population and Sample
The population of the current study includes all the industrial, economic, servicing,
and training corporate managers that had participated in INPE Award contest during the years
EI
LE
TF
135
2007-2009 and won the prize. The INPE Award is conducted in Iran, in an annual basis and
has gained national popularity among the public and corporate media.
The sample group which consists of 100 male executive managers is chosen using
systematic random sampling method. The sampling procedure proceeded as follows: initially
the INPE winning company titles were chosen based on the year they had obtained the award.
The titles then were sorted based on the number of mangers against the population sample and
later alphabetically sorted. The required number of companies was selected in a way with no
repeated title was not included.
After inquiring the received questionnaires, 21 of them were excluded because of
incompletion and unanswered responses. So the final sample consisted of 79 male managers
aged 45 -55 years (M=48, SD= 2.5).The percentage of the sample managers regarding the
type of award are provided in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1.
Frequencies and percentages of the managers based on the type of INPE Award
Category f % %cf
Commitment for Excellence 12 15.2 15.2
2 Stars 38 48.1 63.3
3 Stars 16 20.3 83.5
4 Stars 12 15.2 98.7
Excellence Medal 1 1.30 100
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3.3. Instrumentation
3.3.1. MSCEIT v.2.0
The MSCEIT (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test) assesses the four-
branch model of EI (perceiving emotions, facilitating thoughts, understanding and
manageming emotions) with 141 items that are divided among 8 tasks (two for each branch).
The test yields seven scores: one for each of the four branches, two area scores, and a total EI
score (Table. 3.2). The reliability and validity of MSCEIT has proved positive in several
studies. In a study, Mayer et. al. (2003), the MSCEIT was found to reveal reasonable
reliability and support for the dimensional structure proposed by Mayer and Salovey (1997)
of EI.
Table 3.2.
Components and Items of the MSCEIT v. 2.0
Emotional Intelligence Component Total Items
Area Scores
Experiential Perceiving
Facilitating Branch 1 & 2
Strategic Understanding
Managing Branch 2 & 3
Branch Scores
1. Perceiving Emotions Faces
Pictures
4 Stimuli/20 items
6 Stimuli/30 items
2.Facilitating Thought Sensations
Facilitations
5 Stimuli/15 items
5 Stimuli/15 items
3.Understanding Emotions Changes
Blends
20 items
12 items
4.Managing Emotions Emotion Management
Emotional Relations
5 Stimuli/20 items
3 Stimuli/9 items
Adapted from MSCEIT v. 2.0 Test Manual (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2002)
The reliability of the four branches scores for both methods of scoring were between
.76 and .91. Brackett and Meyer (2003) reported the test-retest reliability of the full test over a
three-week period to be .86 (Brackett & Mayer, 2003). In another study conducted
independently of the original authors, Palmer, Gignac, Manocha and Stough (2005) also
137
found support for the internal reliability of the MSCEIT (co-efficient scores in the .71 to .90
range) but only partial for the underlying factor structure with three factors instead of four
being identified. In a dependent study, Livingstone and Day (2005) found statistical support
via a confirmatory factor analysis for the four-factor model of the MSCEIT.
Due to the dual nature of scoring in MSCEIT, namely general consensus and expert
criteria, split-half reliabilities are also applicable for each scoring type. In a study with a large
standardization sample (about 2000 individuals), Mayer et al. (2003) tested MSCEIT’s split-
half reliabilities. The results showed 0.93 and 0.91 for consensus and expert scoring
respectively and two areas (Experiential and Strategic EI) score reliabilities were 0.90 and
0.90 for consensus and 0.88 and 0.86 for expert scoring. The four branches scores’
reliabilities in both methods ranged 0.76 to 0.91. The reliabilities of individual tasks,
however, ranged from 0.55 to 0.88.
Mayer et al. (2003) in a confirmatory factor analysis of MSCEIT eight tasks, reported
that the best model was four-factor solution as evidenced by the following goodness-of-fit
index (NFI=0.98, 0.97; TLI=0.96, 0.97; RMSEA=0.05, 0.04).
The validity of MSCEIT has also been tested through plenty of studies. Exploring the
discriminate validity of MSCEIT, Brackett, Mayer, and Warner (2003), found only a weak
correlation between MSCEIT area and total scores to that of Verbal Sat scores (rs= 0.23 to
0.39) in a sample of 330 students. In another study, WAIS-III vocabulary subscales, a test
battery for verbal intelligence, and Verbal SAT scores were found weakly correlated with the
Understanding Emotions branch of the MSCEIT (which is mostly tests knowledge of
emotional vocabulary) (Lopes, Salovey, & Straus, 2003). David (2002) explored the
correlations between Wonderlic Personnel Test and MSCEIT total scores and Branch 3
scores; the correlations reported were 0.33 and 0.44 respectively.
138
Considering the correlation between MSCEIT scores and Big Five traits, Brackett and
Mayer (2003), found no significant relationship between Neuroticism, Extraversion, and
Conscientiousness and MSCEIT scores, however they found a moderate correlation with
Agreeableness and Intellect (rs < 0.28). Similar correlations between MSCEIT score and Big
Five traits were also reported (Lopes, Salovey, & Straus, 2003). They also found that
MSCEIT scores had no relationship with social desirability or mood, or personality scales
such as public and private self-consciousness and self-esteem.
MSCEIT as an ability test was reported to have little significant relationship with self-
report measures of EI such as Bar-On EQ-I or Self-Report EI test (Schutte et al., 1998). In a
study, Brackett & Mayer (2003) reported a 0.21 and 0.18 correlations with respect to the Bar-
On and Schutte’s tests. In another study, Gohm & Glore (2002) reported a particularly weak
relationship between the meta-mood measures of EI and MSCEIT scores (r= 0.29; rs =0,01 to
0.15, Lopes, 2003).
In this study, to explore the construct validity and the factor structure of the Persian
version MSCEIT, a second-order confirmatory factor analysis model was developed. A
second order model is used to determine if a measured concept can be further defined by the
measurement of other underlying concepts, referred to as latent traits (Maruyama, 1998;
Thompson, 1990). To do this, tests are conducted to determine if correlations among
underlying latent traits, or first order factors, can be accounted for by a broader latent trait, or
second order factor.
According to Mayer and Salovey (1997), the MSCEIT (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso
Emotional Intelligence Test) assesses the four-branch model of EI included Perceiving,
Facilitating, Understanding, Managing emotions. These branches are categorized into two
area scores of MSCEIT: Experimental Emotional Intelligence and Strategic Emotional
Intelligence. So, it was hypothesized that the relationship between the branches of EI
139
representing the latent traits of Experimental and Strategic could be explained by the broader
concepts of Emotional Intelligence (Fig. 3.2.).
The CFI results confirmed second factor structure for MSCEIT. Examination of the fit
indices leads one to believe that the derived model provides for a reasonable fit with the data
(χ2 = 1.64; p = .209; RMSEA = 0.047). So the two-factor solution of factor analysis for the
entire MSCEIT yielded the two areas.
All the parameter estimates were reasonable in that all factor loadings were large and
statistically significant, and the patterns of correlations were logical and all the goodness of fit
indices was satisfactory in relation to typical standards of good to excellent fits to the data.
The NFI, CFI and GFI, are .95, .99 and 99 respectively. Another indication that the model fits
well is that Expected Cross-Validation (ECVI) for the model (.25) was less than the ECVI for
the saturated model (.26) that represents a reasonably close approximation in the population.
Fig. 3.2. The second order-factor model for MSCEIT. EI= Emotional Intelligence CFI= Comparative Fit Index, GFI= Goodness of Fit Index, NFI= Normed Fit Index, RMSEA= Root Mean Square Error of Approximation.
*P< .05. **p<.01
3.3.2. MLQ 5X
The questionnaire contains 45 statements that identify and measure the key aspects of
leadership behavior, and each statement in the questionnaire relates to transactional,
Perceiving
Facilitating
Understanding
Managing
Experimental
Strategic
EI .24**
χ2 =1. 64, df = 11, p< .20
CFI= .99
GFI= .99
NFI= .95
1.0**
.61**
1.01**
2.36**
.23*
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transformational or non-transactional leadership factors (Table. 3.3). The respondent is
required to judge how frequently the behavior described in the statement is exhibited. The
MLQ uses a scale of 0 to 4, with 0 indicating a “not at all” rating of the behavior described in
the statement. The other end of the scale, 4, indicates a “frequently if not always” rating of the
behavior described in the statement (Bass and Avolio, 1997). The MLQ consists of two
versions, one for the leader to complete, and one for the raters of the leaders to complete. The
leaders complete a questionnaire describing their own leadership style, whilst the raters
complete a questionnaire regarding the leadership style of their specific leader.
Yammarino and Bass (1990) have proved the content and concurrent validity of the
MLQ. Bass and Avolio (1997) also demonstrate the construct validity of the MLQ. The
reliability of the MLQ has also been proven on many occasions through test-retest, internal
consistency methods and alternative methods (Bass and Avolio, 1997).
Table 3.3
Constructs, Factors and Scales of MLQ 5x
Leadership Construct Component Scale (Number of items/Scale)
Transformational Leadership
Intellectual Stimulation Individualized Consideration Charisma Inspirational Motivation
Intellectual Stimulation (4) Individualized Consideration (4) Idealized Influence (Behavior) (4) Idealized Influence (Attributed) (4) Inspirational Motivation (4)
Transactional Leadership Contingent Reward Management-by-Exception
Contingent Reward (4) Management-by-Exception (Active) (4) Management-by-Exception (Passive) (4)
Laissez-Faire Leadership Laissez-Faire Laissez-Faire (4)
Leadership Outcomes Satisfaction Extra Effort Effectiveness
Satisfaction (2) Extra Effort (3) Effectiveness (4)
Source: Adapted from Avolio and Bass (2000)
141
The initial concern regarding MLQ has been reported to be its structural validity
(Tepper & Percy, 1994). Kelloway et al. (2000) found a strong correlation among the
subcomponents of transformational leadership. In a study by Yammarino and Dubinsky
(1994) on 105 salespersons and their 33 sales supervisors, a very high relationship were found
among the transformational factors and very high loading of items on a single
transformational scale.
The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients calculated by Pruijn and Boucher (1994)
substantiate the reliability of the MLQ. Bycio, Hackett and Allen (1995) conducted a factor
analysis on the various transformational and transactional leadership variables; their findings
provide further evidence of the reliability of the MLQ. One of the immediate concerns
regarding MLQ is its structural validity (Tepper & Percy, 1994).
In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients for the
Transformational, Transactional and Nonleadership styles were .79, .76 , .54, and .96
respectively. In order to confirm the construct validity and factor structure of Persian version
MLQ, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted for two constructs of Transformational
and Transactional styles and their seven indicators (Fig. 3.3)
The fit indices for the hypothesized model are presented in Fig. 3.3. As can be seen
from Fig. 3.3, the model fit the data well (χ2 =12. 54, df = 11, p< .32). The relative chi-square
for the scale is 1.14. This value meets the criteria for adequate fit (<2.00). The point estimate
of RMSEA for the model is .043, below .05, which indicates good fit. The upper confidence
limit for RMSEA is only slightly above the value .04. The Goodness-of-fit indexes for both
competence and values rating scales (GFI = .96, NFI = .99 & CFI = 1.0, respectively) fit well
and close to acceptable criteria. In addition, Cross-Validation Index (ECVI) for the two rating
scales (.60) is less than the ECVI for the saturated model (.73) and represents a reasonably
close approximation in the population.
142
Fig. 3.3. The CFA model for Persian version of MLQ. TA= Transactional Style, TF= Transformational Style, IS = Intellectual Stimulation, IC= Individual Consideration, II = Idealized Influence, IM = Inspirational Motivation CR = Contingent Reward, MBEP= Management - by-Exception (passive), MBEA= Management-by-Exception (active), CFI= Comparative Fit Index, GFI= Goodness of Fit Index, NFI= Normed Fit Index, RMSEA= Root Mean Square Error of Approximation **p<.01
As shown in Fig. 3.3., In order to fit the model with the data we have to establish the
coefficient path between TA and Contingent Reward; suggesting that the Transactional
leadership could be explained by the Contingent Reward which is one of the Transactional
leadership. There is some empirical evidence that supports this finding such as Bass and
Avolio (2000) and Weinberger (2003).
Effectiveness: In addition to the transformational and transactional leadership
components, there are three outcome leadership outcomes: (a) satisfaction, (b) extra-effort,
and (c) effectiveness. As noted earlier, in this study the effectiveness of the sample managers
was assessed by the Leadership Outcome subscale of MLQ. Leadership effectiveness is
measured with the MLQ by how often the raters perceive their leader to be motivating, how
effective raters perceive their leader to be at different levels of the organization, and how
satisfied raters are with their leader’s methods of working with others. There have been a
number of survey studies that have used the MLQ to examine the relationship between
χ2 =12. 54, df = 11, p< .32
CFI= 1.0
GFI= .96
NFI= .99
RMSEA = 0.43
IS
IC
II
IM
CR
MBEP
TF
TA
MBEA
.92**
.83**
.85**
.85**
.94**
.93**
.34**
.77**
.81**
143
leadership behavior and various criteria of leadership effectiveness based on the subscale.
(Avolio & Howell, 1992; Yammarino & Bass (1990).
In order to confirm the construct validity of the Leadership outcome component of
Persian version MLQ, a second order confirmatory factor analysis was conducted. According
to MLQ the leadership outcome was assessed by the three subscales including Satisfaction (2
items) Extra Effort (3 items) and Effectiveness (4 items). So, it was hypothesized that the
relationship between the subscales representing the latent trait of Leadership outcome (Fig.
3.4.).
Fig. 3.4. The CFI model for Leadership Outcome of Persian version of MLQ. LO= Leadership Outcome, CFI= Comparative Fit Index, GFI= Goodness of Fit Index, NFI= Normed Fit Index, RMSEA= Root Mean Square Error of Approximation **p<.01
As can be seen from Fig. 3.4, the model fit the data well (χ2 =23. 22, df = 20, p< .27).
The relative chi-square for the scale is 1.16. This value meets the criteria for adequate fit
(<2.00). The point estimate of RMSEA for the model is .045, below .05, which indicates good
fit. The Goodness-of-fit indexes for both competence and values rating scales (GFI = .92, NFI
X38
X41
X39
X42
X44
X37
Satisfaction
.81**
.95**
.68**
.96**
.92**
.87**
.76**
X40
.82**
χ2 =23. 22, df = 20, p< .27
CFI=.98
GFI= .92
NFI=.97
RMSEA =.045
.92**
X43
X45
Extra
.75**
.84** Effectivene
LO
.92**
1.06**
.94**
144
= .97 & CFI = 0.98, respectively) fit well and close to acceptable criteria. In addition, Cross-
Validation Index (ECVI) for the two rating scales (.94) is less than the ECVI for the saturated
model (1.15) and represents a reasonably close approximation in the population.
3.3.3. EFQM
Utilizing the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) excellence
model has exceeded 30 percent of UK local authorities and over 90 percent reported an
increase in the rate of improvement (George, Cooper, and Douglas, 2008). It has been
empirically proven that the implementation of management models such as EFQM excellence
model has a positive effect on the corporate performance, too (Kristensen and Juhl, 1999;
Kristensen et. al. 2000).
Li and Yang (2003) in response to the wide criticisms of EFQM model, performed a
study which came to prove "the reliability and accuracy of the new model" of EFQM (Li and
Yang, 2003). It is also noted by Reed (1996) that the model is generally applicable to public
sector organizations. Testing the enablers of the EFQM model, Bou-Llusar et. al (2005) found
that a balanced approach in the development of enablers allows correlation between enablers
and results to be maximized that finally lead to an optimal result of EFQM. Due to the
individual/public framework of the EFQM model, it is believed that this orientation of EFQM
is an optimal orientation for the strategic management of organizations that face changing
environments (Martin-Castilla, 2002).
3.3.4. INPE Award (EFQM-based Model)
This award is fundamentally based on the EFQM excellence model. It is conducted by
the Institute for Productivity and Human Resource Development (IPHRD) on an annual basis
in Iran (INPE Award Applicant Manual, 2010). It consists of one self-assessment which is
145
performed by the registered companies for the INPE award and another evaluation by expert
raters committee. Moreover, it takes full advantage of the 9 principles within the EFQM
business excellence model (Fig. 3.5.). These principles are 1) Leadership, 2) Strategies, 3)
Human Resources, 4) Resources, 5) Partnership, 6) Processes, 7) Customers Feedbacks, 8)
Personnel’s’ Feedbacks, 9) Society Feedbacks. The INPE Award scoring system which is
entirely based on the EFQM excellence model uses the required percentages given to enablers
and results of the model (Fig. 3.5.) for its analysis. This analysis, on the other hand, comprises
four elements: approach, deployment, assessment, and review (RADAR).
Fig. 3.5.: The EFQM excellence model (2010)
As mentioned earlier, INPE Award utilizes two modules namely ‘enablers’ and
‘results’ for evaluating the overall performance of a company and its potential to achieve the
reward. The enabler’s module comprises of leadership, people, policy and strategy,
partnership and resources. The results module contains the results obtained from the people,
customers, society, and the key performance results. Each of these criteria within the modules
has certain weight that has been shown in the Fig. 3.5.
146
These criterion weights, however, has been a significance section of the EFQM model
and INPE Award since their introduction and use (Porter and Tanner, 1998). Within EFQM
excellence model adopted by INPE, exists the rational explanation presented through RADAR
(Results, Approach, Deployment, Assessment and Review). This scoring logic is an
indication of the criteria an organization needs to meet in order to be qualified for the INPE
Award:
- Determining the outcomes as part of a process of strategic planning. These outcomes
include the organizational performance in financial, operational and stakeholders’
conceptions.
- Planning and development of a unified system though a set of rational and suitable
approaches in order to achieve the desired outcome.
- Deployment of these approaches in a systematic manner in order to insure the
performance results.
- Assessment and reviewing the approaches through employment of a set of systematic
analysis of the outcomes and the current learning activities.
These four elements embrace the core aspects of RADAR (Fig. 3.6.).
Results: The Business Excellence Model is concerned with continuous improvement and so
there is a requirement to measure the start and finish state for each cycle of improvement.
"Results" is a shorthand description for this process of measuring.
At the beginning of adopting the Business Excellence Model it may seem strange to start with
"Results" but this only reflects the need to assess where you are before setting a course to get
to where you want to be.
The evaluation of results applies to the four results criteria - People Results, Customer
Results, Society Results, Key Performance Results - and takes account of FIVE aspects of
147
performance- Trends, Targets, Comparisons, Causes, Scope - within each sub-criterion of
each one.
Thus - for example - sub criterion 7a Perception Measures which is about the people's
(employees) perception of the organization and may include motivational and job satisfaction
measures. The evidence gathered for this sub-criterion needs to be scored against:
Trends - how are perceptions changing over time and are they improving?
Targets - are they appropriate and are they being met?
Comparisons - does the organization check its performance against that of other
organizations?
Causes - are the results caused by the approach or are they 'accidental'?
Scope - are the results valid for all areas of the organization?
Approach: This area of the RADAR measurement system is concerned with whether the way
things are done (within a given sub-criterion) are the result of planned and coherent
management or are merely chance outcomes.
Generally, assessment exercises will be looking to find a clear link from top level MISSION
and VALUES statements through strategic direction to tactics and processes that support and
deliver outcomes that meet the objectives enshrined in the MISSION and VALUES of the
organization.
The key words are SOUND and INTEGRATED.
Deployment: Following from consideration of the Approach is measurement of Deployment.
This just means asking the two questions. Is the Approach implemented (do the managers and
people DO what they say they DO)? Is the implementation systematic (does it cover all
relevant areas of the organization)?
It is no use having good strategies, tactics and processes if no one is following them.
148
Assessment: In scoring against the Business Excellence model, Assessment and Review are
grouped together because they are seen as parts of a single process.
The separation between them is that it is POSSIBLE to assess the effectiveness of both
Approach and Deployment without learning from that assessment and making improvements.
Few organizations (and certainly none that was committed to Business Excellence) would
assess either Approach or Deployment as being faulty and then do nothing to change and
improve.
An important aspect of Assessment is that measurement of effectiveness must be regular.
Review: Review follows Assessment to learn lessons from the assessment program and to
initiate improvements based on this.
This is the motor for initiating change and thus improving
Results: It is concerned with learning activities, communication of Best Practice and also
prioritizing actions to implement change.
Fig. 3.6. RADAR Scoring Logic in EFQM
3.3.4.1. Self-Assessment Approaches within Business Excellence Model
Rusjan (2005) suggests that a self-assessment instrument derived from Business
Excellence models helps companies systematically identify and alter gaps in their
149
performance. A self-assessment approach however, must consider the maturity and the
dominant culture of the organization. Therefore, it must be accurately tailored to the
overarching management processes. It is shown that the success of self-assessement
approaches strongly depends on the level of their consistency with the organization, hence,
guarantees its further and future usages and genreal participation (Samuelsson and Nilsson
2002).
Consequently, in order to choose the most appropriate self-assessement approach,
several methods are suggested by EFQM and NOEE:
1. Questionnaire
2. Matrix
3. Beta Plus TM
4. Workshop (evidence base)
5. Pro-forma
6. Award Simulation
The above six methods are categorized based on two main themes: the type of
evidence supporting these categories and the level of rigor required to execute them (Fig.
3.7.). As shown in Fig. 3.7., the black-shaded methods are proposed by EFQM (Assessing for
Excellence 2003) and the grey-shaded methods by NOEE. It further reveals the various self-
assessment methods according to the degree of ease of use and rigor while others with
opinion and evidence. As it can be observed from the figure, the questionnaire method is the
most easiest and the least rigrous while the award simulation method is the most rigrous.
Furthermore, Fig. 3.7. reveals the intrinsic strength of each method in other ways: the
questionares, matrix and beta plusTM methods are derived from the opinions and perceptions
of the participants while the workshop, pro-forma, and award simulation methods are fully
150
achieved through the evidences obtained from data collection strategies. Each approach offers
different benefits and engages various risks and resources (Hides, Davies and Jackson 2004).
Fig. 3.7. Six methods of self-assessment
Adapted from EFQM, Assessing for Excellence 2003
Almost, all of these methods, invovle three key steps in their implimentaion:
· an initial training session;
· a session to reach consensus among all the participants on the basis of improving the
organization;
· A session to develop an action plan;
Due to the requirements of the current research, only the methods suggested by the
European Foundation of Quality Management (Assessing for Excellence 2003) are presented
here: Questionnaire, Workshop, Pro-forma, and Award Simulation.
3.3.4.1.1. Questionnaire Method
In this method, a series of classified questions from the adopted excellence model, are
replied by the participants. The questions involve a range of Yes/No answers, to Likert-type
151
interval scales. Some of the questionnaires require the respondents to choose a score beteen 0
and 100 percent for each question where 100 percent further needs review and refinement and
0 percent indicates something that does not normally occur (Zairi and Whymark, 2003).
Due to its least resources, the questionnaire approach can be uncomplicatedly
performed. It offers an excellent method for collecting data on the people’s perceptions within
the organization. This method could be further sophisticated if employed in relation to
workshops. Nonetheless the designing or even purchase of the questionnaire for self-
assessment purposes could only reveal the repondents' perspective and not the roots of their
perspectives (Nuland et al., 1999).
Some of the advantages of the questionnaire approach are as follows:
· Cost effectiveness and an easy approach to identify performance gaps
· Offering quality profiles.
· A fast way of adjusting the company against the given excellence framework.
· Easy introduction to self-assessment.
· Tailored questionnaires for the particular company needs.
· Minimal training requirements
· Highly responsive profiles for all parts of an organization
· Quick exploration of the consequences and learning opportunities for the further
implimentations
· Used as an input for more refined approaches (Porter and Tanner 2004).
Nevertheless, there exist several limitations to this approach:
· Prescriptive nature of the questionnaires
· Less practical in terms of individual learning opportunities
· Highly perception-based assessment outputs
152
· Less effective for long term analyses due to the questionnairs' temprary output (Reed
and Shergold, 1996).
· The quality of questions determines the objectivity and accuracy of the approach
· Learning limitations due to the prescription nature
· Little ownership of issues is guaranteed
· Less valid when used as a survey tool (Porter and Tanner 2004)
3.3.4.1.2. Workshop - Evidence Based Method
The participants in this self-assessment method, attend workshops where initially pass
some sesions of awareness training session. Then, they must spend a considerable time to
collect factual data from within the organization regarding all the nine EFQM Excellence
model criteria, and in some cases all the thirty two criterion sections. Subsequently, the
participants are required to meet again to carry out a more comprehensive self-assessment of
their respective organization and to achieve consensus on a list of strengths and areas for
progress based on the obtained authentic evidences. At an ensuing session, the participants
strive to settle on the action plan based on the identified strengths and weaknesses.
Nevertheless, the workshop approach could be more helpful for management teams (Porter
and Tanner 2004).
The major advantages of workshop approaches are:
· Quickly performed compared to award-type processes and is comparatively cheaper
· No major training requirements
· Contrary to questionnare approach, ownership is guaranteed
· Intrinsic team-building oppertunity.
· Progressive orientation of the discussions in terms of improving oppertunities
153
· Securing the ownership of the outcomes, effectiveness, and action planning (Porter
and Tanner 2004).
The main restrictions of this approach are:
· The limitation of the the accuracy of the assessment to the knowledge and insight of
the group
· The limitation of the outcomes to the role of the facilitator (Porter and Tanner 2004).
3.3.4.1.3. Pro-Forma Method
In this self-assessment method, an initial training session is essential. This is followed
with an opportunity for all the participants to collect factual data, to carry out interviews with
other members of the organization and to complet the required pro-forma sheets (Fig. 3.8).
Fig. 3.8. A sample of the Pro-forma
The thirty two pro-forma pages are correlated to one of the thirty two criterion elements
of the EFQM Excellence model in one way or another. The participants are asked to evaluate
each pro-forma page independently and then meet eacho other to achieve a consensus and
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compile the final report. The report is presented to the management team. Another meeting is
followed with the purpose of prioritizing the issues and formulating the action plans.
The main advantages of pro-forma approach are:
· Evidence-based processes
· More objective scores compared to other methods
· Generation of key strengths and areas of progress for further actions
· Invovlement of various people in different stages of the process (Porter and Tanner
2004).
The major limitations of this method are as follows:
· The risk of superficial performance and projection of false outcomes
· Presentation of an inaccurate portray of the company (Porter and Tanner 2004).
3.3.4.1.4. Award Simulation Method
Two initial training sessions are required for this method: one for those taking the role
of preparing an award submission style document, and the other for those taking the role of
assessing those documents. The participants in charge of preparing the award submission
document must spend a period of time collecting factual data and carrying out interviews with
other members of the organization. The award submission document is normally based on
each of the thirty two criterion elements of the EFQM Excellence model. A session is
followed in order for the management team to approve the documents.
Subsequently, the participants assessing the awards submission document must
independently evaluate the documents and then in a meeting arrive at a consensus. In the next
episode, a feedback report is generated and presented to the management team of the
organization. A follow-up session is held with the purpose of prioritizing the issues and
formulating the action plans.
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The major advantages of this approach are as follows:
· Ccomprehensive insights into the capability and performance of the company.
· Details on strengths and areas for progress.
· Self-assessment results directly comparable to actual award assessments.
· Generation of a powerful message and reference document.
· Riche in output for action plan (Porter and Tanner 2004).
The main limitations of the award simulation approach are that:
· High resources requirements and an extensive process time.
· Not objective
· Inappropriate in identifying the company's actual progress toward excellence (Porter
and Tanner 2004).
3.3.4.2. External Raters of INPE Award
In order to evaluate the companies seeking national productivity and excellence award, a
group of raters are chosen who has enough knowledge and experience in EFQM assessment
process. Therefore the INPE Award secretary chooses these raters based on the following
criteria:
· University qualifications (minimum requirement: B.A)
· Academic fame
· Communication skills
· Knowledge and skills in management, evaluation, and assessment
· Well-documented management experience record
· Ability to meet the deadlines on time
· Following the time-schedule provided by the INPE Award secretary
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· Taking the required professional courses
The INPE Award secretary conducts training workshops and courses in order to prepare
the raters for assessing the companies’ profiles. These workshops and courses are designed
based on the EFQM process of choosing raters. In the process of training, the candidates will
be exposed a sample company statement. They need to evaluate the statement and pass the
rater’s course.
From the raters chosen, some are selected as Senior Raters who manage to lead teams
of raters. They are required to provide reports on their respected team activities and guide
their team to meet the requirements of the INPE Award secretary.
However, the raters are required to evaluate the company’s statements in the field i.e.
to attend the companies’ places and verify the points given in the statement. They are also,
alleged to keep privacy of the companies’ information. For this end, each rater is required to
sign a written testimony confirming their commitment for keeping the privacy of the
companies’ information. However, these raters after passing the required courses need to be
approved by the Raters Coordination Committee. Finally, these raters are given an INPE
Award certificate and their names will appear in the INPE website.
Raters Association has been created for the raters to come together and share their
experiences and expertise in a lively manner. The Raters Association takes its members
among those who have 2 years of rating experience. These raters are regarded as the
association’s member for one year without any member fee.
3.3.4.3. The INPE Award Prize Levels
Business excellence levels among certain companies indicate the levels they were the
successful enough to achieve. The INPE Award has three major prizes for companies
reaching to these levels: 1. Excellence Medal Level; 2. Honor for Excellence Level; 3.
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Commitment for Excellence Level (INPE Award Applicant Manual, 2010). Nomination for
each of these three levels is evaluated with regards to the excellence assessment results
explained above (External raters and self-assessments). The nominees’ qualification and the
record they have achieved in each of these levels are separately presented in the following
way:
Excellence Medal Level: The applicants who have adequately put the Business
Excellence Model into practice and in a triennium performing years have constantly improved
their performance, would receive a crystal, silver, and golden medal based on the scores they
achieve (Table 3.4.).
Table 3.4.
Excellence Medal Level Scoring
Excellence Medal Score
Golden Medal More than 650 points
Silver Medal More than 550 points
Crystal Medal More than 450 points
Source: INPE Award Applicant Manual, 2010
Applicants for Excellence Medal must meet the following requirements (INPE Award
Applicant Manual, 2010):
1. Assignment of one of the senior managers as the business excellence executive
2. The self-assessment must be properly adjusted and the time of last submitted self-
assessment must not exceed more than one year
3. Development, prioritization, and application of the improvement programs based on
the results of the self-assessments
4. Approval of the improvement process throughout three years
5. An acceptable equilibrium between the scores achieved in enablers and results (it
should not exceed more than 10 percent)
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6. The eight fundamental concepts of EFQM model must be appropriately met and no
negative observation must not be reported by the stakeholders
7. In order to achieve crystal medal, based on certain indicators known to the applicant,
the company must be comparable to better organizations in its same class
8. In order to achieve silver medal, the applicant company must be comparable to its
same class organizations
9. In order to achieve golden medal, the applicant company must be comparable to the
world class organizations
10. In order to achieve crystal and silver medals, the scores in processes, customer results,
and key performance results, must be within 41 to 50 percent extreme, and in order to
achieve golden medal must be within 51 to 60 percent
The companies receiving the medals can use their achievement in their advertisements for
three years. They must include the year of their achievement in their ads.
Honor for Excellence Level: The applicants, who have improved their company due to an
efficient management, receive an Honor for Excellence award. This award however, falls into
four levels based on the stars (scores) achieved (Table3.5.).
The least features for the applicant companies to achieve Honor for Excellence
include:
· Assignment of one of the senior managers as the business excellence executive
· Utilizing one of the business excellence self-assessment methods and
· The self-assessment must be conducted within one year time before statement
submission
· Development, prioritization, and application of the enhancement programs based on
the last self-assessment done.
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· The applicant company must present at least one of the results achieved through the
improvement programs
· The applicant company must be comparable to other middle class companies in its
level
The Honor for Excellence awarded companies can use their achievement in their
advertisement for two years.
Table 3.5.
Honor for Excellence Level Scoring
Honor for Excellence
(Stars)
Score
2 Stars 300-350
3 Stars 351-400
4 Stars 401-450
5 Stars 450
Source: INPE Award Applicant Manual, 2010
Commitment for Excellence Level. The companies that have moved toward excellence
through a number of training courses and have applied one of the self-assessment procedures
will receive Commitment for Excellence award. The Companies receiving such an award
would require having the following characteristics:
a. To apply one of the self-assessments methods through which SWOT can be properly
detected.
b. Prioritize the amendable performance areas and reformation programs
c. Apply the reformation programs
d. At least one of the senior or junior managers must be totally aware of the concepts and
criteria of Business Excellence Model.
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The Commitment for Excellence awarded companies can use their achievement for one
year in their advertisement.
All the applicants companies not to be able to achieve any of the INPE awards will
receive a feedback report annotating the reasons of their failure and their possible strengths to
improve toward excellence.
The Honor for Excellence Award in Iran falls into five levels (Table3.6.).
Table 3.6.
Iranian Honor for Excellence Level Scoring
Category Score
Commitment for Excellence 250- 300
2 Stars 300-350
3 Stars 351-400
4 Stars 401-450
Excellence Medal 450
Source: INPE Award Applicant Manual, 2010
3.4. Data collection
Two commercially available survey instruments, namely MSCEIT v.2.0 (Mayer,
Salovey, & Caruso, 2002) and MLQ 5x (Bass & Avolio, 2000) were required for the current
research. Therefore, it was necessary to contact the publishers of these two research products.
Mind Garden, the official publisher of MLQ 5x, is an independent psychological publishing
company of leadership, coping, anxiety and many other assessments and developmental
materials. Since 1994, Mind Garden has sought to preserve and grow important
psychological assessments. All the procedures for obtaining MLQ 5x laid by Mind Garden
were carried out. Unfortunately, the response was negative. Nevertheless, the researcher was
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obliged to buy the product through some coordinators in Canada. The MLQ 5x pack
contained 120 tests and a manual (Appendix 1).
The other instrument, MSCEIT v.2.0 is a research instrument exclusively published by
Multiple Health Systems (MHS) in the North America (Appendix 2). MHS has been
publishing psychological assessments since 1983. Products such as the Conner’s Rating
Scales–Revised, the Children’s Depression Inventory, the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-
i), the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, the Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised 2nd
Edition, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), and the Test of
Memory Malingering are all published by MHS. In order to purchase MSCEIT v. 2.0, the
MHS required a proof from the researcher showing his proficiency in psychology or
management.
Due to the researcher's academic background, few problems occurred in purchasing
the product. After administration, the MSCEIT v.2.0 is required to be scored through MHS
scoring system. There are two options for scoring the MSCEIT through MHS scoring system.
One option indicates a respondent’s correctness on the test as judged by a general consensus
criterion. The second option indicates a respondent’s correctness on the test as judged by an
expert criterion. Both options are standardized, meaning that scores do not directly reflect the
number of items answered “right”, but rather the score relative to others who have taken the
test. However, both options could be fulfilled either online or through postage of test
responses. Due to its simplicity and promptness, the online scoring system was chosen for this
study. Each test response cost $ 40 for the researcher (Appendix 4).
The reports generated by the MHS scoring system were also in two formats: Personal
Summary Report that presents scores graphically and numerically, along with scale
descriptions and a summary of responses. Resource reports which is designed as a very
thorough and easily understood feedback tool for use with respondents. Due to the nature of
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the current study, there was no need for the resource report. Nevertheless, the Personal
Summary Reports were generated by MHS system and were sent back to the researcher's
email box (Appendix 3).
It is noteworthy to mention that MSCEIT v. 2.0 and MLQ 5x tests were translated into
Persian. They were then, revised and approved by a team of psychologists and experts in
management. Both groups were specialized in their respective technical terminologies. Each
session of the tests, were followed by an interviewed. These tests and interviews were
administered by a trained group.
In order for the data collection procedure to be officially liable, a letter containing the
title and the purpose of the thesis was sent to the Institute for Productivity and Human
Resource Development (IPHRD), the director and INPE Award secretary, by IMI (Industrial
Management Institute). Hundred and twenty letters in the forms of fax and emails were
prepared and sent to these firms. Some firms did not approve the validity of the letter and
requested that the letter introduces the researcher to the managing director of the firm and
signed by the head of IPHRD. Accordingly, hundred and twenty letters signed by the head of
IPHRD, were sent to the respected firms.
The researcher, subsequently, chose a team of 14 MBA and psychology graduates to
be trained for data collection procedure. The team was further divided into 7 groups of two.
The procedure for each group included submission of MLQ 5x and MSCEIT v.2.0. to the
sample population. In the case of MSCEIT v.2.0., the tests were followed by an interview
with the presence of the researcher. This was, however, due to the psychological nature of
MSCEIT and researcher’s background in the field. Throughout the data collection procedure,
several problems were encountered. Some of the firms from the sample group did not
cooperate with the researcher. They were hardly accepting any appointments and if so, wanted
to know how the study could contribute to the firms overall efficiency. However, various
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research incentives were used to achieve the firms' confidence: a. it was mentioned in the test
sessions that the responses will be completely confidential and b. that a copy of the research
results will be submitted to the firm's officials for the company's product development; c. it
was suggested that the researcher voluntarily conducts a seminar on emotional intelligence
and leadership for the company's personnel; d. it was proposed that the firms' names be given
in the thesis acknowledgment; e. finally, the firms would also have the opportunity to receive
response report in confidence.
However, in some cases, the firms' headquarters were located outside of Tehran, the
main research site, therefore the teams of test-givers were forced to move out of the city and
this added to the costs and risks of the study.
3.5. Data Analysis
The results obtained from the participants through MSCEIT v. 2.0 and MLQ 5x plus
their score in INPE Award are tested against the research questions. The scores related to the
four components of MSCEIT v. 2.0 and nine components of MLQ 5x and the scores related to
INPE Award, are compared using several statistical methods.
The details of the use of each of these data analysis tools are as follows: The first eight
hypotheses of the research were analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Correlations. The
first and the second questions of the research were analyzed using Multiple Regression and
Canonical Correlation respectively. Finally, the third research question and the ninth
hypothesis were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling.
In order for testing the reliability and Validity of the measures, the Cronbach’s Alpha
coefficient and the first and the second-order confirmatory factor analysis are used.
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4. Results
4.1. Introduction
In this chapter, the results obtained in the current research are reported in five sections.
The first part of the chapter will provide a report on the descriptive statistics of the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Emotional Intelligence, Leadership Effectiveness and
EFQM scores.
The second part of the chapter will reflect the results of the intercorrelations of these
variables. The purpose of this part is to examine the potential relationship between the area,
branches and the total scores of emotional intelligence and its subscales and the total scores of
leadership styles. The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership styles with
leadership effectiveness and ratings of EFQM are examined and presented as well.
In the third part, the canonical correlation is used to explain the relationship of the two
sets of emotional intelligence components and the transformational leadership components,
because there may be more than one linear correlation relating the two sets of components,
with each correlation representing a different dimension where the EI components are related
to the transformational leadership components.
The fourth part will reflect the result of the multiple regression in order to answer the
research question: which of emotional intelligence dimensions are more important to explain
the leadership effectiveness variability?
The fifth part will provide the test of the models via the process of structural equations
modeling. In this chapter, the three models proposed will undergo structural equations
modeling to determine whether the leadership styles mediate between emotional intelligence
and leadership effectiveness. The purpose of this part is to determine the best model to
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explain the relationship among emotional intelligence, leadership styles and leadership
effectiveness.
4.2. Descriptive Statistical Analyses
This section presents the descriptive statistics of the leadership styles scores
determined by the MLQ 5X Scoring Key as a function of the managers’ self-report, the raters'
report, the mean scores of both reports, and the emotional intelligence scores as measured by
MSCEIT V 2.0, the leadership effectiveness scores assessed by the ratings of the outcome
subscale of the MLQ 5X, and finnally the EFQM scores assessed by IPHRD.
4.2.1. MLQ 5X
Self report: The mean, standard deviation, observed range of scores and skewness of
the distribution scores in eight leadership scales as well as transformational, transactional and
laissez-faire leadership style scores rated by the managers are presented in Table 4.1. and
figures 4.1. – 4.3. The means for each of the scale and style scores have a possible range of
zero to four. The low limit of the observed range of scores was zero and belonged to
management–by-exception (passive) and laissez-faire, and the high possible range was
reported for the contingent reward, management-by-exception (active), intellectual
stimulation, idealized influence and inspirational motivation.
Of the eight scale scores, the highest mean scores was belonged to the inspirational
motivation (M=3.47, SD=.39) and the individual consideration (M=3.41, SD=.38), both to be
part of the transformational leadership scales, and the lowest mean score belonged to the
laissez-faire leadership (M=.72, SD=.52) and management-by-exception (passive) scales both
to be components of the nonleadership scale and the transactional style respectively.
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The distributions of all transformational scales were negatively skewed, suggesting
that responses clustered towards the higher end of the response scales. This may imply that
respondents tended to report high levels of the scales. In the other hand, the distributions of all
transactional scales and the nonleadership style were positively skewed suggesting that the
managers clustered towards the lower end of the response scales. This may suggest that they
tended to report low levels of the scales.
The raters report: the mean, the standard deviation, the observed range of scores and
the skewness of the distribution scores in eight leadership scales scores rated by the peers,
subordinates and supervisors of the managers are presented in Table 4.2. and figures 4.1. –
4.3. The observed scores for the transformational subscales ranged from a low of 0.25
(intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation) to a high of 4.0 (for the all of subscales
excepted of individual consideration in the peers rating). For the transactional scales, scores
ranged from a low of 0.0 (contingent reward in the peers and management-by-exception
(active) in the subordinates) to a high of 4.0 (contingent reward in all groups). Scores for the
nonleadership style ranged from a low of 0.0 to a high of 3.75 that rated by the peers.
Of the four scale scores of the transformational subscales, the highest mean scores was
reported for the inspirational motivation scale (M=3.26, M=3.23 rated by the peers and
supervisor respectively) and the lowest mean scores (M=2.58, M=3.63 and M=2.68 rated by
the peers, supervisor and subordinates respectively) was reported for the individual
consideration scale.
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Table 4.1.
Descriptive statistics for Leadership styles subscales based on the managers’ self-report
Variables Range of scores
Observed range of scores
M SD Skewness
Transactional Contingent Reward 0 - 4 2.00 - 4.00 3.27 0.46 0.08 Management-by-exception (passive) 0 - 4 0.00 - 3.00 0.94 0.75 0.71 Management-by-exception (active) 0 - 4 0.75 - 4.00 2.19 0.82 0.39
Transformational Intellectual Stimulation 0 - 4 1.50 - 4.00 2.89 0.62 -0.27 Individual consideration 0 - 4 2.25 - 3.00 3.41 0.38 -0.83 Idealized Influence 0 - 4 2.00 - 4.00 3.38 0.48 -0.41 Inspirational Motivation 0 - 4 2.50 - 4.00 3.47 0.39 -0.55
Nonleadership Laissez-faire leadership 0 - 4 0.00 - 2.25 0.72 0.52 0.79
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Table. 4.2.
Descriptive statistics for Leadership styles subscales as function of the raters-report
Variables
Range of
scores
Observed range of scores
M SD Skewness
Peers Transactional
Contingent Reward 0 - 4 0.00 - 4.00 2.71 0.74 -0.69 .Management-by-exception
(passive) 0 - 4 0.50 - 2.50 1.28 0.51 0.92
Management-by-exception (active)
0 - 4 0.25 - 3.50 1.63 0.81 0.39
Transformational Intellectual Stimulation 0 - 4 0.25 - 4.00 3.00 0.72 -1.65 Individual consideration 0 - 4 0.50 - 3.00 2.63 0.62 -0.25 Idealized Influence 0 - 4 0.63 4.00 3.17 0.63 -1.85 Inspirational Motivation 0 - 4 0.75 4.00 3.26 0.66 -1.39
Nonleadership Laissez-faire leadership 0 - 4 0.00 - 3.75 0.71 0.68 1.68
Subordinate Transactional
Contingent Reward 0 - 4 0.75- 4.00 2.70 0.69 -0.22 .Management-by-exception
(passive) 0 - 4 0.25- 3.00 1. 07 0.54 1.39
Management-by-exception (active)
0 - 4 0.00 - 3.75 0.96 0.82 1.02
Transformational Intellectual Stimulation 0 - 4 1.00 - 4.00 3.02 0.63 -0.79 Individual consideration 0 - 4 1.25 - 4.00 2.58 0.55 -0.28 Idealized Influence 0 - 4 1.00 - 4.00 3.01 0.56 -0.84 Inspirational Motivation 0 - 4 0.25 - 4.00 3.09 0.68 -1.53
Nonleadership Laissez-faire leadership 0 - 4 0.00 -3.00 0.54 0.51 2.39
Supervisor Transactional
Contingent Reward 0 - 4 0.25 - 4.0 2.81 0.73 -0.60 .Management-by-exception
(passive) 0 - 4 0.25 - 3.25 1. 19 0.56 1.31
Management-by-exception (active)
0 - 4 0.50 - 4.00 2.08 0.72 -.092
Transformational Intellectual Stimulation 0 - 4 0.50 - 4.0 3.04 0.71 -1.05 Individual consideration 0 - 4 0.50 - 4.0 2.68 0.70 -0.41 Idealized Influence 0 - 4 0.38 - 4.0 3.21 0.72 -1.58 Inspirational Motivation 0 - 4 0.25 - 4.0 3.23 0.73 -1.87
Nonleadership Laissez-faire leadership 0 - 4 0.00 – 3.25 0.81 0.51 1.40
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Fig. 4.1. Mean scores of Transformational Leadership subscales as a function of raters.
IS = Intellectual Stimulation, IC= Individual Consideration, II = Idealized Influence, IM = Inspirational Motivation
The distributions of all transformational scales rated by all groups, like what rated by
the managers, were negatively skewed, suggesting that the responses were clustered towards
the higher end of the response scales. This may suggest that respondents tended to report high
levels of the scales. But unlike the managers rating, the distributions of contingent reward
scale in the transactional styles subscales and the distribution of management-by-exception
(active) scale ranged by supervisor were negatively skewed; showing that the groups’
responses clustered towards the higher end of the response scales. This may suggest that they
tended to report low levels of the scales.
Of the three scale scores of the transactional subscales (see Fig. 4.2.), the highest mean
scores was reported for the contingent reward scale by all groups (ranged M=2.70, M=2.81)
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and the lowest mean scores (M=1.07, M=1.28) was reported for the management-by-
exception (passive) scale. The lowest mean score in all groups (ranged from M=0.54 to
M=0.83) was reported for the laissez-faire leadership the non-leadership scale (see Fig. 4.3).
Fig. 4.2. Mean scores of Transactional Leadership subscales as a function of raters.
CR = Contingent Reward, MEP= Management-by-Exception (passive), MEA= Management -by-Exception (active).
Fig. 4.3. Mean scores of the Nonleadership subscale as a function of the raters. LL= Laissez-Faire Leadership
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Descriptive statistics of the MLQ 5X mean scores of self- report and raters-report are
presented in Table 4.3 and Fig. 4.4. As shown in Table 4.3., the transformational leadership
behaviors were the predominant component recognized by participants with the means higher
than 3. The low limit of the observed range of scores was 0.19 that belonged to the
nonleadership, and the high possible range (4.0) was reported for the inspirational motivation.
The distributions of all transformational scales and the contingent reward subscale of
transactional style were negatively skewed that shows the respondents tended to report high
levels of the scales. The distributions of the other transactional subscales and the
nonleadership style were positively skewed.
Table 4.3.
Descriptive statistics for the raters’ mean scores of MLQ 5X subscales
Variables
Range of scores
Observed range of scores
M SD Skewness
Transactional Contingent Reward 0 - 4 1.25 - 3.94 2.87 0.46 -0.50 Management-by-exception (passive) 0 - 4 0.44 - 2.25 1.12 0.40 0.89 Management-by-exception (active) 0 - 4 0.88 - 3.31 1.72 0.49 0.81
Transformational Intellectual Stimulation 0 - 4 1.69 - 3.88 3.11 0.48 -0.84 Individual consideration 0 - 4 1.63 - 3.56 2.70 0.44 -0.22 Idealized Influence 0 - 4 1.81 - 3.84 3.20 0.43 -1.53 Inspirational Motivation 0 - 4 1.63 - 4.00 3.26 0.45 -1.63
Nonleadership Laissez-faire leadership 0 - 4 0.19 - 3.25 1.23 0.62 0.82
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Fig. 4.4. Mean scores of MLQ 5X subscales rated by all groups as function of Leaderships styles. IS = Intellectual Stimulation, IC= Individual Consideration, II = Idealized Influence, IM = Inspirational Motivation, CR = Contingent Reward, MEP= Management-by-Exception (passive), MEA= Management-by-Exception (active), LL= Laissez-Faire Leadership.
The mean and the standard deviation for the total scores of the three leadership styles
are shown in Table 4.4. and Fig. 4.5. In general, the mean scores of the transformational style
are higher than the other styles. Of the four scale scores of the transformational styles, the
highest mean scores was reported by the managers and the lowest one was reported by the
subordinates. The mean scores of transactional style are relatively low. The lowest mean
score of the style (M=1.58) reported subordinates and the highest one (M=2.14) was reported
by the managers themselves. The nonleadership behaviors were not the predominant
component recognized by participants with the means higher than 1.
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Table 4.4.
Mean and standard deviations for total scores of Leadership styles as a function of the raters
Manager Peers Subordinate Supervisor
Variables M SD M SD M SD M SD
Transactional 2.14 .56 1.87 .50 1.58 .48 2.03 .41 Transformational
3.29 .36 3.02 .56 2.93 .49 3.04 .64
Nonleadership 0.72 .52 0.72 .66 0.53 .51 0.80 .61
Fig. 4.5. Mean for total scores of Leadership styles as a function of the raters
The mean and standard deviation of the three leadership effectiveness scales scores
rated by the managers, peers, subordinates and supervisors are presented in Table 4.5. and
Fig. 4.6. In general, the managers’ mean scores of the effectiveness subscales are relatively
high; suggesting that all groups indicated the managers’ characteristic to be high. The
managers’ mean scores of the effectiveness subscales are higher than the other raters.
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Of the three scale scores of the effectiveness subscales, the highest mean scores in all
groups was reported for the satisfaction scale and the lowest mean scores was reported for the
efficacy scale. In the other hand, the SD scores reported by managers are lower than the other
group one, suggesting that they clustered their scores closely around the mean. The highest
SD scores were reported by the supervisor indicating that they tended to cluster the data
points far from the mean.
Table 4.5.
Mean and standard deviations for Leadership Effectiveness as a function of self- report and raters-report
Manager Peers Subordinate Supervisor
Variables M SD M SD M SD M SD
Effectiveness 3.58 .37 3.28 .68 3.24 .65 3.3 .78 Extra Effort 3.57 .46 3.30 .64 3.30 .64 3.29 .82 Efficacy 3.53 .45 3.24 .73 3.22 .74 3.33 .78 Satisfaction 3.63 .39 3.29 .75 3.32 .75 3.34 .85
Fig. 4.6. Mean score of Leadership Effectiveness as a function of the raters
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4.2.2. MSCEIT V 2.0
The descriptive statistics were determined for each of the emotional intelligence dimensions
and its total scores (Table 4.6. and Fig. 4.7.).
Table 4.6.
Descriptive statistics for total score and subscales scores of MSCEIT V 2.0
Variables Observed range of
scores M SD Skewness
MSCEIT 53 – 98 82.8 7.59 -0.93 Experimental 55 – 125 93.1 10.1 -0.69
perceiving 56 – 95 80.9 6.64 -0.55 Facilitating 63 – 116 92.9 7.55 -0.58
Strategic 62 – 134 98.4 13.4 -0.26 Understanding 56 – 96 82.3 6.63 -0.59 managing 66 – 109 84.6 8.31 0.63
Fig. 4.7. Mean score of managers’ Emotional Intelligence as a function of total, area and
branches scores
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As shown in Table 4.6., the observed scores for the total score of emotional
intelligence ranged from a low of 53 to a high of 98. For the emotional intelligence
components, scores ranged from a low of 55 (Experimental area) to a high of 134 (Strategic
area). The highest mean and standard deviation scores were found in the component of
strategic area (M=98.4, SD=13.4) and the lowest mean score was in the understanding
component (M=82.3, SD=6.63). The mean scores for all of the components and the total score
were above 82 out of the possible range of zero to 100. The experimental (M=93.1, SD=10.1)
and strategic components (M=98.4, SD=13.4) and facilitating scale (M=92.9, SD=7.55)
indicated mean scores higher than 90.
The distributions of all emotional intelligence components and scales were negatively
skewed. This may suggest that the respondents tended to report high levels of their emotional
intelligence.
4.2.3. EFQM
Table 4.7. and Fig. 4.8. show that the managers’ grades obtained from Iranian National
Productivity and Excellence Award (INPE Award) is totally based on the standards of EFQM.
As Table 4.7. shows forty eight (f= 38) of the managers have been lied on the 2 stars
category. The second highest frequency (20 %) belonged to 3 stars category. Slightly more
than 16 percent of the managers have received grades higher than 4.
Table 4.7.
Frequencies and percentages of ratings in INPE Awards.
Category score f % %cf
Commitment for Excellence 1 12 15.2 15.2 2 Stars 2 38 48.1 63.3 3 Stars 3 16 20.3 83.5 4 Stars 4 12 15.2 98.7 Excellence Medal 5 1 1.30 100
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Fig. 4.8. EFQM ratings of the managers based on INPE Award
4.3. Correlation Analyses
Following the descriptive statistical analyses on the respective instruments, the data
was further analyzed to test the first eight research hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
Transformational Leadership style.
Hypothesis 2: There is no relationship between emotional intelligence and Transactional
Leadership style.
Hypothesis 3: There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence and Laissez-
faire Leadership style.
Hypothesis 4: There is a positive relationship between Transformational Leadership style and
Leadership effectiveness.
Hypothesis 5: There is no relationship between Transactional Leadership style and
Leadership effectiveness.
178
Hypothesis 6: There is a negative relationship between Laissez-faire Leadership style and
Leadership effectiveness.
Hypothesis 7: There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and Leadership
effectiveness.
Hypothesis 8: There is a positive relationship between Leadership effectiveness and EFQM
ratings.
In order to thoroughly examine the above hypotheses with the use of Pearson Product
Moment Correlation, the following five steps were designed to present the obtained results.
Step 1: In the first step, Pearson Product Moment Correlations between the total score of
emotional intelligence and the total scores of the leadership and nonleadership styles were
concluded and are presented in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8.
Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations between leadership styles
and MSCEIT total score
Variables M SD 1 2 3 4
1 MSCEIT 82.8 7.5 -
2 Transformational 3.07 .42 .788** -
3 Transactional 1.91 .35 .204 .321** -
4 Laissez-faire 1.23 .62 -.504** -.578** -.037 -
**p<.01
As Table 4.8 shows the total score in emotional intelligence has significantly positive
correlation with total score in the transformational leadership style (r = .788, p< 0.01) and
negative correlation with nonleadership (r = -.504, p< 0.01). As expected, there was no
significant relationship between the transactional leadership style and the emotional
intelligence.
179
Step 2: In the second step, the Pearson correlations between leadership and nonleadership
styles with the two area scores of MSCEIT: experimental emotional intelligence and strategic
emotional intelligence were calculated (Table 4.9).
Table 4.9.
Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations between leadership styles
and MSCEIT areas
Variables 1 2 3 4 5
MSCEIT
1. Experimental -
2. Strategic .247** -
MLQ -
3. Transformational .519** .756**
4. Transactional .131 .237* -.321** -
5. Laissez-faire -.318** -.498** -.587** -.037 -
*p<.05. **p<.01.
As shown in Table 4.9., there was positively significant correlation between
transformational style and the experimental and strategic emotional intelligence. The highest
correlation (r =.756) belonged to strategic emotional intelligence and transformational style.
although there was no significant correlation between transactional style and
experimental emotional intelligence, the correlation between transactional style and strategic
emotional intelligence (r = .237) are positively significant. However, the coefficient is the
lowest significant coefficient in the correlation matrix. The relationships between laissez-faire
style and the two area scores of emotional intelligence were negatively significant, as
supported by the literature.
Step 3: In the third step, Pearson Product Moment Correlations calculated between the total
scores of the leadership and nonleadership styles and each of the four branch scores of
180
MSCEIT: Perceiving, Facilitating, Understanding and managing. The results are presented in
Table 4.10.
Table 4.10.
Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations between leadership styles and MSCEIT
branches
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
MSCEIT
1. Perceiving -
2. Facilitating .613** -
3. Understanding .227** .548** -
4. Managing -.085 .048 .518** -
MLQ
5. Laissez-faire -.217 -.385** -.454** -.377** -
6. Transactional .111 .107 .172 .213 -.037 -
7. Transformational .397** .594** .727** .541** -.578** .321** -
*p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 4.10. shows that there are positively significant correlations between
transformational style and all the branch scores of EI. Of the four correlation coefficients, the
highest and the lowest coefficients belonged to the relationship between transformational
style and Understanding and Perceiving branch scores of MSCEIT (r=.727; r=.397
respectively).
The transactional style had no significant correlation with the four branch scores of
emotional intelligence. Also, there are negatively significant correlations between
nonleadership and all of four branch score EI.
Step 4: In the fourth step, in order to answer to the question that whether there is any
relationship between dimensions of emotional intelligence and dimensions of
transformational and transactional leadership styles, Pearson Product Moment Correlations
were calculated (Table 4.11.).
181
As Table 4.11. shows, except the correlation between individual consideration and
perceiving which are of no significant, all the correlation coefficients between the dimensions
of transformational style and the dimensions of emotional intelligence are significantly
positive. Of the fifteen significant correlation coefficients, the highest (r=.727) belonged to
the relationship between inspirational motivation and understanding, and the lowest
coefficients (r=.345) belonged to the elationship between the idealized influence and
perceiving.
Table 4.11.
Intercorrelations between dimensions of Transformational and Transactional leadership
styles and dimension of Emotional intelligence
Variables Perceiving Facilitating Understanding Managing MSCEIT
Transformational
Intellectual Stimulation .452** .556** .636** .453** .733**
Individual Consideration .219 .530** .684** .578** .689**
Idealized Influence .345** .528** .651** .526** .720**
Inspirational Motivation .442** .586** .727** .453** .775**
Transactional
Contingent Reward
Management-by-exception (passive)
.413** .441** .587** .461** .649**
-.167 -.162 -.142 -.054 -.181
Management-by-exception (active) -.018 -.056 -.071 .062 -.030
Laissez-faire -.217 -.385 ** -.454** -.377** -.504**
**p<.01.
In addition, as shown in Table 4.11., there are positively significant correlations
among all the branches of emotional intelligence and the contingent reward dimension of
transactional style. The highest coefficient (r=.587) related to the correlation between
contingent reward and understanding dimension. But there are no significant correlations
among the dimensions of emotional intelligence and management-by-exception (passive &
active).
182
Finally, nonleadership has significantly positive correlation with Facilitating,
Understanding and Managing components and has no significant correlation with the
perceiving component of EI.
Step 5. In order to examine the research hypothesis that there is positive relationship with
emotional intelligence and leadership styles with leadership effectiveness, a Pearson Product
Moment Correlations between total and the dimensions scores of emotional intelligence and
the leadership styles with Effectiveness (Table 4.12). The Effectiveness score was obtained by
calculation of the raters’ mean scores
As Table 4.12. shows, the correlations between the total score of emotional
intelligence with leadership effectiveness (r=.736, p<.01) is so strong. this finding means that
the higher emotional intelligence and transformational style, the higher the effectiveness. All
the correlations between the branches of emotional intelligence with leadership effectiveness
(except of the managing) are positively significant. In this section, the highest correlation
(0.468) belonged to understanding and leadership effectiveness.
183
Table 4.12.
Correlations between leadership styles and MSCEIT with Leadership
Effectiveness
Variables Leadership Effectiveness
MSCEIT .736**
Perceiving .326**
Facilitating .407**
Understanding .468**
Managing .177
Transformational .800**
Intellectual Stimulation .529**
Individual consideration .479**
Idealized Influence .423**
Inspirational Motivation .462**
Transactional .013
Contingent Reward .368**
Management-by-exception (passive) -.203
Management-by-exception (active) -.276*
Laissez-faire -.552**
*p<.05. **p<.01.
As shown in Table 4.12., the highest correlation (r=0.8) belonged to The
transformational style and leadership effectiveness. All of the transformational subscales
correlated significantly positive with the leadership effectiveness ranging from r=0.423
(idealized influence) to 0.529 (intellectual stimulation).
The transactional style has no significant correlation (r=0.013) with leadership
effectiveness. But the contingent reward subscale of transactional style correlated
significantly with leadership effectiveness (r= 0.368). In the other hand, the leadership
effectiveness correlated slightly weak (r= -0.276) with management-by-exception (passive).
Step 6. In order to examine the research hypothesis that there is a positive relationship with
the leadership effectiveness and the EFQM ratings, a Pearson Product Moment Correlations
was employed to test the relationship between the total and dimensions scores of leadership
effectiveness and EFQM ratings (Table 4.13).
184
Table 4.13.
Correlations between Effectiveness and EFQM ratings
Variables EFQM
Effectiveness .535**
Extra Effort .541**
Efficacy .544**
Satisfaction .558**
*p<.05. **p<.01.
As Table 4.13 shows the correlations between the total score of leadership outcome
with EFQM ratings (r=.535, p<.01) are significantly positive. This finding means that the
higher the leadership outcome, the higher the EFQM ratings. All the leadership outcome
subscales correlated significantly positive with the EFQM ratings, but the highest correlation
belonged to the satisfaction subscale and EFQM ratings (r=0.558).
4.4. Multiple Regression Analyses
Question 1: Which of the emotional intelligence components are more important to explain
the leadership effectiveness?
To answer the research question, a stepwise regression was used by introducing
predictor variables one at a time into the regression equation determined by decreasing the
ability to account for additional variance. Stepwise regression was, therefore, used to
determine the change in the multiple correlations associated with each variable. The results of
stepwise regression are presented in Table 4.14.
185
Table 4.14.
Stepwise regression analysis summery for dimensions of Emotional intelligence explaining the leadership effectiveness
Variables B SEB β R2 Δ R2
Step 1 .482
Understanding .114 .013 .69**
Step 2 .576** .094
Perceiving .36 -.011 .32**
**p<.01.
The results of a stepwise regression show that, while all the four branches of
emotional intelligence correlate to leadership effectiveness, the understanding and perceiving
emotional intelligence are highly significant in their relationship to leadership effectiveness
and, therefore, have potential to be strong motivators of leadership effectiveness.
As shown in Table 4.14., in Step 1, the understanding component of the emotional
intelligence was entered into the equation and in Step 2 the perceiving component. The
independent variables explained a significant amount of variance in the dependent variable
(R2
= .576, p>.01). The standardized regression coefficients demonstrated that the two
predictor variables accounted for about 58% of the variance in the effectiveness leadership.
In addition, the standardized regression coefficients indicated that the understanding
(β = .69) is more powerful to explain leadership effectiveness than the perceiving (β = .32).
4.5. Canonical Correlation
As noted earlier, a canonical correlation was used to answer the second research
question:
Question 2: Is there any relationship between the Emotional Intelligence components
(Perceiving, Facilitating, Understanding and Managing) and the transformational leadership
186
subscales (Intellectual Stimulation, Individual consideration, Idealized Influence and
Inspirational Motivation)?
In the first step, the Wilks's lambda test of significance (F = 9.08, df = 16, p<.001)
showed that the two sets of variables are significantly associated by canonical correlation.
Table 4.15. shows the ratio of the eigenvalues, canonical coefficient and the squared
canonical correlation (R2).
Table 4.15.
Eigenvalues and Canonical Correlations
Root Eigenvalue Canonical correlation
Squared canonical
correlation
Wilks’
Lambda P
1 2.54 .847 .718 .209 .001
2 .248 .446 .199 .741 .009
3 .078 .268 .072 .926 .228
4 .002 .043 .002 .998 .711
As Table 4.15. shows, four canonical correlations (roots) are extracted and the first
two of the canonical correlations are more important than the others and explain about 72%
and 20% of the variance in the canonical variables respectively.
Table 4.16.
Correlations and Standardized Canonical Correlations between Emotional Intelligence and The Transformational Leadership and Their Canonical Variates
First variate Second variate
Variables Correlation Canonical correlation
Correlation Canonical correlation
Perceiving .42 .09 .85 .91
Facilitating .72 .39 .21 .61
Understanding .91 .47 .03 .28
Managing .65 .39 .41 .43
Intellectual Stimulation .87 .07 .32 .81
Individual consideration .92 .59 .31 .83
Idealized Influence .88 .14 .03 .52
Inspirational Motivation .93 .69 .30 .26
187
Table 4.16. shows how the original emotional intelligence variables load on each of
the two canonical variables of the transformational leadership in the two canonical
correlations. Here, the dependent caconical variable in the first canonical correlation, except
“perceiving”, is highly related to the other components of the emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership. For the second canonical correlation, the “dependent” canonical
variable is highly correlated with “perceiving”.
In other words, the canonical analysis revealed that Understanding, Facilitating and
Managing are the factors in that order that have strongly influenced the linear composites of
the Transformational Leadership styles dimensions consisting of Inspirational Motivation,
Individual Consideration, Idealized Influence and Intellectual Stimulation. In addition, the
Perceiving has strongly influenced the linear composites of the Transformational Leadership
styles dimensions consisting of Intellectual Stimulation and Individual consideration. It seems
that the first root is the overall relationships maintained between the sets of variables.
4.6. Models Developing
Based on what was stated in the beginning of this chapter, this study examined the
mediating effect of leadership styles based on the relationship between emotional intelligence
and leadership effectiveness among the managers who have been participated in INPE Award
contest and won the prize. For this reason, according to the three leadership styles measured
through MLQ, three structural models were developed. Therefore, this part has been an effort
to test the last hypothesis and to answer the last research question:
Hypothesis 9: Transformational leadership styles mediate between emotional intelligence and
leadership effectiveness.
188
Questions 3: Do the model explaining the relationship among the emotional intelligence,
leadership styles and leadership effectiveness fit the data well?
Model A: This model hypothesizes that the relationship between the two constructs namely
emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness to be mediated through transformational
leadership styles (Fig. 4.9.). We predicted that the relationship between emotional intelligence
and leadership effectiveness is significantly positive and is reduced, even close to zero, while
controlling the transformational leadership style as mediating variable.
Fig. 4.9. shows the path coefficient between Emotional Intelligence and
transformational style is positively significant (β = 1.3, p< 0.01) and the path coefficient
between transformational style and leadership effectiveness is positively significant, as well
(β =.96, p< 0.01). However, as we expected, the path coefficient between emotional
intelligence and leadership effectiveness is not statistically significant (β = -.10, , p< 0.01).
Fig. 4.9. Model A for mediating effect of transformational style.
Expe= Experimental, Start = Strategic, EI= Emotional Intelligence, TF= Transformational Style, LE = Leadership Effectiveness, IS = Intellectual Stimulation, IC= Individual Consideration, II = Idealized Influence, IM = Inspirational Motivation, EE = Extra Effort, E = Effectiveness, S = Satisfaction.
**p< 0.01
.92** EI
Expe
Strat LE
EE
E
S
TF
.42**
IS IC II IM
.59** -.10
1.3** .96**
.90** .86** .92** .95**
-.12
.98**
.92**
.94**
189
As Table 4.17. shows, the minimum fit function chi-square with 23 degree of freedom
was 26.33 (p = .287) which is significant. A rule of thumb is that if the ratio of chi-square on
the degree of freedom is less than 2, it is considered well-fitted; it is considered acceptable if
it is less than 3 and definitely not acceptable if greater than 5. In this example, this value
would be 26.33 / 23 or 1.14. So the chi-square test of exact fit would confirm the model.
The point estimate of RMSEA as a measure of discrepancy per degree of freedom is
.043. Browne & Cudeck (1993) suggest that a value of 0.05 indicates a close fit and if that
values up to 0.08, it represents reasonable errors of approximation in the population.
Following the guidelines of Browne & Cudeck (1993), it is seen that the point estimate of
RMSEA is 0.043 and the 90 percent confidence interval is from 0.0 to 0.011. Since the lower
bound is below the recommended value of 0.05, it is concluded that the degree of
approximation in the population is not large. So the model is confirmed. Another indication
that the model fits well is that Expected Cross-Validation (ECVI) for the model (.90) was less
than the ECVI for the saturated model (1.15) that represents a reasonably close approximation
in the population.
Examination of overall goodness of fit indices (Table 4.16.) such as GFI, CFI and
Normed Fit Index (NFI) indicated a perfect fit between the hypothesized model and the
observed data.
Model B: This Model hypothesizes that the transactional leadership style mediates the
relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness (Fig. 4.10.). We
expected, as the correlations results showed, this relation to be non significant and the
transactional style should not be able to mediate the relationship.
190
Fig. 4.10. Model B for mediating effect of transactional style.
Expe= Experimental, Start = Strategic, EI= Emotional Intelligence, TA= Transactional Style, LE = Leadership Effectiveness, CR = Contingent Reward, MBEP= Management-by-Exception (passive), MBEA= Management-by-Exception (active), EE = Extra Effort, E = Effectiveness, S = Satisfaction.
**p< 0.01
As Fig. 4.10 shows, in the Model B, the path coefficients between the transactional
style, the emotional intelligence (β = 1.22, p< 0.01) and leadership effectiveness (β = 1.0, p<
0.01) are positively significant. But the path coefficient relating the emotional intelligence and
leadership effectiveness directly could not be established because the model was not
converged. Examination of overall goodness of fit indices (Table 4.16.) indicated a low fit
between the hypothesized model and the observed data.
The minimum fit function chi-square with 19 degree of freedom was 112.6 (p = .0001)
which is significant. A rule of thumb is that if the ratio of chi-square on degree of freedom is
less than 2, it is considered well-fitted; it is considered acceptable if it is less than 3 and
definitely not acceptable if greater than 5. In this example, this value would be 112.6 / 19 or
5.9. So the chi-square test of exact fit would reject the model, since the P-value is very small.
EI
Expe
Strat LE
EE
E
S
TA
.48**
CR MBEP MBEA
.51**
.94**
.92**
.98**
.62** .32** -.22*
1.0** 1.22**
191
The point estimate of RMSEA as a measure of discrepancy per degree of freedom is
.251. As mentioned before, Browne & Cudeck (1993) maintain that a value of 0.05 of
indicates a close fit and if that values up to 0.08, it represents reasonable errors of
approximation in the population. Following the guidelines their guidelines, it is seen that the
point estimate of RMSEA is 0.251 and the 90 percent confidence interval is from 0.21 to 0.30.
Since the lower bound is above the recommended value of 0.05, it is concluded that the
degree of approximation in the population is too large. So the model is rejected. The Expected
Cross-Validation (ECVI) for the model (1.88) was larger than the ECVI for the saturated
model (.92) that represents a none reasonably close approximation in the population.
Model C: This model hypothesizes that the laissez-faire style mediates the relationship
between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness (Fig. 4.11.). We expected the
relationship between laissez-faire with the emotional intelligence and the leadership
effectiveness is significantly negative.
Fig. 4.11. Model C for mediating effect of Laissez-faire leadership.
Expe= Experimental, Start = Strategic, EI= Emotional Intelligence, LF= Laissez- Faire, LE = Leadership Effectiveness, IS = Intellectual Stimulation, IC= Individual Consideration, II = Idealized Influence, IM = Inspirational Motivation, EE = Extra Effort, E = Effectiveness, S = Satisfaction.
**p< 0.01
EI
Expe
Strat LE
EE
E
S
LF
.42**
X5 X7 X28 X33
.59**
-.39 -.20
.94**
.92**
.98**
.35** .59** .52** .42**
-.87**
192
Fig. 4.11. shows that in the Model C, the path coefficient between leadership
effectiveness with emotional Intelligence (β = -0.87, p< 0.01) is negatively significant. The
path coefficient between emotional Intelligence with Laissez- faire style (β = -.39, p<0.27)
and between Laissez- faire style with leadership effectiveness are non- significant. It is
concluded that the laissez- faire style doesn’t mediate the relationship preserved between
leadership effectiveness with emotional Intelligence.
Table 4.17.
The Goodness of Fit Statistics for the Models of Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness mediate Leadership styles
Models χ2 df p χ
2/ df GFI NFI CFI RMSEA
A 26.33 23 .287 1.14 .93 .98 1.0 .043
B 112.6 19 .0001 5.93 .73 .83 .80 .251
C 38.89 25 .037 1.56 .90 .92 .97 .084
Note. GFI=Goodness of Fit Index, NFI= Normed Fit Index, CFI= Comparative Fit Index, RMSEA=Root Mean Square Error of Approximation.
Examination of overall goodness of fit indices (Table 4.17.) indicated a low fit
between the hypothesized model and the observed data. Although the minimum fit function
chi-square with 25 degree of freedom was 38.89 (p = .037) which is significant only in the
lower than .05 and the ratio of chi-square on degree of freedom (1.56) is less than 2, the point
estimate of RMSEA as a measure of discrepancy per degree of freedom is .084 and as
Browne & Cudeck (1993) suggested if that values up to 0.08 represents reasonable errors of
approximation in the population. So the model is rejected. The Expected Cross-Validation
(ECVI) for the model (1.15) was larger than the ECVI for the saturated model (1.01) that
represents a nonreasonable close approximation in the population.
193
Discussion
The purpose of this research was to study the relationship between the emotional
intelligence, leadership styles and leadership effectiveness in a sample of the Iranian
managers that have been participated in the INPE Award contest and won the prize during the
years 2007-2009. This study examined the question of which of the direct and indirect
relationships (indirect if leadership styles are taken as mediators) possibly existed between the
emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness.
Since the research instruments, the MSCEIT v.2.0 (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso, 2003) and
the MLQ 5X (Bass and Avolio, 1997) were conducted in an Iranian population for the first
time, it was necessary to validate them. Therefore, in this section the results of the validation
of these instruments are discussed.
Validation of MSCEIT v.2.0 and MLQ 5X in Iranian population
When instruments developed in one cultural context are translated for use in another
cultural context, empirical scrutiny is needed to assure psychometric soundness (Asgari &
Kramer, 2007). For this reason, to explore the construct validity and the factor structure of the
two tests, a first order and a second-order confirmatory factor analysis model was developed.
According to Mayer and Salovey (1997), the four branches of MSCEIT are
categorized into two area scores of experimental and strategic emotional intelligence and
these two areas constituted the overall emotional intelligence construct. To confirm the factor
structure, a second-order CFA was conducted. Several studies have been developed to
validate the MSCEIT v.2.0 by the CFA (Hagtvet, 2008; Rossen, Kranzler & Algina, 2007,
194
Brackett and Salovey, 2006; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso & Sitarenios, 2003) which enable a
more in-depth understanding of the psychometric qualities of the instrument.
Examination of the fit indices showed that the derived model demonstrated a
reasonable fit with the data. All the factor loadings (except the managing branch which was
small) were large and statistically significant, and the patterns of correlations were logical and
all the goodness of fit indices were satisfactory in relation to typical standards of good to
excellent fits to the data (NNFI= .95, CFI= .99, GFA=.99 and RMSEA = 0.047). Now, we
have evidence that the MSCEIT is structurally valid in the Iranian population.
Although the factor structure of MLQ 5X was examined in several studies (Avolio et
al., 1999, Heinitz, Liepmann and Felfe, 2005, Atkinson et al, 2003) which confirms the
structural validity of this questionnaire, some evidences (Weinberger, 2003; Heinitz,
Liepmann and Felfe, 2005) showed that the structure factor of MLQ 5X was not replicated as
well and there is some unexpected correlations between components of transformational and
transactional leadership styles. In this study, a CFA was performed to support the validity of
MLQ 5X in the Iranian population. The results showing the fit indices for the hypothesized
model of Bass and Avolio (1997), seem fairly sound. But when the path coefficient was
established between the contingent reward and transformational style as a latent trait, the
correlated error between contingent reward and individual consideration was free. These
findings could be supported by the studies of Heinitz, Liepmann and Felfe (2005) and
Weinberger (2003) that showed the transformational facets cannot be empirically
distinguished well and contingent reward - a transactional component - shows high
correlations with the transformational scales.
In this study, the further support of the intercorrelations between contingent reward
and transformational factors was obtained. The results of the Pearson Correlation coefficients
revealed that the four transformational components were correlated positively with the
195
contingent reward (rs ranged from.67 to .79). This finding shows that the intercorrelations of
the various leadership dimensions were not consistent well with that reported in the test
manual. The most significantly different reported correlation was the relationship between
intellectual stimulation and contingent reward. A significantly stronger relationship was found
in this study, which would suggest that these subordinates see a strong relationship between
the intellectual stimulation of their manager and their day-to-day contingent reward leadership
style.
Many researchers (Bycio et al., 1995, Rafferty and Griffin, 2004, Weingerger, 2003;
Den Hartog, Van Muijen, & Koopman, 1997; Tepper & Percy, 1994) found that the
contingent reward scale was strongly associated with the transformational scales. In the other
hand, the average latent factor intercorrelation among the transformational scales was .88,
while the average latent factor intercorrelation between the transformational scales and
contingent reward was .81 (Rafferty and Griffin, 2004).
The authors discuss that ways of operationalizing contingent reward will prove a
thorough assessment of both transactional and transformational processes. For instance,
Goodwin, Wofford, & Whittington, (2001) hypothesized that “the contingent reward scale, as
assessed by the MLQ-5X, captures behaviors associated with the negotiation of rewards for
good performance and behaviors associated with the provision of rewards based on
performance” (p.337). These authors argue that the negotiation of rewards for good
performance represents a form of transactional leadership. However, rewarding followers
based on their performance were argued to represent a transformational process as followers
and leaders in a transformational relationship have a personal investment in their vision. As a
result, followers assume that performance consistent with the vision will be rewarded.
The term “personal recognition’’ is used (Rafferty and Griffin, 2004) in order to
capture that characteristic of contingent reward that is theoretically related to transformational
196
leadership. Personal recognition shows that a leader appreciate the individuals’ efforts and
rewards them for their achievement of the desired outcomes. Rafferty and Griffin (2004)
defined personal recognition as “praise and acknowledgement of effort for achievement of
specified goals” (p.334).
It seems that further research on MLQ is still needed and some questions have yet to
be addressed in the relationships between the factors of transformational and transactional
styles in order to achieve a deeper understanding of the two.
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Styles
In the current study, to investigate the relationship among the emotional intelligence,
leadership styles, a few statistical methods were performed. In the first, Pearson Product
Correlation were conducted to explore the association between: a) the global construct of
emotional intelligence and the three leadership styles, b) the experimental and strategic
emotional intelligence as the areas of EI with the three leadership styles, c) four branches of
EI and three leadership styles and their components, d) four branches of EI and nine
leadership subscales, and e) the relationship between emotional intelligence components
transformational leadership components,
The results supported the existence of a strong relationship between transformational
leadership and the overall emotional intelligence and their components. This result however,
extends the literature of the historical relationship between the EI and transformational
leadership by determining the EI and transformational characteristics of the Iranian managers and
offering evidence for a higher positive correlation between the EI and transformational leadership
(Corona, 2010; Matear, 2009; Barbuto & Burbach, 2006; Hayashi & Ewert, 2006; Mandell &
197
Pherwani, 2003; Palmer et al., 2001; Skinner & Spurgeon, 2006; Dasborough & Ashkanasy, 2002;
Gardner & Stough, 2002).
In particular, the transformational leadership style which describes leaders who
inspire, motivate, influence, and show individual consideration for the subordinates is deemed
to reflect the features of an emotionally intelligent leader. Therefore, it seems that the
elements of EI are the core underpinnings of transformational leadership (Goleman, Boyatzis,
& McKee, 2002).
Many researchers (Harms and Crede, 2010; Daus & Ashkanasy, 2005; Goleman et
al., 2002; Sosik and Megarian,1999) argue about founding a theoretical basis for the
relationship between the EI and transformational leadership suggesting that EI is able to
facilitate transformational leadership. For instance, the emotional understanding and empathy
may be necessary for transformational leaders who display individual consideration to
followers and emotional management may promote positive affect and confidence in the
followers expressing and generating new ideas. George (2000) argued that the emotional ap-
peals may be used by transformational leaders for inspirational motivation. Others have
pointed out that the adherence to professional or moral standards of behavior are common
aspects of both EI and transformational leadership (Brown et al., 2006).
Although the relationship between the total EI score and transformational leadership
was one of the main focuses of this study, certain EI components had stronger correlations than
others. For example, the understanding branch of EI had the highest correlation with
transformational leadership. In addition, the highest association was found between emotional
intelligence and inspirational motivation that are consistent with the studies of Barling et al.
(2000); Gardner & Stough (2002) and Corona (2010) that demonstrated the highest correlations
between emotional intelligence and inspirational motivation. Furthermore, Daus & Harris (2003)
found that overall transformational leadership (as well as all four dimensions of transformational
198
leadership) was significantly associated with the understanding emotions branch of emotional
intelligence. Others (Coetzee & Schaap, 2004) have reported similar findings such as a survey
study of South African managers. It was found that the transformational leadership was related to
overall emotional intelligence, as well as its two branches (understanding and managing
emotion).
Although the results significantly supported the association between EI and all of the
components of the transformational leadership style, higher EI scores were also found for the
contingent reward component of transactional style. However, a problem raised that the
contingent reward, the neutral component of transactional leadership, emerged in the analyses as
positively associaciation with the EI. Researchers have tried to handle this contingent reward
component in different ways. For example, Barling, Slater, and Kelloway (2000) examined
whether EI might predispose leaders to make use of transformational leadership behaviors.
However, they reclassified contingent reward as being more like a transformational behavior,
therefore it was included in their classification.
Palmer, Walls, Burgess, and Stough (2001) also found a positive relationship between
the contingent reward component of transactional leadership and the emotional intelligence,
and contingent reward and the total transformational leadership score, concluding that
contingent reward may be overlapped considerably with the transformational leadership
component. The authors suggest that there is cautious optimism for pursuing the connection
between EI and the competencies of transformational leadership. However, some authors (e.g.
Downey et al., 2005) suggested that the subordinates might have perceived contingent
rewards to be an evidence of the leaders considering their emotions and responding to their
material needs.
Finally, as a strategy for addressing the positive contingent reward connection to EI
that was frequently reported in this review, Jensen et al. believed that “it might be quite
199
appropriate to have platoon sergeants, for example, evaluate their platoon leader’s EI abilities
and leadership style, whereas lower enlisted personnel might be much more interested in
whether their platoon leaders had insured that the platoon received good food or regular
liberty” (2007, p. 106).
Some theories have explained the relationship between emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership. For instance, Judge et al. (2004) argued that the leaders are
created by followers, which imply that followers’ perceptions of a person are essential for that
person to become a leader. According to Ashkanasy, Dasborough, & Dearborn (2002) the
theory of the EI–Leadership connection comes from the hypothesized relationship between
superior performance and the management of emotions. In other words, individuals who have
the intelligence to understand their emotions are also able to manage their emotions for the
purposes of task completion and gaining the empathy and support of others. Because the
emotionally intelligent individual is able to put himself or herself in the emotional place of
others, s/he can relate the emotions s/he experiences with emotions that others experience,
and can communicate his or her feelings to others and incite parallel emotions.
A transformational leader exhibits qualities including empathy, motivation, self-
awareness, and self-confidence (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978; Ross & Offerman, 1997). Goleman
(1995) described all the above qualities as subcomponents of emotional intelligence.
Transformational leadership style and emotional intelligence have several other characteristics
in common. Bass (1990) established trust to be a major component of transformational
leadership style. Transformational leaders are able to gain respect and trust of their
employees.
In summary, the results from the current study support previously reported findings
(Barling et al., 2000; Dasborough & Ashkanasy, 2002; Gardner & Stough, 2002) that
demonstrated that EI was positively related to the three components of transformational
200
leadership of idealized influence, inspirational motivation, and individualized consideration.
The highest correlations were found between emotional intelligence and inspirational
motivation, suggesting that the understanding of emotions is particularly important to
leadership effectiveness. Gardner and Stough (2002) found a strong positive relationship
between transformational leadership and total emotional intelligence scores. The results of
this study support the strong positive relationship reported by Gardner and Stough. Gardner
and Stough (2002) reported that all the components of transformational leadership correlated
positively with the components of emotional intelligence, which is supported by the
significant positive correlations between the self and the social dimensions and overall
transformational leadership skills and emotional intelligence found in this study. Therefore,
the findings of the current study may support Gardner and Stough’s assertion that
understanding and management of emotions are the strongest predictors of transformational
leadership. Gardner and Stough further stated that the elements of emotional intelligence were
the strongest predictor of inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation. Lugo’s (2007)
study results agree with Gardner and Stough’s (2002) findings and the findings from this
study.
In the other hands, from a theoritical point of view, the issue that EI would be
correlated with transformational leadership but not with the transactional or laissez-faire
leadership, was partially supported in this study: there was a significant positive relationship
in the case of transformational leadership and EI and a strong negative relationship was found
in the case of laissez-faire leadership and EI. Others researchers (Barling, Slater, & Kelloway,
2000; Harms and Credé, 2010) argue that while there are less theoretical bases about the
relationship of transactional and laissez-faire styles of leadership with EI, to provide the
effective and equitable exchanges characteristic of contingent reward behaviors, leaders
should have abilities and traits associated with the elevated EI.
201
As Barling et al. (2000) noted that because active management-by-exception
behaviors reflect reactive and routine leadership behaviors that require no insight or empathy,
it is not expected that there would be any relationship with EI. However, it is expected that EI
would show negative relationships with passive management-by-exception and laissez-faire
leadership behaviors, because individuals with elevated EI are thought to be higher on
initiative and self-efficacy (Goleman et al., 2002). It has been found that transactional
leadership was related to the managing emotion branch, and ‘laissez-faire’ leadership was
inversely related the using emotion branches Coetzee & Schaap (2004), and both the
management-by-exception as a component of transactional leadership and laissez-faire or
non-leadership have a significant negative relationship with the strategic emotional
intelligence and understanding emotions component of emotional intelligence (Leban and
Zulauf, 2004)
Jenson et.al (2007) argues that some researchers have found that leaders’ use of the
laissez-faire style might be dictated— not by an average level of EI but by a marked deficit in
EI. The authors raised the point that laissez-faire leadership might be selected by default for
leaders uncomfortable with their emotions. Given the limitation that the mangers were
reporting self-perceptions, Downey et al. (2005) pointed out that laissez-faire leaders may be
using this leadership style because of their limited social skills. In a study by Barling, Slater,
and Kelloway (2000), no significant relationship was found between EI and management-by-
exception or laissez-faire styles. They suggest that future research should examine whether
managers can be trained to use transformational leadership skills.
In addition, in this study, in order to comprehensively understand the relationship
between emotional intelligence components and transformational leadership factors, a
canonical correlation analysis was performed. The results showed that the two pairs of
canonical functions accounted for the statistically significant relationships between the two
202
sets of variables. The Understanding, Facilitating and Managing are the factors in that order
that have strongly influenced the linear composites of the transformational leadership Styles
dimensions consisting of Inspirational Motivation, Individual consideration, Idealized
Influence and Intellectual Stimulation. Moreover, the Perceiving component strongly
influenced the linear composites of the transformational leadership styles dimensions
consisting of Intellectual Stimulation and Individual consideration. It seems that the first root
is the overall relationship between sets of variables.
The findings of the current study provide information about the unique relationships
maintained by the emotional intelligence and transformational leadership that is generally
supported by some research using the same statistical method. For example, Hayashi and
Ewert (2006) found that the two canonical correlations revealed unique combinations among
the components of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. The first function
primarily emphasized situational factors, such as adaptability and stress management, which
had a strong relationship to idealized influence (behavior), intellectual stimulation and
inspirational motivation. The second function illustrated the strong relationship between social
factors, such as interpersonal skill, and all the components of transformational leadership
especially intellectual stimulation and individual consideration.
Researchers (Sugreen and Schepers, 2006; Zeljka, 2008) showed that some of the
aspects of emotional intelligence are strongly related to transformational leadership. In
addition, higher task orientation and learning beliefs, and lower capacity beliefs were
significantly related to higher levels of emotional intelligence. These findings revealed that
the existence of a network of relationships between core temperamental factors and
organizationally-valued leadership factors are highly suggestive of an influencing mechanism
created and activated by the enabling force of emotional intelligence in one’s managerial
work.
203
As many researchers ( Sayeed & Shanker, 2009; Barling, Slate & Kelloway 2000,
Gardner & Stouch 2002, Paler et al., 2001) pointed out both emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership dimensions could be taken as evidences for accepting the role of
emotional intelligence in superior-subordinate leadership.
Leadership effectiveness, EI and Transformational style
One of the main results of the current study is that there are positive relationships
between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership along with the leadership
effectiveness. As previous studies have indicated the emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership style have become increasingly popular as measures for
identifying potentially effective leaders, and as tools for developing effective leadership skills
(Palmer, Burgess & Stough 2001).
Gardner and Stough (2002) argued that there are many theoretical links between
effective leadership and emotional intelligence. As suggested by researchers (George, 2000;
George, 2000; Bass 1985), emotional intelligence is associated with an enhanced ability to
use positive emotions by accurately perceiving how subordinates feel and also understanding
their needs. Therefore, the high EI leaders can influence these subordinates to support the
goals of the leader and the organization.
In addition, there are many studies (Barbuto & Burbach, 2006; Hayashi & Ewert, 2006;
Roberson & Park, 2007, Goleman, 1995; Keller, 1995) which reveal that the leaders exhibiting
high levels of EI and transformational leadership behaviors are visionaries, expressive, inspirational,
influential, motivators, that improve organizational performance, and exhibit superior
performance.
Researchers (e.g. Seltzer & Bass, 1990; Yukl) have documented substantial evidence
that transformational leadership is an effective form of leadership in a variety of situations.
204
As Geoffee and Jones (2000) argues that the effective leaders: (a) selectively show weakness,
(b) rely on institution to make decisions, (c) use tough empathy, and (d) reveal individual
differences. These authors concluded that the leader's sensitivity about their institution is a
major factor in their effectiveness. Furthermore, leaders who are able to interpret signals and
emotions from their environment, use that as a factor in decision-making resulting in
impressive results. Goleman et al.'s (2002) highlights that the same concepts of self-
confidence, self-awareness, and optimism as El competencies are essential for success.
Clearly speaking, if leaders develop insights into the needs, values, and hopes of their
followers, then they are able to create emotional responses in the followers, communicate and
instill commitments toward a common vision, create shared norms and tend to actively shape
and enlarge audiences through their own energy, self-confidence, assertiveness, ambition, and
seizing of opportunities. According to many studies (Geoffee and Jones, 2000; Martin, 2008,
George, 2000; Caruso & Salovey, 2004) this insight may be facilitated through a higher level
of emotional understanding, perceiving and sensitivity.
Therefore, leaders with high emotional intelligence are equipped with the insight to
see people’s patterns of emotions, the relationship between emotions, and how emotional
states change from one to another. This information is crucial for helping leaders learn about
what makes people behave or think the way they do. This knowledge, in turn, enables the
leader to communicate more effectively, because it allows leaders to more thoroughly
understand the other person’s perspective (Caruso et al., 2001; George 2000).
In addition, emotional intelligence may increase flexibility and creativity in decision
making and enables leasers to use positive moods to inspire thinking and reorganize
information in a more useful and innovative way (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Leaders can make
use of these abilities to make effective decisions that may not be suggested by others within
the organization (Yoon, 2008). George (2000) argues that one of the important aspects of
205
leadership effectiveness is establishing and communicating an organization’s culture and
identity that is strongly improved by the use of a leader’s emotionally intelligent skills.
Transformational leaders seem to spread their own sense of confidence and competence, and
they inspire people to be more imaginative. Goleman (1995) stated that all of these
characteristics of transformational leaders are also essential characteristics of emotional
intelligence.
Martin (2008), in a meta- analytic study, using 48 studies including 99 effect sizes with
7,343 participants who met all the inclusion criteria, concluded that a research-based link can
be established between the concept of emotional intelligence and effective leadership. This,
however reveals a moderately strong relationship between emotional intelligence and
leadership effectiveness.
In summary, As Kerr et al (2005) indicated that leader's EI may indeed be a key
determinant of effective leadership. Employee perceptions of supervisor effectiveness are
strongly related to the EI of the supervisor. The results suggest that half of the MSCEIT
scores may act as significantly large predictors of supervisor ratings (Mayer and Salovey,
1997; Mayer et al., 2000; Meyer et al., 2001).
In a similar fashion, the results of current study showed that there is a strongly
positive relationship between transformational style and leadership effectiveness. According
to many researchers (Weese, 1994; Einstein and Humphreys, 2001; Dong I. and Yammarino,
2001) effective leadership has a positive impact on the behavior within organizations,
especially, the critical role of the transformational leadership in improving many factors of
organizations because the transformational leader strives to achieve a true consensus in
aligning the individual and organizational interests. In true consensus, the interests of all are
fully considered, but the final decision reached may fail to please everyone completely. The
206
decision is accepted as the best under the circumstances even if it means that some individual
members’ interests may have to be sacrificed.
Transformational leader is the one who creates an environment of commitment and
develops interest for working more and makes efforts for the achievement of the
organizational objectives by motivating the people in the organization. They inspire
employees to perform beyond expectation and in doing so recognize and satisfy their higher
order needs (Fatima, Imran and Zaheer, 2010; Majella and Ruth, 2007; Tram and O'Hara,
2006).
Considering the wide range of researches, it is suggested that emotional intelligence
competencies and traits influence leadership effectiveness and the relationship between
leadership effectiveness and transformational leadership. This study examined the role of
emotional Intelligence as a variable that is predicted to have an effect on transformational
leadership that subsequently effect leadership effectiveness. In the next section, the results of
the developed model testing the mediating effect of transformational leadership between
emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness are interpreted.
Mediating effect of Transformational leadership in the relationship between EI and
Leadership Effectiveness: Model Developing
The present study indicated that not only the leadership effectiveness correlated
positively with transformational leadership and EI, as previous studies showed, but also found
that the transformational leadership fully mediate the relationship between emotional
intelligence and leadership effectiveness.
As expected, the emotional intelligence was found to be an antecedent of
transformational leadership, and that transformational leadership would enhance leadership
207
effectiveness. In other words, the leaders' emotional intelligence was related to leadership
effectiveness through transformational leadership behavior. This finding suggests that
transformational leadership may become more critical in terms of leadership effectiveness,
and holds rich implications for both transformational leadership and emotional intelligence
research.
As previous studies have indicated emotional intelligence and transformational
leadership style have become increasingly popular as measures for identifying potentially
effective leaders, and as the tools for developing effective leadership skills (Palmer, Burgess
& Stough 2001). These studies have asserted leaders exhibiting high levels of EI and transfor-
mational leadership behaviors are visionaries, expressive, inspirational, influential, motivators, and
improve organizational performance (Barbuto & Burbach, 2006; Hayashi & Ewert, 2006;
Roberson & Park, 2007), and exhibit superior performance (Goleman, 1995; Keller, 1995).
Gardner and Stough (2002) argued that there are many theoretical links between
effective leadership and emotional intelligence. As suggested by several researchers
(Whitman, 2009; George, 2000, Bass 1985), if emotional intelligence is associated with an
enhanced ability to use positive emotions by accurately perceiving how subordinates feel and
also understanding their needs, then high EI leaders can influence these subordinates to
support the goals of the leader and the organization and lead their followers if they have
insights into the needs, values, and hopes of their followers This insight may be facilitated
through a higher level of emotional awareness and sensitivity. Leaders can create emotional
responses (a sense of excitement and sharing a feeling of togetherness) in the followers,
communicate and instill commitment toward a common vision, create shared norms and tend
to actively shape and enlarge audiences through their own energy, self-confidence,
assertiveness, ambition, and seizing of opportunities.
208
Conceptually, the emotional intelligence and its components emerge as the dominant
predictors of transformational leadership, since an individual in tune with his or her emotions
and feelings would, conceivably, be more likely to understand their own abilities and
strengths and therefore be more efficacious in their role of leadership. The efficacious leaders
would likely be better equipped to deal with the commitment and vulnerability inherent in
transformational leadership. Leaders who can understand and manage their own emotions and
can display self-control and delay gratification, serve as role models for their followers,
thereby earning followers’ trust and respect. This would be consistent with the essence of
idealized influence as a main dimension of transformational leadership.
Recently, some empirical evidences indicate that the leader’s EI and transformational
style improve their organizations and subordinates effectiveness. Wong and Law (2002)
found that a leader’s level of EI was significantly related to subordinates’ work outcomes.
Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, and Boyle (2005) showed that EI predicts a number of different
organizational outcomes (e.g., productivity) associated with leadership effectiveness.
Relationships between EI and other theories of leadership have also been established,
including transformational leadership (e.g., Barbuto & Burbach, 2006), leader-member-
exchange (e.g., Rahim & Psenicka, 2005), strategic-level leadership (e.g., Harrison & Clough,
2006), and team-based leadership (e.g., Wolff, Pescosolido, & Druskat, 2002).
Researchers have proposed that leadership style may be a process mechanism linking
leader personality to leader outcomes (e.g., House et al., 1991; Whitman, Resick,
Weingarden, & Hiller, 2009). For instance, House and colleagues (1991) found that
dispositional characteristics significantly predicted leader behavior, which in turn
significantly predicted leadership effectiveness. In a similar fashion, Whitman et al. (2009)
argue that bright-side and dark-side personality traits have an effect on leadership
effectiveness criteria through transformational leader behavior. Hogan and Kaiser (2005) have
209
offered a similar process model (leader traits => leader behavior => leadership effectiveness).
Whitman et al. (2009), based on a meta-analysis study, concluded that the mean true
correlation between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness is distinguishable
from zero and significant in magnitude. Furthermore, he showed that the estimated true
correlations between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership are high and
credibility intervals did not include zero. He also revealed that transformational leadership
partially mediate EI-leadership effectiveness relationship.
Thus, leadership behavior appears to be one route through which a leader’s level of EI
has an impact on his or her effectiveness and these findings provide further support for Hogan
and Kaiser’s (2005) argument that “who we are is how we lead” (p. 127). Therefore, it could
be concluded that the EI leads to leadership behavior and leadership behavior ends up with
leadership effectiveness. Although transformational leadership fully mediates the relationship
between EI and leadership effectiveness, there is still much theoretical value in understanding
the EI => transformational leadership => leadership effectiveness relationship. The joint
significance of the three variables explicated in this process model provides fertile ground for
fruitful research endeavors. The scientific study of leadership has long been criticized for being
a disorganized piecemeal field (Bass, 1990); so a model that provides a route through which a
better understanding of the leadership effectiveness should be welcome to the literature.
Finally, based on the findings of this study, we can conclude that those leaders who
exhibit more transformational leadership behavior, are also able to understand, perceive,
manage and facilitate self- emotions and others' emotions and maintain constructive use of
emotions. Our findings support the view that emotional intelligence is an important variable
for understanding and predicting transformational leadership behavior and leadership
effectiveness.
210
Many authors (Palmer, Walls, Burgess, and Stough, 2001; Modassir and Singh, 2008)
have stated that EI fast became popular as a means for developing effective leadership skills.
Their findings indicate that EI, which is defined as person’s ability to perceive, understand
and manage emotions within one’s self and in others, is an underlying competency of
transformational leadership. In the other hand, understanding of emotions is particularly
important to leadership effectiveness and the emotional intelligent leaders are able to
understand followers' expectations and thus better able to react to followers' needs (Barling et al.,
2000; Gardner & Stough, 2002; Corona, 2010), and the followers perceive leaders with high EI
as more effective and transformational (Sivanathan and Fekken, 2002). As Ashkanasy and
Daus (2002, 2005) argues that there is an intuitive connection between EI and
transformational leadership, and research has since substantiated such intuition.
Leadership Effectiveness and EFQM ratings
One of the interesting results of the current study was the strong positive relationship
between leadership effectiveness and the EFQM ratings. In other words, the leaders with high
effectiveness have been rated higher in EFQM ratings. The empirical evidence not only shows
the validity of leadership effectiveness measure (EFQM-based INPE Award), as an external
criteria, but also determinates the leaders who were recognized effective by the peers,
subordinates and supervisors based on the MLQ 5x leadership effectiveness component
considered as the internal criteria. McCarthy and Greatbanks (2006) assert that many
leadership texts focus on those aspects of leadership effectiveness that relate to mission and
vision, goals, motivation and people management embedded in the first criterion of the
EFQM Excellence Model (EFQM, 2003).
Excellent organizations have leaders who shape the future and make it happen, acting
as role models for its values and ethics and inspiring trust at all times. They are flexible,
211
enabling the organization to anticipate and react in a timely manner to ensure the ongoing
success of the organization. These characteristics belong to the effectiveness leadership
measured by MLQ 5X.
The EFQM guidance on leadership is more broadly based than many leadership
texts, in its references to partnerships and to excellence and improvement activities. This may
reflect European input into the EFQM Excellence Model that its focus is now on developing
the key set of results required to monitor progress against the vision, mission and strategy,
enabling leaders to make effective.
Limitations and recommendations
One of the limitations of the current study is the size of the sample that included 79
industrial and organizational managers who have participated in the study. While the
researcher did expect that most managers will choose to participate in the study, the
researcher was extremely surprised to meet a high degree of resistance among the sample
population.
Future study into the relationship between EI and leadership style, especially if it is
intended to examine and confirm the proposed model could is suggested to include more
leaders as its sample group. Thereof, the findings from this study applis only to the industrial
managers and may or may not apply to other managers (organizational and state managers).
The second limitation is referred to research design. While correlational studies can
suggest that there are relationships among variables, they cannot prove that one variable
causes a change in another variable. In other words, correlation does not allow tests of strong
causal inference.
The third limitation is related to the managers gender. The entire current sample was
the male managers and this might limit generalisability of results. As Grubb (2003) noted
212
male expectations may lead men to rate themselves more highly in terms of EI and
transformational leadership than women, whose expectations may lead them to be more
modest.
Implications
Although the leadership of an organization needs to be effective and successful, they
also need to be successful in future to be able to stand in the competitive and progressive
world. This is, however, to introduce an awareness of the sustainability components into the
processes of their management and business practices in order to keep their reputation in the
competitive world of business.. This study shows that EI in leaders encourages the awareness
and the necessary competencies to be effective in their overall organizational behavior. Thus,
leaders who can understand and manage their own emotions and those of others create more
effectiveness in their organizations.
Furthermore, EI may enable leaders to understand the emotional implications of their
own feelings and thoughts. And what depositional attributes and leadership behaviors are
associated with managerial effectiveness. Managers who maintain accurate awareness have
more attributes of emotional intelligence and appear to be more effective to their superiors
and subordinates.
The importance of effective leadership is increasingly perceived in organizations in
order to meet the new challenges of growth and development. The role of emotional
intelligence is equally significant to be recognized for its temperamental impact on the
organization which seeks transformation and change. Since the enabling mechanism rests at
the managers’ temperamental level thereby creating emotional capability, there is a need to
enhance this enabling force in the organization in the area of selecting emotionally
213
intelligence professionals and training those who are trainable and who can infuse a process
of transformation through people.
In addition, potential predictive leadership selection should be addressed and may
come from valid and reliable empirical research through the use of both emotional
intelligence and leadership assessments when assigning individuals to leadership positions
within a group or organization.
This research implicates that developing or continueing the development of the
emotional intelligence skills and transformational coaching skills though reading, training,
and practices is strictly necessary for leaders. Goleman (1998) demonstrates that training and
other developmental avenues can enhance EI, led by example and mentor, instill a need to
develop emotional intelligence in the followers and create an emotionally intelligent work
environment. This will be fortified with providing seminars and workshops for the employees
and using emotional intelligence tests in the screening process for future managers.
214
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List of appendices
Appendix 1 ............................................................................................................................. 256
Appendix 2 ............................................................................................................................. 258
Appendix 3 ............................................................................................................................. 264
Appendix 4 ............................................................................................................................. 272
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Appendix 3
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test™
Personal Summary Report By John D. Mayer, Peter Salovey & David R. Caruso
Please refer to the MSCEIT™ User’s Manual for a description of the norms used in generating these results.
Copyright © 2001 Multi-Health Systems Inc. All rights reserved. P.O. Box 950, North Tonawanda, NY 14120-0950
3770 Victoria Park Ave., Toronto, ON M2H 3M6
MSCEIT™ Personal Summary Report for Ali Hosseini Page 2
What Is Emotional Intelligence?
Although the term “emotional intelligence” has been used in many ways, we use the term specifically here to mean an intelligence having to do with emotions. That is, emotional intelligence consists of two parts: emotion and intelligence, as the test authors most recently define it (e.g., Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, in press). “Emotions” refer to the feeling-reactions a person has, often in response to a real or imagined relationship. For example, if a person has a good relationship with someone else, that individual is likely to feel happy; if the person is threatened, he or she will be likely to feel afraid. Intelligence, on the other hand, refers to the ability to reason validly with or about something. For example, one reasons with language in the case of verbal intelligence, or reasons about how objects fit together in the case of spatial intelligence. In the case of emotional intelligence, one reasons with emotions, or emotions assist one’s thinking. That is, emotional intelligence, as measured by the MSCEIT™, refers to the capacity to reason with emotions and emotional signals, and to the capacity of emotion to enhance thought.
The Mayer-Salovey Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence
Dr. Peter Salovey and Dr. John D. Mayer first published their work on these concepts in 1990 (Mayer, DiPaolo, & Salovey, 1990; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). They later published a revised theory of emotional intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). This revised theory further elaborated the existence of four related areas of emotional intelligence. They called these areas "branches” to illustrate that the abilities
were arranged in a hierarchical order from the least psychologically complex to the most psychologically
complex.
Mayer and Salovey defined these specific abilities as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer & Salovey,
1997). Here is a summary of this four-branch model of emotional intelligence:
Perceiving and Identifying Emotions - the ability to recognize how you and those around you are feeling.
Using Emotions to Facilitate Thought - the ability to generate emotion, and then reason with this emotion.
Understanding Emotions - the ability to understand complex emotions and emotional “chains,” and how emotions transition from one stage to another.
Managing Emotions - the ability to manage emotions in yourself and in others.
What Does the MSCEIT™ Measure?
The MSCEIT™ is a performance test of emotional intelligence. A performance test provides an estimate of a person’s ability by having them solve problems. The MSCEIT™ asks you to solve problems about emotions, or problems that require the use of emotion.
Emotional Intelligence In Context
Emotional intelligence is one of hundreds of parts of our personality. Is it the most important predictor of success in life or work? It probably is part of “success” but it is not the sole ingredient, nor is it the most important one.
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MSCEIT™ Scores
The Scores You Will See
The MSCEIT™ yields a total emotional intelligence score as well as two area scores (Experiential and Strategic Emotional Intelligence). There are also four Branch scores: Perceiving Emotion, Facilitating Thought, Understanding Emotion, and Managing Emotion. Finally, scores for eight individual Tasks are reported.
MSCEIT Total 98
EXPERIENTIAL STRATEGIC
102 94
PERCEIVING FACILITATING UNDERSTANDING MANAGING
98 114 98 93
Faces Facilitation Blends Emotion Management
96 114 97 95
Pictures
100
Sensations
106
Changes
99
Emotion Relationships
92
How MSCEIT™ Scores Are Reported
The MSCEIT™ scores are reported like traditional intelligence scales so that the average score is 100 and the standard deviation is 15. If a person obtains a MSCEIT™ score around 100, then they are in the average range of emotional intelligence. A person obtaining a score of 115 is one standard deviation above the mean, or, at the 84th percentile. If someone obtains an overall MSCEIT™ score of
85, they are one standard deviation below the mean, or, at the 16th percentile. Area, branch, and task level results are scored in the same manner. As with all assessments, the MSCEIT™ compares individuals against the normative sample, not with the population in general.
Variability of Scores
Your score is an approximate result. If you were to take the test again, there is a good chance that your score would be different, so please keep that in mind as you interpret your results. Your scores are reported along with a 90% confidence interval or range. If you took the test a second time, you could expect with 90% confidence that you would receive a new score within the interval. In addition, test scores represent your actual ability, as well as other factors such as motivation, fatigue, language fluency, and so forth.
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Total Emotional Intelligence Score The following graph shows your standard score for total emotional intelligence. As with any global score, the MSCEIT™ Total Score is a convenient summary of a person’s performance on this test. The Total Score compares an individual’s performance on the MSCEIT™ to those in the normative sample. This score is a good place to start when analyzing your level of emotional intelligence.
Your MSCEIT™ Total Score is 98. If you took the test again, your score would likely change somewhat due to the variability that is a part of the testing process. To determine how much your score might change, we have calculated a 90% confidence interval for your MSCEIT™ Total Score. This confidence interval is from 91 to 105 and reflects the range of scores within which you can be 90% confident your true ability falls.
MSCEIT™ Total Score
The Total emotional intelligence score indicates an overall capacity to reason with emotion and to use emotion to enhance thought. It reflects the capacity to perform well in four areas: (1) to perceive emotions, (2) to access, generate, and use emotions to assist thought, (3) to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and (4) to regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth (after Mayer and Salovey, 1997, p. 8).
The Area Scores provide you with a closer look at your MSCEIT™ performance.
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Area Scores Now, let’s look at your two MSCEIT™ Area Scores. These are Experiential Emotional Intelligence and
Strategic Emotional Intelligence.
The 90% confidence interval for your Experiential Area score is 94 to 109, and for your Strategic Area score is 85 to 103.
Experiential Emotional Intelligence Score The Experiential Emotional Intelligence Score (EEIS) focuses on the identification of emotion and its productive use in thought (as opposed to the rational understanding and management of emotion). EEIS indicates the capacity to feel emotion and to do so productively. It focuses on more basic-level processing of emotion. The EEIS is based on the Perceiving and Facilitation Branches of the emotional intelligence model. These two Branches may rely more on how feelings feel and how the you respond and classify such feelings.
Strategic Emotional Intelligence Score Strategic Emotional Intelligence involves higher-level, conscious processing of emotions. These Branches require reasoning about emotions, how they develop over time, how they may be managed, and how to fit emotional management into social situations. They are strategic in the sense that one may use such information to chart an emotional course for oneself and others according to personal and social needs. The score is based on your performance on the Understanding and Managing Branches of emotional intelligence.
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Branch Scores Recall that the MSCEIT™ is based on the four branch model of emotional intelligence. Next, let’s examine your four MSCEIT™ Branch Scores to learn more about your emotional abilities.
The 90% confidence interval for your Perceiving Emotions Branch score is 90 to 105, for your
Facilitation of Thought Branch score is 102 to 126, for your Understanding Emotions Branch score is
86 to 109, and for your Managing Emotions Branch score is 82 to 104.
Perceiving Emotion
The Perceiving Emotions score concerns your ability to recognize how you and those around you are feeling. The first branch of the emotional intelligence model involves the capacity to perceive feelings accurately. Emotional perception involves paying attention to, and accurately decoding, emotional signals in facial expressions, tone of voice, and artistic expressions.
Accurate appraisal of emotions starts with attending to emotional expressions. If a person is uncomfortable with another person's expression of negative emotions, for instance, and they turn away every time they sense another’s discomfort, they may not perceive accurately that other
person’s emotional state. While this Branch of the model also includes accurate appraisal of one’s own emotions and the expression of emotion, the MSCEIT™ measures the appraisal of emotions in others and in images. Evidence suggests that the accurate appraisal of others is related to accurate perception in oneself as well.
Facilitating Thought
Your Facilitating Thought score is the ability to employ your feelings to enhance the cognitive system (thinking) and, as such, this ability can be harnessed for more effective problem-solving, reasoning, decision-making, and creative endeavors. Of course, cognition can be disrupted by emotions, such as anxiety and fear, but emotions also can prioritize the cognitive system to attend to what is important
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and even focus on what it does best in a given mood.
Emotions also change the way we think, creating positive thoughts when we are happy, and negative thoughts when we are sad. These changes in viewpoint force us to view things from different perspectives. Such shifting viewpoints may foster creative thinking.
Understanding Emotion
Emotions form a rich and complex interrelated symbol set, and many people discuss the existence of an “emotional language.” Your score on the Understanding Emotions Branch reflects being able to label emotions and to reason with them at an effective, understandable level.
Understanding what leads to various emotions is a critical component of emotional intelligence. For instance, annoyance and irritation can lead to rage if the cause of the irritation continues and intensifies. Knowledge of how emotions combine and change over time is important in our dealings with other people and in enhancing our self understanding.
Managing Emotions
The Managing Emotions score concerns one’s capacity to manage emotions successfully, when appropriate. Managing emotions means that you remain open to emotional information at important times, and closed to it at other times. It means successfully managing and coping with emotions. It also means working with feelings in a judicious way, rather than acting on them without thinking. For example, reacting out of anger can be effective in the short-run, but anger that is channeled and directed may be more effective in the long run.
It is important to understand that the ability to successfully manage emotions often entails the awareness, acceptance, and use of emotions in problem solving. When we speak of emotional regulation, some people understand the term to mean the suppression or rationalization of emotion. Managing Emotions involves the participation of emotions in thought and the ability to allow thought to include emotions. Optimal levels of emotional regulation likely will neither minimize nor exaggerate emotion.
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Task Scores Individual Task scores should be interpreted with caution as they are not, on average, as reliable individually as are the Branch and Area scores. Nonetheless, the individual Task scores may be of use in the interpretative process and are supplied below.
The following sections describe what each of the Task scores measure. You can use these descriptions to help you better understand your results. The scores on these tasks will vary much more than will your other MSCEIT™ scores, and therefore, must be used with caution.
Perceiving Emotions
Faces Task — In this task, designed to measure Perceiving Emotions, you were asked to identify how a person feels based upon their facial expression.
Pictures Task — Emotional perception also involves determining the emotions that are being expressed in music, art, and the environment around you. This aspect of Perceiving Emotions was measured by the task in which you indicated the extent to which certain images or landscapes expressed various emotions.
Facilitating Thought
Facilitation Task — Different moods assist certain kinds of problem solving. The Facilitation Task measures your knowledge of how moods interact and support your thinking and reasoning.
Sensations Task — This Branch was measured by a task in which you were asked to compare different emotions to different sensations, such as light, color, and temperature.
Understanding Emotions
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Changes Task — The Changes Tasks measures your knowledge of experiencing possibly conflicting emotions in certain situations and understanding emotional “chains,” or how emotions transition from one to another (e.g., how contentment can change into joy).
Blends Task — Understanding emotions refers to being able to connect situations with certain emotions (e.g., knowing that a situation involving a loss might make someone feel sad).
Managing Emotions
Emotion Management Task — The Emotion Management task asked you to rate the effectiveness of alternative actions in achieving a certain result in situations where a person had to regulate their emotions.
Emotional Relations Task — This task asked you to evaluate how effective different actions would be in achieving an outcome involving other people.
Remember that Task scores are rough approximations of one’s actual ability in these areas. These scores have much greater variability than do your other MSCEIT™ scores.
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Supplementary Scales
This section provides the results for the Scatter Score, Positive-Negative Bias Score, and Omission
Rates.
Scatter Score
Scatter Score = 84 High standardized scatter scores (>115) indicate large discrepancies in the results for the different tasks. Such scores may indicate a lot of variation in skill in different elements of emotional intelligence. Moderate scores show a typical amount of variation in the task results. Low scores (<85) indicate very consistent scores across the tasks.
Positive-Negative Bias Score
Positive-Negative Bias Score = 90 High standardized bias scores (> 115) indicate a more than typical tendency to respond to the pictures by assigning a positive emotion. Moderate scores indicate a typical amount of positive and negative assignments to the pictures. Low scores (<85) indicate that more than a typical amount of negative assignments have been made.
Omission Rates
Omission Rate Overall = 0.00% Omission Rate Section A = 0.00% (Faces) Omission Rate Section B = 0.00% (Facilitation) Omission Rate Section C = 0.00% (Changes) Omission Rate Section D = 0.00% (Emotion Management) Omission Rate Section E = 0.00% (Pictures)
Omission Rate Section F = 0.00% (Sensations) Omission Rate Section G = 0.00% (Blends)
Omission Rate Section H = 0.00% (Emotional Relations) If the overall omission rate is greater than 10%, the validity of the administration should be brought into question. If the omission rate for a given task is 50% or more, the score for that section (as well as associated Branch, Area, and Total scores) will not be computed.
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Percentiles Some people prefer to view their scores as percentiles rather than as IQ-type scores. Percentile scores range from 1 to 99, where a percentile of 1 means that you would be at the lowest level compared to others, and a percentile of 99 would mean that your results would place you higher than 99% of the people in the standardization sample.
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Norm Option: Expert
Scoring Type: Age,Gender
In developing the MSCEIT™, we examined several different ways to score the answers. We can compare your answers to those of experts on emotions, called the expert consensus, or to the ratings of other people, called the general consensus (or general scoring).
Our research has shown that the general and expert consensus scoring methods yield almost identical results.
The Expert Norm Option was used in your report.
Cautionary Remarks
Scoring of the MSCEIT™ is based on the sample described in the MSCEIT™ User’s Manual. People from emerging or non-Western nations taking the test, and non-native English language speakers, should be alert to the fact that cultural variation can lower scores on the MSCEIT™, and should check local norms where available. More generally speaking, an individual's personal functioning is the product of many qualities, and no one test captures them all. For that reason, the use of the MSCEIT™ with other psychological assessment instruments is encouraged. In addition, examination of MSCEIT™ results should always be considered in the context of consultation with a qualified professional.
Concluding Comments
Emotional intelligence can be defined and measured as an intelligence, or as a set of abilities. The MSCEIT™ provides you with an estimate of these emotional skills. Assessments like the MSCEIT™ are designed to help people learn more about themselves and to better understand their strengths.
We hope that the MSCEIT™ will provide you with useful information and insights. Thank you for taking the MSCEIT™!
John (Jack) D. Mayer Peter Salovey David R. Caruso
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Item Response Table The following response values were entered for the items on MSCEIT™.
References
Mayer, J. D., DiPaolo, M. T., & Salovey, P. (1990). Perceiving affective content in ambiguous visual stimuli: A component of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54, 772-781.
Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence: Implications for Educators (pp. 3-31). New York: Basic Books.
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2000). Models of emotional intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg
(Ed.), Handbook of Intelligence (pp. 396-420). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9,
185-211.
Date Printed: Tuesday, November 02, 2010
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Appendix 4
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