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5 - ECTOMYCORHIZE!
1 - ENDO"MYCORHIZE!
ARBUSCULAIRE!
2 - ENDOMYCORHIZE A!PELOTONS (ORCHIDEES)!
3 - ENDOMYCORHIZE A!PELOTONS (ERICACEES)!
Pelotons!
Vési-cule!
Hyphes externes!
Réseau de Hartig!
Man-!teau!
Cylindre central! Peloton!
lysé!
Spororocyste!
Hyphes !externes!
Endoderme!
4 – ECTEN-!DOMYCORHIZE!
Mycorhizes
Nodosités
Nombremoyende
nodo
sités
parp
lante
Fig. 2. Distinct commensalniches control T cell cytokine pro-duction in the gut and skin. (A)Taxonomic classifications at thephylum level for 16S ribosomalRNA gene sequence data clus-tered at 97% identity from skintissue and fecal pellet of controlmice and mice treated with oralantibiotic cocktail (ATB) for 4 weeks.Each column represents an indi-vidual mouse. (B) Assessment ofIFN-g production in live CD45+
TCRb+ cells and IL-17A produc-tion in live CD45+ cells from skinand intestine of mice treated withoral antibiotic cocktail or water(Ctrl) for 4 weeks. Graphs showmeans T SEM of four mice (**P <0.005, ***P < 0.0005; ns, not sig-nificant). Results are representa-tive of two or three experiments.(C and D) Flow cytometric anal-ysis of IL-17A production in liveCD45+ TCRb+ cells from the gutand skin of SPF mice, GF mice,and GF mice monoassociated withS. epidermidis (GF + S.epi) for 2to 3 weeks. Graphs show means TSEM of three to five mice (**P <0.005). Results are representativeof two experiments.
Fig. 3. Cutaneous commensals drive immunity and pro-mote pathology in L. major infection. (A) Histopathologicalcomparison of ear pinnae skin lesions from L. major–infected SPF and GF mice. Scale bars, 500 mm. (B) Assess-ment of lesion size in SPF and GF mice. Each data pointrepresents an individualmouse (***P< 0.0005). (C andD)Flow cytometric analysis of Leishmania antigen-specificIFN-g and TNF-a production by TCRb+ CD4+ dermal cellsfrom L. major–infected SPF and GF mice. Each datapoint represents an individual mouse (**P < 0.005,***P < 0.0005). Results are representative of three ex-periments. (E) Number of L. major parasites per 1000nucleated cells from dermal lesions of infected SPF andGF mice. Each data point represents an individual mouse(***P< 0.0005). (F) Assessment of lesion size in SPFmice,GFmice, and GFmice monoassociated with S. epidermidis(S.epi). Each data point represents an individual mouse(**P < 0.005). Results are representative of two experi-ments. (G and H) Representative images of L. major skinlesions and analysis of IFN-g production by live TCRb+
CD4+ cells from SPF mice, GF mice, and GF mice mono-associated with S. epidermidis. Each data point representsan individual mouse (***P < 0.0005). Results are repre-sentative of two experiments.
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 337 31 AUGUST 2012 1117
REPORTS
ContrôleAxéniqueAxénique + Staphylococcusepidermidis
Tube dig. Peau
Lym
phoc
yte
Protection du Tabac contre Botrytis cinerea
Le rumen
Fig. 2. Distinct commensalniches control T cell cytokine pro-duction in the gut and skin. (A)Taxonomic classifications at thephylum level for 16S ribosomalRNA gene sequence data clus-tered at 97% identity from skintissue and fecal pellet of controlmice and mice treated with oralantibiotic cocktail (ATB) for 4 weeks.Each column represents an indi-vidual mouse. (B) Assessment ofIFN-g production in live CD45+
TCRb+ cells and IL-17A produc-tion in live CD45+ cells from skinand intestine of mice treated withoral antibiotic cocktail or water(Ctrl) for 4 weeks. Graphs showmeans T SEM of four mice (**P <0.005, ***P < 0.0005; ns, not sig-nificant). Results are representa-tive of two or three experiments.(C and D) Flow cytometric anal-ysis of IL-17A production in liveCD45+ TCRb+ cells from the gutand skin of SPF mice, GF mice,and GF mice monoassociated withS. epidermidis (GF + S.epi) for 2to 3 weeks. Graphs show means TSEM of three to five mice (**P <0.005). Results are representativeof two experiments.
Fig. 3. Cutaneous commensals drive immunity and pro-mote pathology in L. major infection. (A) Histopathologicalcomparison of ear pinnae skin lesions from L. major–infected SPF and GF mice. Scale bars, 500 mm. (B) Assess-ment of lesion size in SPF and GF mice. Each data pointrepresents an individualmouse (***P< 0.0005). (C andD)Flow cytometric analysis of Leishmania antigen-specificIFN-g and TNF-a production by TCRb+ CD4+ dermal cellsfrom L. major–infected SPF and GF mice. Each datapoint represents an individual mouse (**P < 0.005,***P < 0.0005). Results are representative of three ex-periments. (E) Number of L. major parasites per 1000nucleated cells from dermal lesions of infected SPF andGF mice. Each data point represents an individual mouse(***P< 0.0005). (F) Assessment of lesion size in SPFmice,GFmice, and GFmice monoassociated with S. epidermidis(S.epi). Each data point represents an individual mouse(**P < 0.005). Results are representative of two experi-ments. (G and H) Representative images of L. major skinlesions and analysis of IFN-g production by live TCRb+
CD4+ cells from SPF mice, GF mice, and GF mice mono-associated with S. epidermidis. Each data point representsan individual mouse (***P < 0.0005). Results are repre-sentative of two experiments.
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 337 31 AUGUST 2012 1117
REPORTS
Contrôle Axénique
Fig. 2. Distinct commensalniches control T cell cytokine pro-duction in the gut and skin. (A)Taxonomic classifications at thephylum level for 16S ribosomalRNA gene sequence data clus-tered at 97% identity from skintissue and fecal pellet of controlmice and mice treated with oralantibiotic cocktail (ATB) for 4 weeks.Each column represents an indi-vidual mouse. (B) Assessment ofIFN-g production in live CD45+
TCRb+ cells and IL-17A produc-tion in live CD45+ cells from skinand intestine of mice treated withoral antibiotic cocktail or water(Ctrl) for 4 weeks. Graphs showmeans T SEM of four mice (**P <0.005, ***P < 0.0005; ns, not sig-nificant). Results are representa-tive of two or three experiments.(C and D) Flow cytometric anal-ysis of IL-17A production in liveCD45+ TCRb+ cells from the gutand skin of SPF mice, GF mice,and GF mice monoassociated withS. epidermidis (GF + S.epi) for 2to 3 weeks. Graphs show means TSEM of three to five mice (**P <0.005). Results are representativeof two experiments.
Fig. 3. Cutaneous commensals drive immunity and pro-mote pathology in L. major infection. (A) Histopathologicalcomparison of ear pinnae skin lesions from L. major–infected SPF and GF mice. Scale bars, 500 mm. (B) Assess-ment of lesion size in SPF and GF mice. Each data pointrepresents an individualmouse (***P< 0.0005). (C andD)Flow cytometric analysis of Leishmania antigen-specificIFN-g and TNF-a production by TCRb+ CD4+ dermal cellsfrom L. major–infected SPF and GF mice. Each datapoint represents an individual mouse (**P < 0.005,***P < 0.0005). Results are representative of three ex-periments. (E) Number of L. major parasites per 1000nucleated cells from dermal lesions of infected SPF andGF mice. Each data point represents an individual mouse(***P< 0.0005). (F) Assessment of lesion size in SPFmice,GFmice, and GFmice monoassociated with S. epidermidis(S.epi). Each data point represents an individual mouse(**P < 0.005). Results are representative of two experi-ments. (G and H) Representative images of L. major skinlesions and analysis of IFN-g production by live TCRb+
CD4+ cells from SPF mice, GF mice, and GF mice mono-associated with S. epidermidis. Each data point representsan individual mouse (***P < 0.0005). Results are repre-sentative of two experiments.
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 337 31 AUGUST 2012 1117
REPORTS
Fig. 2. Distinct commensalniches control T cell cytokine pro-duction in the gut and skin. (A)Taxonomic classifications at thephylum level for 16S ribosomalRNA gene sequence data clus-tered at 97% identity from skintissue and fecal pellet of controlmice and mice treated with oralantibiotic cocktail (ATB) for 4 weeks.Each column represents an indi-vidual mouse. (B) Assessment ofIFN-g production in live CD45+
TCRb+ cells and IL-17A produc-tion in live CD45+ cells from skinand intestine of mice treated withoral antibiotic cocktail or water(Ctrl) for 4 weeks. Graphs showmeans T SEM of four mice (**P <0.005, ***P < 0.0005; ns, not sig-nificant). Results are representa-tive of two or three experiments.(C and D) Flow cytometric anal-ysis of IL-17A production in liveCD45+ TCRb+ cells from the gutand skin of SPF mice, GF mice,and GF mice monoassociated withS. epidermidis (GF + S.epi) for 2to 3 weeks. Graphs show means TSEM of three to five mice (**P <0.005). Results are representativeof two experiments.
Fig. 3. Cutaneous commensals drive immunity and pro-mote pathology in L. major infection. (A) Histopathologicalcomparison of ear pinnae skin lesions from L. major–infected SPF and GF mice. Scale bars, 500 mm. (B) Assess-ment of lesion size in SPF and GF mice. Each data pointrepresents an individualmouse (***P< 0.0005). (C andD)Flow cytometric analysis of Leishmania antigen-specificIFN-g and TNF-a production by TCRb+ CD4+ dermal cellsfrom L. major–infected SPF and GF mice. Each datapoint represents an individual mouse (**P < 0.005,***P < 0.0005). Results are representative of three ex-periments. (E) Number of L. major parasites per 1000nucleated cells from dermal lesions of infected SPF andGF mice. Each data point represents an individual mouse(***P< 0.0005). (F) Assessment of lesion size in SPFmice,GFmice, and GFmice monoassociated with S. epidermidis(S.epi). Each data point represents an individual mouse(**P < 0.005). Results are representative of two experi-ments. (G and H) Representative images of L. major skinlesions and analysis of IFN-g production by live TCRb+
CD4+ cells from SPF mice, GF mice, and GF mice mono-associated with S. epidermidis. Each data point representsan individual mouse (***P < 0.0005). Results are repre-sentative of two experiments.
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 337 31 AUGUST 2012 1117
REPORTS
Fig. 2. Distinct commensalniches control T cell cytokine pro-duction in the gut and skin. (A)Taxonomic classifications at thephylum level for 16S ribosomalRNA gene sequence data clus-tered at 97% identity from skintissue and fecal pellet of controlmice and mice treated with oralantibiotic cocktail (ATB) for 4 weeks.Each column represents an indi-vidual mouse. (B) Assessment ofIFN-g production in live CD45+
TCRb+ cells and IL-17A produc-tion in live CD45+ cells from skinand intestine of mice treated withoral antibiotic cocktail or water(Ctrl) for 4 weeks. Graphs showmeans T SEM of four mice (**P <0.005, ***P < 0.0005; ns, not sig-nificant). Results are representa-tive of two or three experiments.(C and D) Flow cytometric anal-ysis of IL-17A production in liveCD45+ TCRb+ cells from the gutand skin of SPF mice, GF mice,and GF mice monoassociated withS. epidermidis (GF + S.epi) for 2to 3 weeks. Graphs show means TSEM of three to five mice (**P <0.005). Results are representativeof two experiments.
Fig. 3. Cutaneous commensals drive immunity and pro-mote pathology in L. major infection. (A) Histopathologicalcomparison of ear pinnae skin lesions from L. major–infected SPF and GF mice. Scale bars, 500 mm. (B) Assess-ment of lesion size in SPF and GF mice. Each data pointrepresents an individualmouse (***P< 0.0005). (C andD)Flow cytometric analysis of Leishmania antigen-specificIFN-g and TNF-a production by TCRb+ CD4+ dermal cellsfrom L. major–infected SPF and GF mice. Each datapoint represents an individual mouse (**P < 0.005,***P < 0.0005). Results are representative of three ex-periments. (E) Number of L. major parasites per 1000nucleated cells from dermal lesions of infected SPF andGF mice. Each data point represents an individual mouse(***P< 0.0005). (F) Assessment of lesion size in SPFmice,GFmice, and GFmice monoassociated with S. epidermidis(S.epi). Each data point represents an individual mouse(**P < 0.005). Results are representative of two experi-ments. (G and H) Representative images of L. major skinlesions and analysis of IFN-g production by live TCRb+
CD4+ cells from SPF mice, GF mice, and GF mice mono-associated with S. epidermidis. Each data point representsan individual mouse (***P < 0.0005). Results are repre-sentative of two experiments.
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 337 31 AUGUST 2012 1117
REPORTS
Con-trôle
Axé-nique
Axé.+Staphylococcusepidermidis
Lésion cutanées de souris attaquées par Leishmania major
Normales(blanc)
Axéniques(noir)
Zoneclose
Zoneouverte
ExtrémitéCentreTemps(secon
des)
normales axéniques
normalesouaxéniques
normalesouaxéniques
Nervegrowth factor-inducible cloneA,liéàl’anxiété
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor,liéàlaplasticitésynaptique
Recyclagedesneurotransmetteurs
Sérotonine(5-HT)-->5-HIAA
p<0.002 p<0.04
p<2e-18Prifti,LeChatelier etal.unpublished
canalauditif cuirchevelu bouche
narine œsophage
peau intestin
pénis vagin
Article
Sialylate
dMilk
Olig
osacch
aridesPro
mote
Micro
biota-D
ependentGro
wth
inModels
ofInfan
tUndern
utritio
n
Grap
hicalAbstract
Highlig
htsd
Malaw
ianmothers
with
underno
urishedinfants
have
decreased
milk
olig
osaccharid
es
dSialylated
milk
sugars
promote
growth
ofanim
alsco
lonized
with
infantmicro
biota
dGrowth
promotio
ndoes
notoccur
with
provisio
nofinulin
or
ingerm
-freemice
dSialylated
olig
osaccharid
esim
pact
liver,muscle,and
brain
metab
olism
Autho
rsMark
R.C
harbonneau,D
avidO’Donnell,
LauraV.B
lanton,...,C
arlitoLeb
rilla,
David
A.M
ills,JeffreyI.G
ordon
Corresp
ond
encejgordon@
wustl.ed
u
InBrief
Twopreclinicalm
odels
forinfant
undernutritio
nestab
lishalink
betw
een
consum
ptio
nofsialylated
milk
olig
osaccharid
es,thegutm
icrobiota,and
healthygrowth.
Charb
onneau
etal.,2016,C
ell164,859–871Feb
ruary25,2016
ª2016
Elsevier
Inc.http
://dx.d
oi.o
rg/10.1016/j.cell.2016.01.024
Juvénileaxénique
AdultenormalFlored’enfantbiennourri
Flored’enfantmalnourri
Flored’enfantmalnourri
Floreaméliorantlacroissance
OU
HMO
Adultenain
0204060
1050
910
0815
0720
0625
0530
0435
0340
0245
0150
00
Seq
uenc
es/s
ampl
e
Bacterial diversity (PD)
PC1
(16%
)
PC2
(6%
)
PC3
(3%
)
Yano
mam
i
Gua
hibo
Mal
awi
US
Pre
vote
llaE
ubac
teriu
mP
arap
revo
tella
ceae
Ana
erop
lasm
aB
ulle
idia
Lact
obac
illus
Cop
roco
ccus
Met
hano
mas
silii
cocc
acea
eP
revo
tella
(uns
p.)
Oxa
loba
cter
acea
eA
erom
onad
acea
e (u
nsp.
)S
piro
chae
tes
Hel
icob
acte
rD
esul
fovi
brio
Verr
ucom
icro
bia
Pha
scol
arct
obac
teriu
mM
ollic
utes
RF3
9B
acte
roid
ales
S24
−7
01
23
4LD
A s
core
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
43
21
0Lo
g 10 a
bund
ance
43
2 21
0Lo
g 10 a
bund
ance
Prevalence
5101520
1015
930
845
760
675
590
410
5312
0213
5115
00S
eque
nces
/sam
ple
Bacterial diversity (PD)
PC1
(16%
)
PC2
(7%
)
PC3
(6%
)
Yano
mam
iU
S
Ste
notro
phom
onas
(uns
p)S
phin
goba
cter
ium
Act
inom
yces
Veill
onel
laP
seud
omon
asA
cine
toba
cter
Ste
notro
phom
onas
Rot
hia
Pre
vote
lla n
ance
iens
isPo
rphy
rom
onas
Hae
mop
hilu
sP
revo
tella
[Pre
vote
llace
ae]
Gra
nulic
atel
laFu
soba
cter
ium
Veill
onel
la (u
nsp)
Pre
vote
lla [P
arap
revo
tella
ceae
]G
emel
laLe
ptot
richi
acea
e
01
23
45
LDA
sco
re
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
Prevalence
02040
1015
930
845
760
675
590
410
5312
0213
5115
00S
eque
nces
/sam
ple
Bacterial diversity (PD)
PC1
(14%
)
PC2
(5%
)
PC3
(4%
)
Yano
mam
iU
S
Pro
pion
ibac
teriu
mN
eiss
eria
ceae
Cor
yneb
acte
rium
Sta
phyl
ococ
cus
Mic
roco
ccus
Pse
udon
ocar
diac
eae
Ace
toba
cter
acea
eN
eiss
eria
Sol
ibac
tera
ceae
Aci
doba
cter
iace
aeC
onex
ibac
tera
ceae
Met
hylo
cyst
acea
eM
icro
cocc
acea
e (u
nsp)
Bra
chyb
acte
rium
(uns
p)K
ocur
iaLe
ucon
osto
cace
aeK
noel
lia
01
23
4LD
A s
core
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
−4−3
−2−1
0Lo
g 10 a
bund
ance
Prevalence
Pop
ulat
ion
Gua
hibo
Mal
awi
US
A
Yano
mam
i
Pop
ulat
ion
US
Yan
omam
i
Popu
latio
nU
SYa
nom
ami
A
CD
E
FG
H
IJ
KL
B
Fig.
1.Microbiotadiversity
infecal,oral,and
skin
sam-
ples
from
uncontactedYa
nomam
iinrelatio
nto
othe
rhu
man
grou
ps.(A)Faith
’sph
ylog
enetic
diversity
(PD)
(ave
rage
±SD
)of
fecalsamples
from
Yano
mam
ian
dGuahibo
Amerindians,Malaw
ians,and
U.S.sub
jects.OTU
tables
rarefiedat
5000
sequ
encespersam
ple.Interpop
ula-
tiondiffe
rences
weresig
nificant(P
<0.001,
ANOVA
with
Tukey’s
HSD
)for
allb
utGuahibo
-Malaw
icom
parison
(P=
0.73).(B)P
CoAplot
basedon
UniFrac
distancescalculated
ontheOTU
tableof
fecalsam
ples
rarefiedat
5000
se-
quencespe
rsam
ple.(C)Top
discrim
inativebacteriaam
ong
popu
latio
nsin
fecalsam
ples
asde
term
ined
bylineardis-
crim
inan
tan
alysis(LDA)
effect
size
(LEfSe)an
alysis.(D)
Normalized
prevalen
ce/abu
ndan
cecurves
forallOTU
sfoun
dat1%
abun
danceor
moreinfecalsam
ples.(E)
Faith’s
phylog
eneticdiversity
(average
±SD
)ofo
ralsam
ples
from
Yano
mam
iand
U.S.sub
jects.OTU
tables
rarefiedat
1500
sequ
encespe
rsample.
Interpop
ulationdiffe
rences
were
notsig
nificant(P
=0.296,
ANOVA
with
Tukey’s
HSD
).(F)
PCoA
plot
basedon
UniFrac
distancescalculated
onOTU
tables
oforalsamples
rarefiedat
1500
sequ
encespe
rsam
-ple.(G)Top
discrim
inativebacteriaam
ongpo
pulatio
nsinoralsamples
asdeterm
ined
byLEfSeanalysis.
(H)N
ormalize
dprevalence/abu
ndance
curves
fora
llOTU
sfoun
dat
1%ab
undanceor
morein
oralsamples.(I)Faith
’sph
ylog
eneticdiversity
(average
±SD
)ofskinsamples
from
Yano
mam
iand
U.S.sub
jects.
OTU
tables
rarefiedat
1500
sequ
encespe
rsam
ple.Interpop
ulationdiffe
rences
weresig
nificant(P<0.001,AN
OVA
with
Tukey’s
HSD
).(J)P
CoAplot
based
onUniFrac
distancescalculated
onOTU
tables
ofskinsamples
rarefiedat
1500
sequ
encespe
rsam
ple.(K)Top
discrim
inativebacteriaam
ongpo
pulatio
nsin
skin
samples
asde
term
ined
byLEfSeanalysis.
(L)N
ormalized
prevalence/abu
ndance
curves
forallO
TUsfoun
dat
1%abun
danceor
morein
skin
samples.
RESEARCH
ARTIC
LE
Clem
ente
etal.S
ci.A
dv.2
015;1:e1
5001
8317
April20
152of
12
Cle
men
te e
t al.
Sci.
Adv
. 201
5;1:
e150
0183
JF B
ach,
non
pub
l.
Fréq
uenc
es c
umul
ées
des
indi
vidu
s
Grain d’aleurone
CristalloïdeGloboïde
Phytates(dans les globoïdes)
Glucosinolates des Brassicaceae
Distribution cumulée des fréquences de nombre de copies d’AMY1 dans différentes populations (en bas) : celles qui ont un régime moyen riche en amidon (high starch) ont plus de copies en moyenne que celles ayant un régime pauvre en amidon (low starch, chasseurs-cueilleurs). D’après Perry et al., 2007.
6,56.96,8
5,55.35,85.2
Moyennes