PAPER HISTORY · 2015. 10. 6. · consulter notre site web et de faire parvenir à notre webmestre E. Wenger [email protected] toute information concernant des manifestations

Volume 19, Year 2015, Issue 2

PAPER HISTORY

Journal of theInternational Association of Paper Historians

Zeitschrift derInternationalen Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Papierhistoriker

Revue del’Association Internationale des Historiens du Papier

ISSN 0250-8338

www.paperhistory.org

PAPER HISTORY, Volume 19, Year 2015, Issue 2

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International Association of Paper HistoriansInternationale Arbeitsgemeinschaft derPapierhistorikerAssociation Internationale des Historiens du Papier

Editor Anna-Grethe Rischel Denmark

Co-editors IPH-Delegates Maria Del Carmen Hidalgo Brinquis

Spain Dr. Claire Bustarret

France Prof. Dr. Alan Crocker

United Kingdom Dr.JózefDąbrowski

Poland Jos De Gelas

Belgium Elaine Koretsky

USA Paola Munafò

Italy Dr. Henk J. Porck

The Netherlands Dr. Maria José Ferreira dos Santos

Portugal Kari Greve

Norway

Lay-out Karen Borchersen School of Conservation Esplanaden 34 DK – 1263 Copenhagen K Denmark [email protected]

Printer LH ConceptPaper meets ISO 9706 - 90g

Deadline for contributions each year1.April and 1. September

President Anna-Grethe RischelPräsident Stenhoejgaardsvej 57President DK- 3460 Birkeroed Denmark

tel + 45 45 81 68 03 +45 24 60 28 60 [email protected]

Secretary Magdalene Christ Sekretariat Stiftung Zanders-Secrétaire Papiergeschichtliche Sammlung Hauptstr. 267 DE-51465BergischGladbach Germany tel +49 22 02 15 20 60 [email protected]

Treasurer Bruno Kehl Kassier Bellevaux-Impassedel’Eglise,2 Trésorier B-4960 Malmedy Belgium tel + 32 80 67 84 91 + 32 47 85 75 413 [email protected]

Contents / Inhalt / ContenuDearmembersofIPH 3LiebeMitgliederderIPH, 4Chersmembresdel’IPH, 5MakingtheInvisibleVisible 6Paper and the history of printing 14Preservation in the Tropics: Preventive Conservation and the Search for SustainableISOConservationMaterial 23Meetings,conferences,seminars,coursesand events 27Completeyourpaperhistoricallibrary! 27ErgänzenSieIhrepapierhistorischeBibliothek! 27Completezvotrebibliothèquedel’Histoire dupapier! 27www.paperhistory.org 28


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Dear members of IPH

A year has gone by since people with interest inpaper and paper history met each other in Italy at the memorable IPH Congress in Fabriano,CamerinoandAmalfi.Itwassoperfectlyorganizedin an inspiring atmosphere that the rich program and the speakers’ presentation of their papersresulted in new ideas, discussions and positivecritics from the vividly engaged audience. After the congress it is important that we remember tokeep in touch with our new and old friends and use the updated Membership List. Check thewebsiteandsendinformationaboutpaperhistoricalevents, new publications etc. to our webmaster [email protected] that cannot wait forpublication in the spring and autumn issuesof theIPH periodical Paper History.

Thissummertheestablishment625yearsagoofthefirst documented papermill north of theAlpswascelebratedinmanyways.AtthegatesofNurembergdid theGermanmerchantUlmanStromer, assistedby Lombard artisans from Fabriano, start theproduction of paper at the renovated former fulling mill 24th of June in 1390. Johannes Gutenberg’sinvention1445,only55yearslater,ofamethodofprintingwithmovabletypeswasespeciallyfitforthenew and much cheaper writing material; his genius art of printing resulted in spread of knowledge and information in a completely unexpected amount,in still rising demands for more paper and thus for development of the technology and later search for newfibrematerials.TheimportanceofGutenberg’sinvention is described and discussed inTorbjörnHelle’sarticle“Paperandthehistoryofprinting”inthis issue of our periodical.

In Fabriano the time consuming editing of themanuscripts from the 2014 IPH Congress is taking place,butunfortunatelyanumberofthefinaltextshavenotbeenreceivedbeforethedeadlineof31/122014 and that makes the editing unnecessarily complicated for the congress coordinators and delays the final publication of Volume 20 of theCongress Books. Simultaneously with this important workinItalytheplanningofthenextIPHCongress2016 has already started in Spain. It is the third time that national and international paper historians are gatheredatIPHCongressesinSpain,andhopefullyit will happen as planned in Valencia, hosted by

GENERALITAT VALENCIANA CULTURARTSIVCC+R, nearby the city of Xàtiva, where Arabpaper makers 900 years ago started the art of papermaking in Europe. Please note that the Call for papersforthe2016IPHCongresswillbepublishedassoonaspossibleonourwebsitewithinformationaboutthesubjects,program,dateanddeadlinesforsending your suggestion for papers.

In the firstweek of June the annualNordic paperhistorians NPH-meeting was organized by KariGreve in Norway in the beautiful city of Bergen.UnfortunatelyIwasnotabletoparticipatethistime,because of my participation with the continuedstudiesof theKhartasiadatabaseproject inParis.During two fascinating weeks together with Claude Laroque, Agnieszka Helman-Wazny andmembers fromCRC,CentredeRecherchessur lesCollections,MuséumNationald’HistoireNaturelle(MNHN), specimens were made of bast fibrematerials from a selection of classical Asiatic paper making plants from Jardin des plantes in Paris and ofartificiallyagedhandmadenewChinesepapers.With this material the Mulberry bast fibres couldbe observed and documented before the papertechnological preparation and the difference noticed betweenMulberry fibres from the plant and fromthe paper. One of the days in Paris Nina Jethwa from India presented an interesting lecture at CRC about theproductionofhandmadepure cotton ragpaper in Pondicherry in the Handmade Paper Dept. /ArchivesDept.SriAurobindoAshram. IamsurethattheIndianpapermakingprojectanditspurpose,describedinherarticleinthisissueoftheperiodical,will be just as interesting for the readers of thisperiodical as it was for the audience in Paris.

Anna-Grethe Rischel


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Liebe Mitglieder der IPH,

Es ist nun ein Jahr her, dass Papier- undPapiergeschichtsinteressiertesichinItalienbeidemdenkwürdigenIPH-KongressinFabriano,CamerinoundAmalfi getroffen haben. Er war so perfekt ineiner anregenden Atmosphere organiziert, dassdas reichhaltige Programm und die Präsentationen der Vortragenden in neue Ideen mündeten, sowiein Diskussionen und positive Kritik von den sehr engagierten Zuhörern. Nach dem Kongress ist eswichtig, dass wir daran denken, in Kontakt mitunserenneuenundaltenFreundenzubleiben,unddie aktualisierte Mitgliederliste zu nutzen. Seht Euch diewebsiteanundsendet jeneInformationenüberpapierhistorische Ereignisse, neue Publikationenetc., welche nicht erst auf eine Publikation in derFrühlings- oder Herbst-Ausgabe unserer Periodika„IPH-Paper-History“ warten können, an [email protected].

IndiesemSommerwurdedieErrichtungderersten,dokumentierten Papiermühle nördlich der Alpenvor 625 Jahren auf vielfältigeWeise gefeiert. Derdeutsche Kaufmann Ulman Stromer begann vordenTorenNürnbergs,assistiertvon lombardischenKunsthandwerkernausFabriano,mitderProduktionvon Papier in der renoviertenWalkmühle am 24.Juni 1390. Johannes Gutenbergs Erfindung imJahr 1445, nur 55 Jahre später, mit beweglichenBuchstabenzudrucken,passtehervorragendzudemneuenundvielpreiswerterenSchreibmaterial;seinegeniale Art des Druckens mündete in eine unerwartet riesigeVerbreitungvonWissenundInformation,inweiterhin steigende Nachfrage nach mehr Papier und daher auch für die technische Entwicklung und später die Suche nach neuen Fasern. Die Bedeutung der Erfindung Gutenbergs ist in Torbjörn HellesBeitrag „Paper and the history of printing“ indieserAusgabeunsererZeitschriftbeschriebenundbesprochen.

In Fabriano wird zur Zeit die Drucklegung derManuskripte vom IPH-Kongress 2014 vorbereitet,aber leider sind eine Reihe von Texten nichtrechtzeitig vor dem Redaktionschluss am 31.12.2014 eingereicht worden und dies macht es den Kongress-KoordinatorenunnötigschwerundsowirdsichdieendgültigePublikationvonBand20desKongress-Bandes verzögern. Parallel zu dieser wichtigenArbeit in Italien hat die Planung für den nächsten

IPH-Kongress in Spanien 2016 bereits begonnen.Esistdas3.Mal,dassnationaleundinternationalePapierhistoriker zu einem IPH-Kongress in Spanien zusammentreffen, und diesmal wird es hoffentlichwiegeplantinValenciasein,inderNähevonXàtiva,woarabischePapiermachervor900Jahrenbegannen,Papier in Europa herzustellen; die Gastgeber sindGENERALITAT VALENCIANA CULTURARTSIVCC+R.Bittebeachtet,dassder‚Callforpapers‘für den IPH-Kongress 2016 sobald als möglichauf unserer website mit Informationen zu Thema,Programm, Datum und Redaktionsschluss EurerVorschlägezuVorträgenveröffentlichtwird.

IndererstenJuni-WochewurdedasjährlicheNPH-Treffen der nordischen Papierhistoriker in der schönenStadtBergeninNorwegenvonKariGreveorganiziert. Leider konnte ich nicht persönlichdaran teilnhemen, da ich zeitgleich in Paris beieinerFortsetzungderStudienamdata-baseProjektKhartasia teilnahm.Während zweier fazinierendenWochen zusammenmitClaudeLaroque,AgniszkaHelman-Wazny undMitgliedern des CRC (CentredeRecherchessurlesCollections,MuséumNationald‘HistoireNaturelle<MNHN>)wurdenMustervonBastfasern aus einer Auswahl klassisch asiatischer Papierpflanzen vom Jardin des plantes sowie vonkünstlich gealterterten, handgeschöpften, neuenPapieren aus China angefertigt.

Mit diesem Material können die Maulbeerbaum-Fasernbeobachtetunddokumentiertwerden,bevordie papiertechnologische Vorbereitung und derUnterschied zwischen Maulbeer-Fasern von derPflanzeundvomPapierwahrgenommenwerden.Im CRC presentierte Nina Jethwa aus Indien einen interessanten Vortrag über Produktion vonhandgeschöpftem Papier aus reinen Baumwoll-Lumpen, das in Pondicherry in der AbteilungHandgeschöpftes Papier/Archiv des SriAurobindoAshram hergestellt wird. Ich bin sicher, dass dasindischePapier-ProjektundseinNutzen,beschriebeninihremArtikelindieserAusgabehier,fürdieLesergenausointeressantseinwird,wieesfürdieZuhörerin Paris war.

Anna-Grethe Rischel


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Chers membres de l’IPH,

CelafaitunanquesesontrencontrésenItalie,lorsdumémorablecongrèsIPHàFabriano,CamerinoetAmalfi,cellesetceuxquis’intéressentaupapieretàsonhistoire.Cecongrèsétaitsiparfaitementbienorganisé,dansunenvironnementidéal,quelericheprogramme et les interventions présentées ont suscité des idées nouvelles, des discussions et critiquespositivesdelapartd’unpublicpromptàparticiper.A lasuiteducongrès, il importedegardercontactavec de nouveaux ou anciens amis en utilisant laListedesMembres,quiaétémiseàjour.Mercideconsulternotresitewebetdefaireparvenirà[email protected] information concernant des manifestations ou publicationsrécentesliéesàl’histoiredupapierquine pourraient attendre la date de parution dans notre périodique Paper History,quisortauprintempsetàl’automne.

L’établissement,voici625ans,dupremiermoulinàpapier au nord des Alpes qui soit dûment documenté aétéabondammentcélébrécetété.Assistéd’artisanslombardsvenusdeFabriano,lenégociantallemandUlmanStromercommençaàproduiredupapier le24juin1390dansunmoulinrénové,précédemmentvoué au foulage, aux portes de Nuremberg.L’inventiond’unenouvelleméthoded’impressionàl’aidedecaractèresmobilesparJohannesGutenbergen 1445, soit seulement 55 ans plus tard, s’avéraparticulièrement adaptée à ce support nouveauet nettement plus économique. L’art ingénieuxde l’imprimerie eut pour effet de répandre laconnaissanceetl’informationselondesproportionscomplètement inattendues, suscitant une demandecroissante de fourniture en papier et encourageant lacroissancetechnologiquequiamenaparlasuiteàrechercherdenouvellesmatièrespremièrespourlafabricationdupapier.CenumérodenotrepériodiqueprésenteunearticledeTorbjörnHelleintitulé“Paperandthehistoryofprinting”,quidécritetargumentel’importancedel’inventiondeGutenberg.

ConcernantlapublicationdesactesducongrèsIPH2014, le travail éditorial de longue haleine qu’ellenécessiteestencoursàFabriano.Malheureusement,plusieurs textes attendus n’ont pas été reçus avantla date d’échéance du 31 décembre 2014, ce quicomplique la tâche des coordinateurs du congrèschargésde lapublication,et retarde laparutiondu

LivredesCongrès,vol.20.TandisquelapréparationdesActesestmenéeàbienenItalie,l’organisationduprochaincongrèsIPH2016adéjàcommencéenEspagne.C’estlatroisièmefoisquedescongrèsIPHnationauxetinternationauxontlieuenEspagne,etnousespéronsqu’ilpourrasedéroulercommeprévuà Valencia, hébergé par la Generalitat ValencianaCulturArts IVCC+R près de la cité de Xàtiva, oùlespapetiersarabesinitièrentl’artdelaproductionpapetièreenEurope, ilya900ans.Veuilleznoterque l’Appel à contributions pour le Congrès IPH2016 paraîtra dès que possible sur notre siteweb:il contiendra des informations sur les thèmes, leprogramme, les dates de la manifestation ainsique la date d’échéance pour la soumisson de vosinterventions.

Début juin dernier a eu lieu la rencontre annuelledes Historiens du papier Scandinaves (NPH),organiséeparKariGreveenNorvège,danslabellevilledeBergen.Jen’aihélaspasétéenmesured’yparticiper, en raisondemonengagementenvers leprojetdelabasededonnéesKhartasia,quipoursuitses avancées à Paris. J’y ai passé deux semainesfascinantes, en compagnie de Claude Laroque,AgnieszkaHelman-WaznyetdesmembresduCRC,Centre de Recherches sur les Collections du Muséum Nationald’HistoireNaturelle(MNHN),àétudierdeséchantillons de fibres libériennes préparés à partirde plantes papetières asiatiques traditionnellementutiliséespourlafabricationdupapierquenousavaitprocurés du Jardin des plantes de Paris et de papiers chinoisrécents,soumisàunvieillissementartificiel.Ces échantillons nous ont permis d’observer etde décrire les fibres de liber du mûrier avant lapréparation technique de la pâte et de comparer les fibres dumûrier telles qu’elles se présentent dansla plante et dans le papier.AuCRC,Nina Jethwa(Inde) a donné une intéressante conférence sur la production manuelle de papier de chiffon pur coton auDépartementArchives/Fabricationmanuelledupapierdel’AshramSriAurobindoàPondichérry.Jesuisconvaincuequeleprojetindien,dontelledécritlesobjectifsdansl’articlequenousfaisonsparaîtredans ce numéro de notre périodique, saura retenirl’attentiondeslecteursautantqu’ilaretenucelledupublicparisien.

Anna-Grethe Rischel


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Making the Invisible VisibleAnneVilsboell* [email protected] [email protected]

“Making the Invisible Visible” is the working title of an ongoing process between the photographer Roberto Fortuna and the artist Anne Vilsboell. The following is a short insight in the very beginning of their collaboration.

Working and studying handmade paper for morethanthreedecades,constantlytryingtoexperimentgetting to know evenmore of handmade paper’shidden treasures, naturally led to search for awayin which a field of possible variation in the samethingpreviouslyinvisibletothesensescouldcomeforwardandbeexperienced.

Whatweseeandobservedonottellthewholestory.Whenweseeahandmadepaper,weareeventuallycapableofdiscoveringawatermarkbyholdingthepaperupagainst light;wemightseeafiligreeorashadowwatermark,wire lines and chain lines, butwhataboutallotherphysicalfeaturesinsidetheark?After the renaissance in the 1950’s of handmadepaper as an artistic means of expression in USAa multitude of handmade paper variations have developed,verydifferentfromtheformertraditionalmill productions. The inner invisible life of ahandmade paper has exploded in a multitude ofinvisiblefibrouswebformations.

A deep wish to see whether it is possible toillustrate all theotherphysical features,other thanthetraditionalonesofahandmadepaper,mademecontact the Royal DanishAcademy of FineArts/School of Conservation already in 1987. I wanted to have microscopic photos taken of my handmade papersinordertoobservethefiberformationsinsideagivenpaperspace.AtthattimeIwasobsessedbycreating large, transparent paper wall installationsandfeltaneedtogetevenmoreintothesubstancethanIcouldobserve,whenjusthavingahandmadesheet in front of me, even if it was held againstlight.Sheetsofpapergothigh-lightedin1µ,whichillustrated how fibers were twirling and spirallinginside the handmade paper space.

Always knowing that there was more inside there than just that, thousands of tests have been madewithfluidsthatcouldpullforwardtheinnercharacterofthisfiberformation,treatingpaperwithoils,waxandallkindsofbinders,foundonthemarketworld-wide.

I wanted to get further - to seek the conjuncture of the visible and the invisible, - to obtain a levelof illumination and to see further than one sees. I wanted todemonstrate thatpaper,botheternalandprimitive, possesses amaterial imagination and itsown inner hidden language. I wanted to try to show that there is a predicative logo that does not emerge intoviewbeforeinsightandabstraction.Itdoesnotemerge intoviewatall,but remains latenteven inlanguageandthatjustthroughitsobservedpresencecreates a poetic space. I wanted to show, how asensible matter exists between the visible and thetransparency of the essence.

In the nineties I worked with triptychs in order to illustrate a possible visible paper process throughthe actual artwork. The first part was a sprayed

* Photos: Roberto Fortuna, Text: Anne Vilsboell

Fig.1 Handmade paper space enlarged 1µ

Fig.2 Sitting in the Garden, 130 x 300cm, Collection Syddansk University


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pulpspace, thesecondpartwasahandmadepaperwithalinedrawinginblackpulpandasmallspacefilled with pigments, and the third part was againhandmadepaper.This paperwas built up by dyedhandmadepaperandlayersofpigments,wherethetactile quality of the surface was underlined with embossments. The different beating time of thefibers gives the surfaceof thepainting a changingcolorschemewithinthesamecolorandvibrations,according to the way the paper absorbs the color.Thetriptych“SittingintheGarden”wasanattempttoshowthatpaperhasalanguageofitsown,whichcanchangeindefinitely.ForalongtimeIhavebeenthinkingaboutbuildingupwallswithavarietyofexpressionsoftheinvisiblelife of handmade paper.

In 2014 I contacted the paper conservator and president of IPH,Anna-GretheRischel that I haveknown since 1986. I asked if she could help with

contacts to people that could take microscopic photosoftheinteractionbetweenfibresandcoloredpigments in handmade paper. We met and had awonderful enthusiastic conversation on paper, ofcourse,andAnna-GrethesuggestedthatIcontactedtheprofessionalphotographerRobertoFortuna,whoworks for and at the National Museum in Denmark.InAugust2014Roberto and Imet at theNationalMuseum in Brede.

Fig.3b Illuminated pulp drawing in handmade abaca paper

Fig.3a Illuminated handmade abaca paper with embossed nylon mesh

Fig.3c Illuminated handmade abaca paper with painted area with pigments and binder

I brought several different test possibilities forRoberto, and after a long, interesting conversationhe promised to give it a try with his magnificentphotographic equipment to study the possibilitiesandexamine,whetherornotitwaspossiblethroughhislensestogetclosertothematter.Robertoworkswith a Camera Hasselblad and digital Phase Oneback piece with 80 million pixel resolution, anextremelyhighresolution.

Robertowouldstartwiththefirsttests,whichpartlyincludedhandmadepaperthat,amongotherthings,had elements like mesh inside the paper and partly painted handmade paper.

We met again in October, where I brought moretests, and Roberto showed me the results of thefirst session. Itwas amazing to see, how the innerlife of the paper was brought forward, but it also


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Fig.4a Handmade daphne paper, colored daphne paper, wax

Fig.4b Daphne fiber, colored daphne daphne pulp, wax

Fig.5a Handmade linen paper with embossed linen threads

Fig.5b Illuminated handmade linen paper with linen threads


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becameevident that iswasdifficult toget throughthepaintedareasinthepaper.Robertotoldmethathewouldliketokeeponworkingwiththeproject,andheshowedme,howheworks.Heilluminates thepaperfrombehind,and/orfromthesides,usesafaintvisiblesurfacelighttogetthetexture of the paper into the photo as well as theinvisiblefibersinsidethepaper.

WhileIwaspresent,Robertobeganworkingonthesecondtestgroup,andwediscussedhowwecoulddevelop the idea.We found that at firstwehad toconcentrate on the unpainted handmade paper.For our next meeting I brought many differenthandmadepapers,madeofgrass,leafandbastfibers,handmade papers, which was surface-treated withoil,wax,sized,surfacegluedandunglued,colouredand uncoloured and again one sample of a painting.Robertohadnowtestsenoughtoworkonforsomemonths, and the last time that we met inAugust2015, thewholenatural insideworldofhandmadepaper spaces had developed into illuminated dreamy

Fig.6 Illuminated handmade, ironed daphne paper, wax, threads

forests, sea waves, caves and strange human likecreatures – wonders.Having Roberto’s photos transferred to handmadepaperwillbethenextstepinordertosee,whetherornot the luminosity in the photographs will still stand out.

Weaimatbuildingupseveralwallswiththeactualhandmade paper tests, the photo in itself and thetransferred photo in unity. All three steps can take on amultitudeofexpression.Itisamatterofchoice.Themorephilosophicallybasedtheoriesbehindthisprojectwillbedevelopedfurther.As my original intention is to capture pigments and fibersand their interaction, further stepswillbe tosee,ifwecansucceedinhighlightingthesymbiosisofthesetwoworlds:theworldoffiberandtheworldofpigment.Untilnowwehavebeeninthetestphaseforobservingthepossibilities.Nowweknowmore,andwe continue the process to build up an entirebodyofwork,whicheventuallywillbepresentedforinterestedobservers…whenweareready.


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Ole Bentsen and Norway’s first paper mill

KariGreve* [email protected]

Bentse Brug was the first paper mill in Norway,founded1696andlocatedonthebankoftheAkerRiverin the city then calledChristiania, nowOslo. ItwasfoundedbyOleBentsen–whogavethemillitsname– and his business companion and investorGerhardTreschow.ThestoryofBentseBrug isastoryaboutbiginvestmentsandmuchhardlabor,aboutapioneerfounder with ideas and optimism and a frustrated investor – and unfortunately we cannot promise the reader a very happy ending.

Ole Bentsen

OleBentsenwasbornin1653andwassonofawell-to-dosawmillowner.Afterthedeathofhisfather,heinherited in addition to vast woodlands also a saw mill andaflourmillbyØvreVøyenwaterfallintheAkerRiver in Christiania. Through the timber trade withHolland,hecameincontactwithDutchpapermakers,and started to nourish the idea of a Norwegian paper millonhispropertybytheAkerRiver.In1684,OleBentsen undertook a 7 months journey to paper mills in Holland to befriend useful contacts and gatherinformation and trade secrets – procured through solid bribes– frombuilders,merchantsandpapermakers.UponhisreturntoNorway,heimmediatelywroteanapplicationtotheDanish-NorwegianKingChristianVfor the royal privilege to found a Norwegian paper mill.

KingChristianV’sfinanceswereexhaustedafterthe30years’war,andhewaseagertoexploretheeconomicalpossibilitiesofferedbyNorway’snaturalresources;inparticular the power of its many waterfalls. In order to entice budding entrepreneurs, he promised 1683in a decree that if a product could bemanufactureddomestically, the producer would be guaranteedmonopolybyanembargoonanyimportofasimilarproduct. Following this decree, Ole Bentsen wouldbeguaranteedamonopolyonpaperinNorway,ifhispapermillturnedouttobeasuccess.After1½years,theking’sreplyfinallyarrived.OleBentsenwasgiventhesolerightstofoundapapermill,andhewasalsotobeexemptfromimporttollonallproductsneededtobuildthemill.Hewaslikewiseexemptfromallpublic

taxesandtollsforthefollowing10years.However,hedid not receive a guarantee on a monopoly on paper in Norway – the king wanted to see the produced paper firstandascertainthatitcouldmatchthequalityofthepaper produced in Denmark. The royal privileges he received on June 1st 1686 were valid for 15 years.

Ole Bentsen immediately started work on his paper mill.First,hehadtodigoutacanalfromtherivertothe site of the future paper mill. Four men with spades werehiredtodothejob,andafter6monthsoftoiling,thecanalwasfinished.Theprojectwasthendelayedbyalong-windedlawsuitwiththeneighborsconcerningwhohadrights to thewater.Anotherbasicnecessity,which further delayed the project and probablycost the entrepreneur many sleepless nights, wastheconstructionofaroadtothemillsite,sothatthebuildingmaterialscouldbetransportedbyhorsecarts.Theroadhadtorunthroughmarshland,andbridgesalsohadtobeconstructedhereandtherealongtheway.Astoragehouseforbuildingmaterialsandhousingfortheconstructionworkersalsohadtobebuiltnexttothebuildingsite.Allthisworkcostalotofmoney,andBentsen’sfundswere running out. All the preparatory construction work hadcosthim540Riksdaler,whichwasagiantsum–andhealsohadotherbusinessbranchesthatbegantosufferfromthisdrainageoffinances.Hehadtoputthebuildingplansoniceforawhile.In 1693, with almost half the period for the royalprivileges already gone – and still no paper mill in sight–OleBentsenrealizedthatwithoutasubstantialamountoffreshcapitalhewouldneverbeabletofinishthe paper mill. He therefore accepted a previously declined offer from the wealthy investor Gerhard Treschow,andthetwomenbecamebusinesspartners.

Gerhard Treschow

GerhardTreschowwasbornintoaprosperousfamilyof merchants from Stege on the Island of Moen in Denmark. He received a solid education and also studiedabroad,at theUniversityofUtrecht. In1683he was appointed customs officer in Christiania,and started investing in a wide range of upcoming businessesinNorway.Heownedabrickmanufacturebusiness,severalsawmillsandhequicklyalsobecameoneofthebiggestshipownersinChristiania.GerhardTreschow eventually was one of the wealthiest men in Christiania.Thetaxonwigs–awigwasanecessityforeverymanofacertainsocialstanding-wasaluxury

* Published in Norwegian in Nordisk Pappershistorisk Tidskrift 1/ 2015, p. 3-5


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tax,andthereforegivesanindicationofthetaxpayer’swealth.GerhardTreschowpaidthehighestwigtaxofall the citizens of Christiania.They made an odd couple; Ole Bentsen and Gerhard Treschow. One of them was a saw mill owner without anyeducationtospeakof,withmanyideasandpoorfinancialskills–theotherwasahighlyeducatedandrelatively sophisticated investor and civil servant. Onthe7thofFebruary1694thetwoofthemsigneda contract. Treschow was to pay for the remaining construction work on the paper mill with security in ownership of one half of the waterfall and one half of the property. Bentsen was to supervise the construction worksandtoengagethenecessaryexpertstorunthepaper mill. Themostpressingwastogetholdofanexperiencedpapermaster,whomightteachthepapermakingskillstotheNorwegianworkers.SuchapapermastermustbeprocuredfromHolland,andBentsenundertookanewjourney to the paper makers in Zaandam in April 1694. He contracted the paper maker Peter Gerritz Bleyleven asthefirstpapermasteratBentseBrug.However,thepapermillwasnotyetquitefinishedwhenBleylevenarrived,andduringthefirstweeksorevenmonthsinChristiania the paper maker found himself doing heavy construction work to get the mill ready. This might haveputadamperonBleyleven’sworkspirit,andinAugust1695,Treschowsuedhimfor“unwillingness,stubbornnessandforevenstayingawayfromwork”.Bleylevenwasrelievedofhisduties,andBentsenyetagainhadtotraveltoHollandtofindareplacement.In themeantime,Treschow’sdissatisfactionwith the

paperprojectgrewandhebecameincreasinglyannoyedwithboththeprojectandhispartner.Sofar,themillhadonlybroughthimexpenses,andtheexpenseshadfarexceededhisestimates.Duringhistwoyearsaspartner,hehadpaidtheexorbitantsumof8.563Riksdalerforthe construction of the mill and the purchase of rags as raw material for the paper production. He now claimed more than half the ownership as compensation, andBentsen was forced to part with a larger part of his property to satisfy Treschow. According to the new contract, signed by both parties in 1695, Treschownow owned 5/8 of the papermill, half of Bentsen’sflourmillandhalftheVøyenwaterfall.Treschownowemerged more and more as the dominating part in the partnership,whereasBentsen seems to havebecomethe junior partner.Onhis third trip toHolland,Bentsenprocured anewpaper master: Claas Jantzen Lodewijk was contracted to startworking in the papermill onNovember 15th1695 and work there for two years. The contract refers in several places to the Zaandam paper and its many excellentqualities,andLodewijkwasobligedtoproducepaper of the same high quality “as the one producedin Zaandam”. Bentsen also contracted aDutch papercoucherbythenameofCornelisDirckszHill.

Despiteallthedifficultiesandobstaclestheymetwithduringthepapermill’sfirstyear,300reamsoffine,whitepaperwereexportedtoDenmarkfromBentseBrugin1695;mainlytheresultofLodewijkandHill’scombinedefforts towards the end of the year.

Fig. 1. Norway’s first water mark, probably created by the first paper master at Bentse Brug; Pieter Gerritz Bleyleven, Bentse Brug 1695. The two partners’ initials still decorate the water mark: Gerhard Treschow and Ole Bentsen. Illustration from Fiskaa 1973, p. 356


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The end of the partnershipBy 1696 the paper mill Bentse Brug was up and running,ledbytwocompetentDutchpapermakers,and the paper export was going increasingly well.The relationship between the two business partnersBentsen and Treschow, on the other hand, grewincreasingly worse. Having procured the Dutch masters and secured the smooth running of the paper mill, Bentsen had made himself expendable.Treschow did not need him anymore.

Bentsenwasnowsubjectedtoaseriesofharassmentand humiliations initiated by Treschow. The twoDutchmen were instructed not to allow Bentsen access to the paper mill. Treschow also ordered the paper master to channel all water from the river to the papermill,sothattherewouldbetoolittlewaterlefttorunBentsen’sflourmillnextdoor.WithoutconsultingBentsen,Treschowhired sixNorwegianworkers tothemill.TheywerealltrainedbyHillandLodewijk.In 1697, poor Bentsen experienced the absolutehumiliation, as Treschow reduced the formerentrepreneurandfoundertoaninspectoratthemill,paying him a monthly salary of 6 Riksdaler. As if that wasnotenough,healsodemandedthattherebeheldaforeclosureonBentsen’sflourmillandthewaterfall,tomakeupforthemoneystillowedhimbyBentsen.Bentsenwasnowbankruptandhadlosteverything.Thepapermill,whichhadbeenhisidea,andwhichhehad constructed, equippedandprocured the expertsto run, was now a thriving business – but withouthim. Gerhard Treschow applied in 1696 for a royal

privilegeonpaperproductioninNorway,whichwasgranted him in 1698. He also received the privilege of ayearlytollfreeimportof30.000poundsofrags,therights to sell writing paper to the royal court (provided that the quality of paper could match the Danish producedpaper),and10yearsoftaxexemption.

The privileges given to Ole Bentsen in 1686 seem to havebeenforgottenorignored.Thereisnomentionof them. Treschow changed the name of the paper mill from“BentseBrug” to “UpperMill”, to avoidany connotations to Ole Bentsen. This attempt at “damnatiomemoriae”didhowevernotsucceed–theoriginalname“BentseBrug”stucktothemill.

Rag troubles

EverybodyrunningapapermillinNorwayuntilca.1860encountered the sameproblems thatGerhardTreschow was now facing: The lack of raw material forthepaperproduction.In1700,Christianiawasacityofabout5.000inhabitants,themajorityofwhichcould not affordfine linen shirts or linen for theirtablesortheirbeds.MostNorwegiansworerough,homespunwoolenclothingallyearround,amaterialthat was unfit for paper production. Copenhagenboasted60.000inhabitants,andtheamountoflinenamong them was accordingly higher. Thesolutiontothisproblemwastoimportrags.Wehave already seen that the toll free import of rags wasoneoftheprivilegesbothBentsenandTreschowobtainedfromChristianV.Evenwiththisprivilegeit was no easy task to provide the amount of rags necessary for a constant run of the paper mill. This problemwasnotparticulartoNorway;allcountrieswithpapermanufactureexperiencedthelackofrawmaterialasabigandincreasinglycripplingproblem.Theexportofragswasaccordinglytaxedhighly,andin some instances followed by punishment of theexporter.The rags importedbyGerhardTreschow,were gathered from other Norwegian cities as well asfromabroad;especiallyfromHannover.

Theproductionwentwell,andBentseBrugexportedpapertobothEnglandandDenmark(1.269reamsofpapertoDenmarkin1697,and123reamsofpapertoNorwegian cities in the same year). Treschow asked the king to raise the import toll on paper, to forcepeopletobuythepaperfromBentseBrugandnotanyforeign produced paper. The import toll was henceforth doubled, and Treschow had to promise to keep a

Fig. 2. Water mark from Bentse Brug 1698, probably by the paper master Claas Jansz Lodewijk. Gerhard Treschow’s initials now stand alone. Illustration from Fiskaa 1973, p. 356


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consistently high quality and to use the Norwegian heraldic lion in his water marks.

Treschow before court

In 1713, Ole Bentsen sued his former businesspartner Treschow. He claimed compensation for his lost property, for the mill site and for all the hardwork he had put into the construction of the paper mill.Thecasewasbrought tocourt twoyears later,and the verdict was in favor of Ole Bentsen on all points. Treschow was sentenced to pay Bentsen 2.500Riksdaler.Atthistime,Norwaywaswithoutabankingbusiness,andtheusualpracticewastoborrowfromothers.Everybodywithbusiness interestswasindebtedtoothercapitalists,andsothefewwealthyfamilies in Norway in the 17th and 18th century were alllinkedtoeachotherbyanintricateweboflendingandborrowing.Treschowhadhisshareofcreditors,andseeingtheresultsoftheBentsencourtcase,thesecreditors now all came forward with their claims. To meet his obligations, Treschow was forced to sellBentse Brug to one of his creditors; the merchant JohanJochumLonicer.LonicerpaidoutTreschow’sdebttoOleBentsenandtherestofthecreditorsandtook over the paper mill.

Epilogue

The story of Ole Bentsen, Gerhard Treschow andthefoundingofthefirstNorwegianpapermill,endshere. But the story of Bentse Brug continues until 1898, when the paper factory was closed. BentseBrug was for a long time a paragon in the paper industry,with owners thatwere constantlywillingto modernize and develop the paper production. In 1838,thefirstpapermachineinNorway–aBryanDonkin-machinewitha7,5meterlongrunningwire– was installed at Bentse Brug. Bentse Brug was alsothefirstNorwegianpaperproducertousewoodpulp as raw material; thanks to the Danish engineer WaldemarDrewsen,whowashiredtoBentseBrugin1858.Drewsenbuiltasmallpulpmill–Christiania’sfirst–nexttothemillin1863.Thiswasdiscontinuedafterafewyears,andthewoodpulpwashenceforthprocuredfromBjørsheimpulpmill.Drewsenboughtthree more paper machines for Bentse Brug. The paper factory (now called Drewsen & Son) produced paperforthenewspaperindustry,andwasthelargestand the most modern paper factory in Norway.

3. Bentse Brug ca. 1870. Unknown photographer

During the 1890’s Bentse Brug was the firstNorwegian paper factory to use sulfite cellulose.However,ragsremainedeventhroughthelaterperiodthe main constituent of all the paper ever produced at Bentse Brug. Despiteallmodernizations,BentseBrugwasheadedfor closure. There were several reasons for this. The transportwithhorsesandcartstoandfrothefactory,wasundertakenonprimitiveandcumbersomeroadsalongtheAkerRiver,andtherewereasmanyas30horsestraffickingthisrouteeveryday.Thefactory’slocation on the river bank was restrictive to anyimprovementsofthecommunicationroutes,andthewater power from the increasingly polluted river did not meet the modern demands for increased power andefficiency.In1898,BentseBrugcloseditsdoorsafter 203 years of paper production. Nothing remains of the old paper mill.

Literature:BechFageraas,Knutetal.:Masse papir. Norske papir-

og massefabrikker gjennom 150 år. Norsk Skogmu-seum 2006

Fiskaa,HaakonM.:Norske Papirmøller og deres vann-merker 1695-1870,Oslo1973

Frey,John:“PapirindustrieniChristiania.Et250årsminne.”,in:St. Hallvard,38.årgang,Oslo1960,s.92-96

Holmsen,Andreas:”DaBentseBrugblevgrunnlagt”,in:St. Hallvard,18.årgang,Oslo1940,s.22-34

Voorn,Henk:“BentseBrug.ThefirstpapermillinNor-way”,i:Paper MakerVol.24nr.21955,s.31-41


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Paper and the history of printingTorbjörnHelle* [email protected] Gutenberg’s printing method: The most important invention of the second millennium?

At the millennium shift some years ago, manycommentsandjudgementsofthefinishedmillenniumweremade.Oneexample:Whicheventsandwhichpersons had had the most profound historical effects duringthatmillennium?Among these assessments there was an evaluation of which invention in the millennium could beconsidered as having had the largest historical impact onthesociety.IntheUSA,severalsuchevaluationsconcluded that the printing method, developedby Johann Gutenberg around 1450, was the mostimportant invention. Time Magazine, Life Magazine and Encyclopedia Britannica made surveys with this conclusion.

Then,whatwastheessentialcontentinGutenberg’sinvention?Whenconsultingencyclopedias,themainmessage one gets is that he developed a method for production of printing plates based on the use of separate, cast metal types.

If,however,onelooksupon“history of printing” in Wikipedia,amainbasisforinformationtoday,onewill find well documented expert papers claimingthat the main credit for the invention of printing should be given to the Chinese and the Koreans.That is the case both for the general concepts ofprinting,andfortheuseofseparate,casttypes(cf.[2], [3] and [4]). The Chinese produced printeddocuments800yearsbeforeGutenbergandappliedseparate types some 400 years before him. TheChinesecontributionstothedevelopmentofprintinghave been given increased attention during recentyears, alongwith the generally raised interest andknowledge of the history of China.So, could our celebration of Gutenberg’s printingmethodjustbebasedonmisconceptionsandalackofhistoricalknowledge,andthusbeingyetanotherexampleofthewell-knownEuropeanchauvinism?All my life I have worked with paper; aspects like

paper production and application technology; paper property requirements for various end uses etc. Althoughnotbeingaprofessionalhistorian,Ihavekeptan interest in the fascinatinghistoryofpaper,and been interested in the various end use areasof paper. I became interested in the developmentof the art of printing, which thus had a decisivehistoricaleffectofthemillennium.Inthefollowing,I will present my comments and conclusions on the development of the art of printing.

Methods and materials for writing and printingA requirement for printing will be visible writingsymbols. In the development of writing, theMesopotamians were early pioneers with their cuneiformwriting,wedgeformedsignsimprintedinmoist clay,whichwere baked to bricks or tablets.Theirsymbolsthusweretopographicalandwithoutany interest as colored symbols. “Matrixes”,however, made to produce series of cuneiformscriptures by being pressed onto samples ofmoistclay,hasbeenfound[5].

The Egyptians developed the hieroglyph symbols,whichwerecarvedormarkedontostonebycolors.Papyrus was the basis for written documents inancient Egypt. The surface of papyrus is hard and uneven,notsuitedforprinting.Idonotknowofanyattempts of printing in ancient Egypt.Theancient,pre-colonialculturesinCentralAmericahad developed writing symbols that were paintedonto various materials. These cultures collapsed beforeorduringtheEuropeanconquest.Althoughit is recorded that theymade sort of “books”on amaterialresemblingpaper,thereis,tomyknowledge,no indication of printing in these cultures.Thenwe haveChina,with an extremely long andcontinuousculturalhistory, less interrupted than inanyother society.Their traditionofwriting, beingrichandvaried,extendsfarbackandwillcertainlybe an essential element in any discussion of thehistory of printing.Beforeadetailedanalysisofprinting,aclarificationand limitationof the topichas tobemade.Shouldanytransferofcoloredsymbolsbyaninkedtool,forinstance a stamp, be considered as printing? Suchactivities are certainly related to printing; having a historyextendingverylongback,andbeingknownfrom a number of cultures. However, the amountof information contained in such stamped pattern

* First published (in Norwegian) in Nordisk Pappershistorisk Tidskrift 2/2015, p. 22-26


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will typically bemuch less than commonly foundin printed messages; often just a mark or signature. The transfer of colored patterns to textiles usingcarvedmatrixesisalsorelated,butwillnormallynotprovide thekindof information typicallygivenbyprintedtexts.

By printing, I will in the following mean the production of texts containing stories, statements or reasoning, using mechanical matrixes with topographic types in the surface. (Afterabout1800,otherprintingmethodshavebeendeveloped.Theyhave,however,norelevanceinthepresentcontext).In China, “dragon bones” have been found, 5000years’oldpiecesofhornorbone,havingscratchedorpainted characters on the surface [6]. These ancient characters are often clearly related to the present ones; a fact that illustrates the continuous Chinese cultural tradition. Many Chinese characters actually got theirfinaldesign2000yearsago.Theyare,asiswell known, not basedon a phoneticmodellingof the language. The characters were usually writtenapplyingwaterbasedinks,usingsootastheblackpigment,andabrush todrawthecharacters.The technique or rather, the art of drawing thecharacters, the calligraphy, early obtained a high,almostreligiousstatusinChina,asituationthathasremained ever since.

These strong formal conditions related to the writing methods,haveactedas a conservativeelement forthe ways of writing and for the design of the Chinese characters.

ThesubstrateforwritinginChinachangedovertime.Atanearlyphase,piecesofwoodand laterpiecesof bamboowere used. Silk textiles were used asthesubstrateforhighqualitywritingofprestigioustexts.Onsilk,theinkpenetratesintoandthroughthematerial. One therefore did write only on one side ofthematerial,atraditionthathasbeenmaintainedup to this day.

The invention of paper – the ideal information materialIt is commonly agreed that paper was invented in China during the Han dynasty which constituted the firstgreatperiodofthecountry.Itisnowassumedthatasortofpaperwasmadefromhempfibersfromragsalreadyaround100B.C.However,theinventionofpaperisattributedtothepersonTs’aiLun,intheyear A.D. 105. He developed a method of making paper from inner treebarkandhempends. Thesematerialshavelongfibers,andthepapermadefromsuchrawmaterialswillthereforebesomewhatlumpyanduneven,howeverquitestrong.Ts’aiLun’spaperwasthereforeratherthin,porousandsoft,havingatextile-likestructure.Suchpaperresemblesthemoreexpensivesilk,beingsuitedforacontinuationoftheestablishedwritingtechniqueforthismaterial.(Fora very comprehensive survey of the early production anduseofpaper,see[8]).

PaperquicklybecamethedominantwritingsubstrateinChina.DuringtheHandynasty,Chinahadastrongdevelopmentculturallyandinthecivilsociety,andestablishedaconsiderablebureaucracy,usingpaperforthecollectionanddistributionofinformation.Thedocumentsweremainlykeptasscrolls,aswasthe tradition even for papyrus in Egypt and later in Hellas and Rome during the classical period [9]. Books (“codex”) represent a later development,mainlyrelatedtotheformatfortheBibleintheearlyChristian period [10].

The development of printing plates in China and surrounding countriesInChinatheincreasinguseofpaper-baseddocumentsin large numbers of copies created a demand formore effective production of the documents (during the Tang dynasty, about A.D. 600 - 900 the taxcollecting authorities alone needed more than half a million sheets of paper annually [2]). The idea of producingthedocumentsbysomesortofprinting,usingcarvedmatrixes(printingplates)andinkmust

Fig. 1: Stamp from the Han-dynasty.


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havebeencloseathand.Asalreadymentioned,theChinesehadbeenusinginkedstampsforcenturies,andthereforeanexpansionofthestampintoasheetsizedobjectmusthaveseemedreasonable.

It is assumed that the Chinese around the year A.D. 500 startedmakingprintsbasedoncarvedwoodmatrixes.Thisisthesocalledblockprintsforeffectiveprintingofstandardizedtextsordocuments[3],[11].Theoldestprinted texts that have been found are assumed tooriginatefromaboutA.D.750.

The art of paper making had spread to Japan in the 6th century, and about the yearA.D. 765 theEmpress Shotoku had “a million” Charms madewith a magic text, intended to protect against asmallpoxepidemic. The text copieswereput intosmallpagodas,whichwereplacedintemplesaroundthe entire country. Tradition claims that the empress herselfdevelopedtheappliedprintingprocess,andaconsiderablenumberoftheprintsandpagodasarestillexisting(Fig.2).

The oldest document with known time of printing is an example of the Diamond Sutra, a classicalBuddhist scripture. It was found 1908 at the Silk Roadand is obviouslymadeby awell-establishedtechnique according to its high quality. The print was madeduring theTangdynasty in theperiod,whenChina reached its highest cultural level, comparedto other nations. During the Tang dynasty, manyprinted products were made; cultural texts, banknotes,playingcardsetc.But all this printing was based on carved woodmatrixesofwholepages,i.e.blockprints.Thelargenumber of Chinese characters, each one having arather complex design,made carving of thewoodmatrixesquitedemandingandcomplex.

The invention of single printing typesIn 1010 the Chinese Pi Sheng made single and separate topographical Chinese characters that could beusedforproducingaprintedtext,andlaterusedanewtoformanothertext,i.e.atechniquesimilartothatlaterusedbyJohannGutenberg[3],[11].PiShengformedhistypesfromclaythatsubsequentlywasburnedtoceramic.Theprintingwasstartedbyhaving an iron plate onwhich a layer ofwax andresinwasplaced.Thetextwasthenconstructedbythe separate character types on the plate. By heating theplate, thewax/resinmeltedand the typeswerefixed at the subsequent cooling. The types wereevenedtoaflatsurfacebyputtingaflatplateontopofthecharactertypes,thussuitedtogivearegularprintingsurface.Aftertheprintinghastakenplace,rewarming of the plate would loosen the types,making them ready for use in a new print [12]. The ceramic types were brittle and thus easilydamaged.Theywerealsopoorlywettedbythewaterbased inks. Therefore Pi Sheng’s single charactertypes did not receive any general acceptance. Instead carving of single characters in hardwood was started. Printing using separate character types, however,neverbecameadominanttechniqueinChina.Separate types of characters made from metal were first developed in Korea [2]. Around 1200the Goryeo- dynasty ruled in Korea (giving name to the country), andwas characterizedby a strongculturalactivity.ThedynastyestablishedBuddhismasthestate’sreligion,andwaseagertoprotectandstrengthen its position. However, under the reignof Djengis Khan the Mongols invaded China and threatened even Korea at this time. To protect and conserve the Buddhism an extensive work was

Fig. 2: Pagoda and printed magic text of Empress Shotoku, Japan, about AD 765

Fig. 3: The oldest printed document with known printing date; Diamond Sutra, printed A.D. 868


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started to spread its classical scriptures [2]. In the year 1234 there are reports of printing with the use of single metal types. Models of the characters were carved inwood andused to form sandmoulds, inwhichbronze typeswerecast. In theperiod1236– 1252 a complete set of the classical scriptures of Buddhismwereprinted, an immense job requiring80.000printingplates.Thesewere,however,blockprints carved inwood, and thewhole collection isstill stored in the Hain monastery in Korea.

It is important to be aware that therewas never ageneral transfer in China to the use of separate types for printing. There are several reasons for this fact. Thelargenumberofverycomplexcharactersinitselfwillreducethebenefitofusingsingletypes.Anotherpointisthattheprinterswereveryconcernedaboutthecorrectreproductionoftexts.Thiswillbeeasierto secure by whole, carved pages than by pagesmade from single types with a larger risk for errors. MostprintedChinesetextswerethereforemadeasblockprintsfromwhole,carvedwoodenplates,evenaftersingletypeprintinghadbeenintroduced.Inthiscontext,itisimportanttobeawarethatmostprintedtextsinChinaweremadefortheauthorities,unlikeEurope where non – governmental instances often wanted to make prints.

The procedure steps in the traditional Chinese/Korean printing were mainly the following ones,starting from a printing plate that in most instances wasacarvedwoodenblock:

Firstly,theprintinginkwasaddedtothetypesurfacesof the printing plate. Immediately after that, thepaper sheet was carefully laid onto the inked plate. To ensure effective contact and thus transfer the ink to paper[3],thetopsideofthesheetwasthencarefullyrubbedbyasoftbrush.Thiscompletedtheprint.Forsuchamethodthepaperhastobesoft,flexibleandabsorbent,asthetextile-likeChinesepaperactuallywas for producing an effective ink transfer and thus aqualityprint. Theinkpenetrates into,andpartlythroughthepaper,limitingthepossibleprinttooneside.

The development and use of texts and books in early European historyAlexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332B.C. and thecityAlexandriabecame thecenterofHellenistic culture. The basis for writing in theclassical period in Greece and Rome was mainly papyrus.Thewritingwasbyhand,andthereisnoindication of any attempt of printing. Papyrus cannot befolded,andwasthereforestoredasscrolls,similartotheChinesetextsonpaper[8],[9].Fromancienttimes,animalhideshavebeenusedasanalternativebasisfordrawingandwriting.Aroundthe year 175 B.C. an improved quality grade was developed in Pergamon, in present Turkey (todaynamedBergama).Thematerial,termedparchment,becameaseriouscompetitortopapyrus.Thequalityofparchmentwassuperiortothepapyrus,thecosts,however,werehigher.Parchmentisanopaqueandrelativelystiffmaterial.Writingonitwasdonewithaquill,andtheopaquematerialallowedwritingonbothsides.The Chinese always tried to keep their paper making skill as a secret to foreigners and were successful in doingthisuntiltheylostinabattleagainstanArabarmyin751atTalasduringtheMuslimexpansion.Here some Chinese papermakers were taken prisoners,andtheMuslimsstartedrightawayapaperproduction, based, however, on rag fibrematerialsonly, and introduced several improvements to theproduction process [8]. I have not seen any reports indicating printing in the Muslim world. Following theArabconquestofEgypt,paperproductionstartedthere as well; the production of papyrus came to an

Fig. 4: Printer tightening the press during printing according to the Gutenberg method


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end and the technique was even totally forgotten. In thecontinuousfightsduringthefollowingcenturiesbetweenChristianityandIslam, therewasastronganimosityinEuropeagainsteverythingthatcouldbeassociatedwith Islam, includingpaper. InEuropeparchment therefore became the dominant appliedsubstrate in the following centuries for writtendocuments.Morethan500yearsthereforeelapsed,beforepaperwasacceptedinEuropeandcameintocommon use there.The binding of parchment, occasionally even ofpapyrus,intobooks(codex)insteadofscrollsstartedduringtheperiodafterthebirthofChrist[10].TheChristians presented their holy scriptures as booksfrom the first establishment of the Church. It wasapparently a way to distance themselves from the Jews who always kept their Toras in the shape of scrolls.Textonbothsidesofthesheetfeelsnaturalin books. Books are, as we know them, a uniqueEuropean invention, and indeed a more readerfriendlydesignthanscrolls,especiallyifonewantstoshiftbetweenreadingsindifferentlocations.During theMiddleAgesEuropeexpanded rapidly,economicallyaswellasculturally[12].TheChurch,however, was split and in a crisis. Internationalcommerce expanded, and especially in Italy andGermany mighty city states developed. The trade required correspondence and accounting, causingreadingandwritingskillstobecomemorecommon.Paper started to be more accepted, especially insecular,commercialcontextsfromabout1200.PaperproductionhadstartedinSpainbytheMuslimsandon Sicily. Paper was much cheaper than parchment. Paperthereforereplacedthestiff,opaqueandquitedense parchment in Europe. It is thus quite natural thattheEuropeanpaperhadtobeofadenser,thickerand stiffer quality than the traditional Chinese paper. Tocarry lettersonboth sides the inkcouldnotbeallowed to penetrate into the paper and through the paper.Thiswasachievedbysoakingthepaperintoa gelatin solution that resulted in a dense paper with a hard surface.

The production in Europe of books increased andwasmadebycopyingbyhand.Suchbooksbecameexpensive,anderrorsandmiscopyingwascommon.From around 1300 one finds some use of blockprintedbooksinEurope,basedontheuseofcarvedwoodenmatrixes.TheappliedmethodappearstobeverysimilartotheancientChinese,andalthoughnosuchconnectionisknown,itappearslikelythatthe

ChinesetechniquesomehowhasbeentransferredtoEurope.Thequality,however,oftheEuropeanblockbookswaslowandpoorerthantheChinesebooks,afactthatcanberelatedtothedifferenceinthepapermaterial applied. The stiff European material did not get sufficient contactwith the inkedmatrixduringtheprintingprocess,causingtheinktransfertothepapertobeinsufficient.

After the end of the 14th century, the demand formore efficient book production became more andmore urgent. The Renaissance was underway and new ideas were launched [13]. The Church experiencedstronginternaltensions.Criticstriedtoargueandpublishtheirviews,whiletheleadershipin the Church did their outmost to stop this bycontrollingtheeditionofbooks,confiscating thosethat they considered containing heretic messages. Themainpartofthebookproductionswasstilldonebycopyingbyhand.Productionofbooksbyprintingwas an idea close at hand and a well-considered technique. Inventors in several European countries didtheiroutmosttodevelopanacceptableprintingprocess.Thusthetimewasmorethanready;buttheresults of the printing attempts were unsatisfactory.

Johann Gutenberg’s processJohann Gutenberg worked during his entire lifewith the printing process [14]. Very few detailsare, however, known about his work and hardlyanything isdocumented.Themainexplanation forthis is the secrecy that he for commercial reasons hadtomaintain.Thisisillustratedbyhisfrequentinvolvements in legal disputes. But the important

Fig. 5: For building the words for printing by single types, Gutenberg had “set boxes” with small compartments for each letter. (Observe that all have equal lengths). He designed a spring loaded bevel to build lines of the letter types, all having equal lengths, ensuring that all types had surfaces in the same plane.


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point is that he worked out effective solutions for each of the various process steps that his printing processrequired.AndtheresultwasprovenbytheprintqualityoftheGutenbergBiblefrom1455.Itsprintqualityestablishedacompletelynewstandardforprinting.Tosumup,onemayconclude thathedelivered an almost perfect printing process that immediatelywas generally accepted, and thatwasmaintained almost unaltered for 300 years.

To understand his work, it is therefore importantto acknowledge that Gutenberg contributed to theprinting process in several quite different and critical fields:1. He developed a printing process suited for the

stiff and dense European paper2. He used wine presses to establish the required

print pressure to ensure that all letters were well copied on the stiff and hard European paper

3. He developed effective production methods for manufacturing of single letters types of even very small letters

4. He designed an optimal alloy of lead, tin and antimony for the casting of types

5. He made the individual types with a standardized length, ensuring that all letter surfaces lay in one plane

6. He changed the applied printing ink from being water based to oil based colors

7. He invented a speedy and simple method for building words and lines from loose types, filling in with small pieces between the words in order to produce lines of equal lengths

8. His printing method was suited for printing on both sides of the sheet

9. His printing method allowed a high speed and production efficiency

We may look at each of these process elementsdevelopedbyGutenberg,whilecomparingthemtothe Chinese alternatives.

1. The adjustment of the printing method to the paper properties

China/KoreaThetraditionalChinesepaperwasthin,porousandsomewhattransparent,howeversoft,textile-likeandquitestrong,wellsuitedasawritingbaseusingabrushandwatercolorink.Writing/printingalwayson one side only, as the water based ink willpenetratesuchpaper. In theprintingprocess, the

paperislaidontoaninkedprintingmatrix,withasubsequentcarefultreatmentwithasoftbrushontop,toensureefficientcontactofthepapertothematrix,andthussatisfactoryinktransferfromallinkedcharacters.Boththeinkabsorptionintothepaper and the brush treatment excluded printingon the other side of the paper.

Gutenberg:The European paper that Gutenberg had at handwas dense, stiff and opaque, suited as a writingbase forquills (the tradition fromparchment).Thepaperhadusuallybeendippedintoagelatinsolutionduring production in order to achieve a structure that prevented the ink from penetrating the paper. The stiffnessofsuchpaperreducedthecontactefficiencywith theprintingplate, if laid looseontoit, in linewith theChinese tradition.A completelymodifiedtechnique was required. Gutenberg achieved thisby developing a very sturdy metal printing plateof extremely uniformheights of the types, and bypressing the printing plate against the paper with anextremelyhigh load. The inkdidnotpenetratedeepintothepaperstructure,andthereforeallowedprintingonbothsidesofthesheet.

Fig. 6: Gutenberg’s printing: In front we see printers inking the plate, operating the press and piling up printed sheets. Behind, one sees setters who build print matrixes by single letter types from the set-boxes.


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2. The use of a press in printing

China/Korea:Efficient ink transfer to the soft and absorbentChinese paper was achieved just by laying thepaperontotheprintingplate,combinedwithasoftbrushing on the top side, without the need for anextrapressload.

Gutenberg:Satisfactory ink transfer from the printing plate to the hard and stiff European paper required that every type had tobepressed somewhat into thepaper surface.This required a load of several kg for each letter,andcombinedaloadofseveraltonstoprintapage.Gutenbergachievedthisbylayingtheinkedprintingplate and the paper into a press that was developed to extract the juice of wine grapes, and tighten it.Such presses for wine and olive oil pressing were notknowninChina.(Thewoodenmatrixesusedforblockprintingdidnotstandtherequiredpressureloadinsuchpresses,andwerecrushed).The importance of this point can be illustrated bythe fact that the process itself was – and still is - termed“pressing”inGermanyandScandinavia,andnot “printing”.And even inEnglishwe talk about“printing press”.

3. The casting of single letter types:

China/Korea:In the most common method, the character wascarved in hardwood. The carved characters were then usedformakingmouldsincastingsand,whichwasthenusedtocastatypeinmetal(bronze,lead,tin).Themethodwas cumbersome and the accuracy inshapeandthicknesswashardtocontrolinsufficientdetail.

Gutenberg: Hefirstmaderodsofsteelwithamodelofthelettersign in its end [14]. Here, Gutenberg had properexperience,asheearlyinhiscarrierhadworkedasmedal engraver, and sold medallions. Using thesesteel rods he hammered the shape of the letter type into pieces of softer metal (cupper). These formed voids were then used as moulds to cast letter types byeasilymeltingmetalalloys.Bysuchasteelrodalargenumberofcupperformscouldbemade,andonecupperformcouldbeusedtocastalargenumberof letter types (3.000 letter typesperdaycouldbemade by a clever craftsman [14]. This letter type

productionmethodmayhavebeenthemostimportantoneamongGutenberg’scontributionstoprinting.The method gave single rods of fixed rectangularshape,standardizedlength,andthelettertypeattheendofeachrod.Inthecasting,thewidthofthesinglerodscouldbevaried,dependingonthewidthoftheletter – m and wcouldbemadewiderthanl and i.

Asthesingleletterrodswereofstandardizedlength,itwaseasytoformaprintingplatewithalltypesbeingin the sameplane, an important point for obtainingthat all letters should come in proper and even contact with the paper surface.

4.The metal in the letter types

China/Korea:Themostcommonlyusedmetalswere lead, tinorbronze.

Gutenberg:Heusedalloysoflead,bronzeandantimony.Leadhasalowmeltingpoint,knownfromancienttimes.Tin also has a low melting point and gives the melted alloy lower viscosity and faster cooling and solidifying. Antimony increases the hardness and wear resistance.

5. The evening of the letter type surfaces on the printing plate

China/Korea:The soft Chinese paper gave satisfying contact with theprintingplate,evenwhenthetopsurfacesoftheloose letter types did not lie in one level.

Gutenberg:Aseachlettertypehadtobepressedsomewhatintothe paper during printing for proper ink transfer,Gutenberg faced an extreme requirement for evenposition of the type surfaces. His method of casting thetypesontheendsofrodsofstandardizedlength,aswellashismountingmethodforassemblingtheletters,allowedaperfectpositioning.

6.The printing ink

China/Korea:The old and strict rules for the Chinese calligraphy evensetthestandardforprintedtexts:Waterbasedink,usingsootaspigment,wasusedalsoforprinting.


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Gutenberg:The metal types were not well wetted by water.Gutenberg therefore switched to oil based inks.Such inks were well known from artist painters.

7.The building of the printing plates (the matrixes)

China/Korea:The metal letter types were arranged for the planned text,andputalongsideeachotheronametalplate,whereamixtureofresinandwaxwas laid. Uponheating, the resin andwaxwillmelt and during asubsequentcooling,thetypeswillbefixedandreadyforprinting.Afterfinishedprinting,theplatemaybeheatedtoloosenthetypes,whichthenarereadyforanothertext.

Gutenberg:Gutenbergdesignedaspringloaded,adjustablebevelforaspeedysettingofthelettertypes.Here,thecasttypes,ofstandardizedlengthandcrosssectionalform,wereputalongsideeachother,toformacompletelineoftext.Fullanduniformlinelengthswereachievedbyputtingsmallmetalpiecesinbetweenthewords. (In hand copying of books there is no similarpossibility for achieving uniform line lengths andthus uniform column widths. The technique provides averyspeedyandeffectivebuildingoflines).

8. Printing on both sides of the paper sheet

China/Korea:The Chinese paper was thin, porous and partlytransparent,andthewaterbasedinksthatwereusedinprinting,penetratedintoandthroughoutthepaper.Itthereforewasimpossibletoprintonbothsidesofthe paper.

Gutenberg:TheEuropeanpaperwasstiffer,denser,opaqueandless porous. The ink stayed on the surface without penetrating the paper, which therefore could beprintedonbothsides.

9. Efficiency of the printing process

China/Korea:The Chinese printing method appears reasonablyefficient,but isquite laborious,and thenumberofcopies from a given set-up limited.

Gutenberg:The Gutenberg’s printing method had severaladvantages thatcontributed toeffectiveproductionof large number of copies. The letter types weresmall, allowingquite dense texts.Theywerewearresistant, allowing many re-uses. The number ofcopies printed per time unit, exceeded that of theChinese paper

The result of Johann Gutenberg’s development workThe intention of this paper has been to explainthat themaincontribution to theartofprintingbyJohannGutenbergwasnotthathejustdevelopedamethod to efficiently producing single letter typesfor printing, but rather that he developed a highqualityandefficientprintingprocess,consistingofseveralnewprocessstepsthateasilycouldbelearntandexploited.

TheprintingofGutenberg’sfamousBible,insome180copies,wasfinished1455.Itsprintqualitywasalmost perfect. The deeply felt European problemofhighqualityandefficientprintingwas thereforesolved. This fact is illustrated by the dramaticexpansion of the Gutenberg’s printing processthatonewitnessed in thefollowingyears,and thatthe method remained almost unchanged for the following 300 years.

Fig. 7: Johann Gutenberg


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Inthe45yearsupto1500,morethan30.000booktitleswerepublishedinEurope,withatotalof12–20millioncopies.ItisclaimedthatthenumberofbooksinEuropeincreasedbyafactorofmorethan100 within these less than 50 years.Andthebookpublishingexpandedevenmoreafter1500. People with new ideas could spread their views tothepublicacrossborders;thelevelofknowledgewas raised. The so called Enlightening period started about 1600 and changed profoundly the views onhistory and society at large. This development could not have happenedwithout the efficient spreadingof information that the printing technology made possible. During the past 500 years the printingprocess has had a decisive importance for the world history. The conclusion that Gutenberg’s printingmethod was the millennium’s most importantinvention is thus very well motivated.

References:1 http://rhsweb.org/library/1000PeopleMillennium.htm2 ThomasChristensen:GutenbergandtheKoreans.

Did East Asian Printing Traditions Influence the Eu-ropeanRenaissance?http://www.rightreading.com/printing/gutenberg.asia/gutenberg-asia-1–9

3 HistoryoftypographyinEastAsia:http://en.wikipe-dia.org/wiki/History_of_typography_in_East_Asia

4 History of Chinese Invention – The Invention of BlockPrinting.http://www.computersmiths.com/chineseinvention/blockprint.htm

5 TheSchøyenCollection: PreGutenbergPrinting.21.1BlockprintinginBlindonClayandGoldhttp://www.schoyencollection.com/pre1450Intro.htm

6 The Glory of Chinese Printing. Standardized Char-acters:http://big5.egan.net/english/english/cpg/eng-cp02.htm

7 TheGloryofChinesePrinting.Paper;writingbrushandink:http://big5.egan.net/english/english/cpg/eng-cp06.htm

8 Dard Hunter: Papermaking – The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft ISBN 0 – 4865 – 23619–6.Copyright1943byAlfredA.Knopf,Inc.DoverPublicationInc.NY,USA,1978

9 Scroll:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll10 Codex:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex11 Woodblockprinting:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Woodblock_printing12Movabletype:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_

type13 Historyofcapitalism:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

History_of_capitalism14 JohnMan:TheGutenbergRevolution,2002,ISBN0

747245053,LetterpartLimited,Surrey,UK

Fig. 8: A page of the 1455 Gutenberg Bible. The print is almost perfect, with small although clear letters, well-shaped lines and columns. After printing, the page has been hand decorated with figures and colors.


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Preservation in the Tropics: Preventive Conservation and the Search for Sustainable ISO Conservation Material NinaJethwa* [email protected] SriAurobindoAshram,Pondicherry,India

This article touches upon the unfolding programme of preventive conservation in a small ashram situated on thecoastoftheBayofBengal,inthesouthofIndia.ThestoryofarchivalconservationatSriAurobindoAshram joins the multitude of worldwide efforts to preservehumanity’sculturalheritage. poetry, exegesis, essays, criticism, translations,

letters and notes written in English, Bengali andother languages. Combined with the eloquentliterarywritingsoftheMother,bornBlancheRachelMirraAlfassa in Paris, and a historical library ofdocuments and manuscripts relating to life in Sri Aurobindo Ashram, the total quantum of paper-basedmaterialintheAshram’scareexceeds100,000manuscript pages.A major portion of the 75,000 manuscript pagesfrom SriAurobindo’s literary years are connectedwith his revision of works first published in themonthly philosophical review, Arya. The Arya was Sri Aurobindo’s message to humanity and itcomprised some of his most important works. It couldbesaidthatThe Life Divine,The Synthesis of Yoga,The Secret of the Veda,Essays on the Gita and other works that appeared in the Arya are among the most original and profound philosophical writings of the 20th century.With the majority of manuscripts written in irongall ink and on machine-made paper of high lignin content,themanuscriptsoftheAryarevisionexhibitmany of the characteristics associated with iron gall

Fig.1 – Sri Aurobindo, circa 1912.

The life andworks of SriAurobindo (1872-1950)and the Mother (1878-1973) span a tumultuous period in world history. Embodying an intensespiritualknowledge, theirworks formedabedrockofhopeforhumanityinacenturyconvulsedbywar,nationalism and the struggle for de-colonisation.No less relevant today is the voice of a spiritual certitudereaffirmingourdivinedestiny.

The soul in man is greater than his fate.SriAurobindo,Savitri, p.691

Overaperiodofsixtyyears,SriAurobindoproducedtens of thousands of pages of yogic philosophy,

Fig. 2 Published in English and French, the first issue of Arya appeared on the 15th August 1914. It was a beacon of light during the outbreak of the first World War.

Fig.3 Exercise book from the local market used by Sri Aurobindo for work connected with the Arya. 16 cm x19.8 cm, ruled laid paper, watermark ‘Deer Brand’.

*Article based on a talk at La Centre de Recherche sur La Conservation des Collections, Paris, in June 2015.


24

inkdegradationsuchastransference,bleed-through,acidburn,sinkingofinkandhaloing.Foxing,fungusandbrittlenessarealsoinherentintheacidic,short-fibredsheets.The manuscripts of the Arya along with much of the collection, present a considerable preservationchallenge inPondicherry’s intense tropical climatewhere daytime temperatures exceed 30 degreesCelsius throughout the year and relative humidity fluctuates between 60% and 85% in the driestof seasons. The Coromandal coast lends itself perfectly to every conceivable mechanism ofnatural accelerated aging. With proximity to theocean, intense sunlight, hot, sticky, salty air, highhumidityandaplethoraoffungi,microbes,insects

andreptilesthatwoulddelighttheDarwinianmind,PondicherrycouldcertainlybedescribedasoneofNature’s accelerated aging chambers. In a tropicalregionwherebuildingsandmaterialsareconstantlyexposedtotheintensitiesofNature,theconservationchallengecanbetrying.Archival conservation in Sri Aurobindo Ashramhas grown organically with the primary aim of preserving with utmost care and love the precious writingsofSriAurobindoandtheMother.Asearlyasthe1950’s,disciplestriedtorepairsomeofSriAurobindo’smanuscriptsusingacidicbackingpaper and glue, sticky tape and protective plasticpouches.Thoughacommendablebeginning,neithereffort was quite successful and was discontinued. Perhapsinhindsight thismayhavebeenfortuitousas degraded acidic lining from old repairs and melted plastics are among today’s more difficultconservation issues.The appearance of early plastics in the local market provided convenient protection against dust and insects and a means to segregate and transport document bundles. The consequence of long-termstoragewithintheseenclosures,andtheacceleratedaging mechanisms of nitrocellulose plasticisers,couldhardlybeenvisagedatthetime.Buttodaywe

Fig.6 Dis-bound exercise book interleafed with buffered tissue and housed in protective cotton rag folders produced at Sri Aurobindo Handmade Paper mill.

Fig. 4 Manuscript dated 1914 illustrating iron gall ink degradation.

Fig.5 Illustration of a damaged manuscript partially destroyed by termites.

Fig.7 Manuscript, dated 1935. Damage caused by a degraded plastic enclosure.


25

find extraordinary cases of damage and distortioncausedbythedegradationofearlyplastics,catalysedby thehigh temperatureandmoisture levelsof thetropics.In the early 1970’s concerted efforts were againtaken up to consolidate, organise and preserve thecollection. The condition of the manuscripts was seentobefastdeteriorating.Inadditiontoprolongedexposuretotheelements,extensivehandlingduringthepublicationofSriAurobindo’sCompleteWorkshad also taken its toll on the fragile documents.Following fumigation and careful cleaning, thefirst prioritywas reproduction, andwork began tosystematicallymicrofilmeverypage.Withfinancialassistance, a camera and microfilm reader wereprocuredfromabroadandthetaskofmicrofilmingundertakenwithcareanddedicationbymembersoftheAshram.Air-conditioningwas a far-off dream,soasterileenvironmentoutofthequestion.Instead,man and nature worked together. 100ft microfilmrolls were manually processed in a clean little dark room and then hung to dry from wall to wall across the serene but sultry colonial rooms of No 3 RueDupleix.Althoughtheprocesscouldnotbedeemedarchival,theresultsbygracewerereasonablygood.With little access to current literature or learningaids, the art of paper conservation was still littleunderstood.Bythe1970’stheconservationtechniqueof cellulose acetate lamination had reached India and thoughdrawbacksofthewellintentionedtreatmentwerenotfullyunderstoodatthetime,particularlyforacidic,untreatedmanuscripts in a tropical climate,

Fig.10 Laminated manuscript showing signs of warping and discolouration.

lamination set itself in full swing.Eager to gain some practical training, two youngmembers of the ashram archives attended aconservation workshop at the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi, where a briefexposurewasgiventoconservationmethodsattheNational Archives. Demonstrations were given on the stabilisation of paper manuscripts by aqueousdeacidification followed by cellulose acetatelamination.On return to Pondicherry the young members setaboutprocuring thenecessarymaterial to laminatethe manuscripts. However, after an encouragingstart, the procedure was soon felt to be far tooinvasive. Following a very brief but immenselyvaluable exchange with the British Library, thepreservation programme promptly turned away

Fig. 8 and 9 Photographic images illustrating crystalline deposits of cellulose nitrate. Sublimation of camphor in nitrocellulose plasticisers is known to induce cellulose nitrate crystallisation causing plastics to become brittle and distorted. [1, 2]


26

from lamination to preventive care with a policy of minimal intervention.Following the experienced advice to simplyhouseand store the documents in a clean, controlledenvironment as best could be maintained, workof a newkindbegan.Anold fruit store roomwasconverted into a dedicated cool storage space wherethemanuscriptscouldbeprotectedfromtheharsh climatic variations. An air conditioner and dehumidifier were installed at considerable costand the manuscripts carefully cleaned and housed in folders and storage boxes,made from acid-freecottonragpaperproducedattheashram’shandmadepaper mill.Today, the manuscripts of Sri Aurobindo andthe Mother along with many other documents of historicalimportancearemaintainedinacustom-builtcoldstoragevault,withinacontrolledenvironmentregulated by an HVAC system designed in-houseand built in the ashram’s engineering workshop.The temperature of the chamber reads a steady19-19.5 degrees Celsius with an average relative humidity 50%. The system has been designed tooperate at lower temperatures for long-term storage of the manuscripts on completion of the re-housing programme.The availability of archival quality conservationmaterial in India remains limited.Where certified,importedarchivalstoragematerialsareavailable,thecostfarexceedsthebudgetofthecountry’smyriadsmall archives, libraries and private collectors.Moreover, conservation material designed fordocument storage facilities in the northern hemisphere fail to withstand the rigors of the Indian climate. AtraditionofhandpapermakinginIndiahasbridgedthis gap admirably over the years, providing anindigenousandsustainablesolutionforthecreation

of protective microclimates for artefacts, thoughquality standards are still a fair distance from the ideal.Permissible levels of any element deemed to bean impurity in conservation housing material must necessarilybestrictlymonitoredwherethesafeguardof cultural heritage is concerned. Archival paper enclosures containing, for example, trace residualbleach,opticalbrighteners,transitionmetals,mouldspores, bacteria and dust from a rural productionprocess may very well trigger and accelerate degradation processes in the artefacts they were intended to protect.The issue is challenging and cannot easily beresolved, but a growing awareness andknowledgeof environmental mechanisms and inherent stresses affecting collections can help to formulate a way forward.Theexperienceofthepapermakerandtheknowledge of the conservator and the conservation scientist culminate in a comprehensive understanding ofthepreservationissuesathandandthemeansbywhichtheycouldbeovercome.Archivalconservationin SriAurobindoAshram strives in this direction,committed to the preservation of cultural heritage.

Perfection is not a summit, it is not an extreme. There is no extreme: whatsoever you do, there is always the possibility of something better and exactly this possibility is the very meaning of progress

- The Mother

Fig.12 A phase box cut from 200lbs cotton rag board alkaline sized and buffered with precipitated calcium carbonate.

Fig.11 20HP Hollander beater pulping virgin bleached white cotton hosiery waste trims procured from the South Indian textile industry.

References1. Springate, Megan E. (1997) “Cellulose Nitrate Plas-

tic (Celluloid) in Archaeological Assemblages: Iden-tification and Care,” Northeast Historical Archaeo- logy: Vol. 26: Issue. 1, Article 5.

2. JAIC 1991, Volume 30, Number 2, Article 3 (pp. 145 to 162)


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