Prince Fxd

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TheProjectGutenbergEBookofThePrince,byNicoloMachiavelli

ThiseBookisfortheuseofanyoneanywhereatnocostandwithalmostnorestrictionswhatsoever.Youmaycopyit,giveitawayorre-useitunderthetermsoftheProjectGutenbergLicenseincludedwiththiseBookoronlineatwww.gutenberg.org

Title:ThePrince

Author:NicoloMachiavelli

Translator:W.K.Marriott

ReleaseDate:February11,2006[EBook#1232]

Language:English

Charactersetencoding:ASCII

***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKTHEPRINCE***

ProducedbyJohnBickers,DavidWidgerandOthers

THEPRINCE

byNicoloMachiavelli

TranslatedbyW.K.Marriott

NicoloMachiavelli,bornatFlorenceon3rdMay1469.From1494to1512heldanofficialpostatFlorencewhichincludeddiplomaticmissionstovariousEuropean

courts.ImprisonedinFlorence,1512;laterexiledandreturnedtoSanCasciano.DiedatFlorenceon22ndJune1527.

INTRODUCTION

NicoloMachiavelliwasbornatFlorenceon3rdMay1469.HewasthesecondsonofBernardodiNicoloMachiavelli,alawyerofsomerepute,andofBartolommeadiStefanoNelli,hiswife.BothparentsweremembersoftheoldFlorentinenobility.

Hislifefallsnaturallyintothreeperiods,eachofwhichsingularlyenoughcon

stitutesadistinctandimportanterainthehistoryofFlorence.HisyouthwasconcurrentwiththegreatnessofFlorenceasanItalianpowerundertheguidanceofLorenzode'Medici,IlMagnifico.ThedownfalloftheMediciinFlorenceoccurredin1494,inwhichyearMachiavellienteredthepublicservice.DuringhisofficialcareerFlorencewasfreeunderthegovernmentofaRepublic,whichlasteduntil1512,whentheMedicireturnedtopower,andMachiavellilosthisoffice.TheMediciagainruledFlorencefrom1512until1527,whentheywereoncemoredrivenout.ThiswastheperiodofMachiavelli'sliteraryactivityandincreasinginfluence;buthedied,withinafewweeksoftheexpulsionoftheMedici,on22ndJune1527,inhisfifty-eighthyear,withouthavingregainedoffice.

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YOUTH--Aet.1-25--1469-94

AlthoughthereislittlerecordedoftheyouthofMachiavelli,theFlorenceofthosedaysissowellknownthattheearlyenvironmentofthisrepresentativecitizenmaybeeasilyimagined.Florencehasbeendescribedasacitywithtwooppositecurrentsoflife,onedirectedbytheferventandaustereSavonarola,theotherbythesplendour-lovingLorenzo.Savonarola'sinfluenceupontheyoungMachiavellimusthavebeenslight,foralthoughatonetimehewieldedimmensepoweroverthefortunesofFlorence,heonlyfurnishedMachiavelliwithasubjectofagibein"ThePrince,"whereheiscitedasanexampleofanunarmedprophetwhocametoabadend.WhereasthemagnificenceoftheMediceanruleduringthelifeofLorenzoappearedtohaveimpressedMachiavellistrongly,forhefrequentlyrecurstoitinhiswritings,anditistoLorenzo'sgrandsonthathededicates"ThePrince."

Machiavelli,inhis"HistoryofFlorence,"givesusapictureoftheyoungmenamongwhomhisyouthwaspassed.Hewrites:"Theywerefreerthantheirforefathersindressandliving,andspentmoreinotherkindsofexcesses,consumingtheirtimeandmoneyinidleness,gaming,andwomen;theirchiefaimwastoappearwelldressedandtospeakwithwitandacuteness,whilsthewhocouldwoundothersthemostcleverlywasthoughtthewisest."InalettertohissonGuido,Mach

iavellishowswhyyouthshouldavailitselfofitsopportunitiesforstudy,andleadsustoinferthathisownyouthhadbeensooccupied.Hewrites:"Ihavereceivedyourletter,whichhasgivenmethegreatestpleasure,especiallybecauseyoutellmeyouarequiterestoredinhealth,thanwhichIcouldhavenobetternews;forifGodgrantlifetoyou,andtome,Ihopetomakeagoodmanofyouifyouarewillingtodoyourshare."Then,writingofanewpatron,hecontinues:"Thiswillturnoutwellforyou,butitisnecessaryforyoutostudy;since,then,youhavenolongertheexcuseofillness,takepainstostudylettersandmusic,foryouseewhathonourisdonetomeforthelittleskillIhave.Therefore,myson,ifyouwishtopleaseme,andtobringsuccessandhonourtoyourself,dorightandstudy,becauseotherswillhelpyouifyouhelpyourself."

OFFICE--Aet.25-43--1494-1512

ThesecondperiodofMachiavelli'slifewasspentintheserviceofthefreeRepublicofFlorence,whichflourished,asstatedabove,fromtheexpulsionoftheMediciin1494untiltheirreturnin1512.AfterservingfouryearsinoneofthepublicofficeshewasappointedChancellorandSecretarytotheSecondChancery,theTenofLibertyandPeace.HereweareonfirmgroundwhendealingwiththeeventsofMachiavelli'slife,forduringthistimehetookaleadingpartintheaffairsoftheRepublic,andwehaveitsdecrees,records,anddispatchestoguideus,aswellashisownwritings.Amererecapitulationofafewofhistransactionswiththestatesmenandsoldiersofhistimegivesafairindicationofhisactivities,andsuppliesthesourcesfromwhichhedrewtheexperiencesand

characterswhichillustrate"ThePrince."

Hisfirstmissionwasin1499toCatherinaSforza,"myladyofForli"of"ThePrince,"fromwhoseconductandfatehedrewthemoralthatitisfarbettertoearntheconfidenceofthepeoplethantorelyonfortresses.ThisisaverynoticeableprincipleinMachiavelli,andisurgedbyhiminmanywaysasamatterofvitalimportancetoprinces.

In1500hewassenttoFrancetoobtaintermsfromLouisXIIforcontinuingthewaragainstPisa:thiskingitwaswho,inhisconductofaffairsinItaly,comm

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ittedthefivecapitalerrorsinstatecraftsummarizedin"ThePrince,"andwasconsequentlydrivenout.He,also,itwaswhomadethedissolutionofhismarriageaconditionofsupporttoPopeAlexanderVI;whichleadsMachiavellitoreferthosewhourgethatsuchpromisesshouldbekepttowhathehaswrittenconcerningthefaithofprinces.

Machiavelli'spubliclifewaslargelyoccupiedwitheventsarisingoutoftheambitionsofPopeAlexanderVIandhisson,CesareBorgia,theDukeValentino,andthesecharactersfillalargespaceof"ThePrince."Machiavellineverhesitatestocitetheactionsofthedukeforthebenefitofusurperswhowishtokeepthestatestheyhaveseized;hecan,indeed,findnopreceptstooffersogoodasthepatternofCesareBorgia'sconduct,insomuchthatCesareisacclaimedbysomecriticsasthe"hero"of"ThePrince."Yetin"ThePrince"thedukeisinpointoffactcitedasatypeofthemanwhorisesonthefortuneofothers,andfallswiththem;whotakeseverycoursethatmightbeexpectedfromaprudentmanbutthecoursewhichwillsavehim;whoispreparedforalleventualitiesbuttheonewhichhappens;andwho,whenallhisabilitiesfailtocarryhimthrough,exclaimsthatitwasnothisfault,butanextraordinaryandunforeseenfatality.

OnthedeathofPiusIII,in1503,MachiavelliwassenttoRometowatchtheelectionofhissuccessor,andtherehesawCesareBorgiacheatedintoallowingthechoiceoftheCollegetofallonGiulianodelleRovere(JuliusII),whowasoneofthecardinalsthathadmostreasontofeartheduke.Machiavelli,whencomme

ntingonthiselection,saysthathewhothinksnewfavourswillcausegreatpersonagestoforgetoldinjuriesdeceiveshimself.JuliusdidnotrestuntilhehadruinedCesare.

ItwastoJuliusIIthatMachiavelliwassentin1506,whenthatpontiffwascommencinghisenterpriseagainstBologna;whichhebroughttoasuccessfulissue,ashedidmanyofhisotheradventures,owingchieflytohisimpetuouscharacter.ItisinreferencetoPopeJuliusthatMachiavellimoralizesontheresemblancebetweenFortuneandwomen,andconcludesthatitistheboldratherthanthecautiousmanthatwillwinandholdthemboth.

ItisimpossibletofollowherethevaryingfortunesoftheItalianstates,whichin1507werecontrolledbyFrance,Spain,andGermany,withresultsthathave

lastedtoourday;weareconcernedwiththoseevents,andwiththethreegreatactorsinthem,sofaronlyastheyimpingeonthepersonalityofMachiavelli.HehadseveralmeetingswithLouisXIIofFrance,andhisestimateofthatmonarch'scharacterhasalreadybeenalludedto.MachiavellihaspaintedFerdinandofAragonasthemanwhoaccomplishedgreatthingsunderthecloakofreligion,butwhoinrealityhadnomercy,faith,humanity,orintegrity;andwho,hadheallowedhimselftobeinfluencedbysuchmotives,wouldhavebeenruined.TheEmperorMaximilianwasoneofthemostinterestingmenoftheage,andhischaracterhasbeendrawnbymanyhands;butMachiavelli,whowasanenvoyathiscourtin1507-8,revealsthesecretofhismanyfailureswhenhedescribeshimasasecretiveman,withoutforceofcharacter--ignoringthehumanagenciesnecessarytocarryhisschemesintoeffect,andneverinsistingonthefulfilmentofhiswishes.

TheremainingyearsofMachiavelli'sofficialcareerwerefilledwitheventsarisingoutoftheLeagueofCambrai,madein1508betweenthethreegreatEuropeanpowersalreadymentionedandthepope,withtheobjectofcrushingtheVenetianRepublic.ThisresultwasattainedinthebattleofVaila,whenVenicelostinonedayallthatshehadwonineighthundredyears.Florencehadadifficultparttoplayduringtheseevents,complicatedastheywerebythefeudwhichbrokeoutbetweenthepopeandtheFrench,becausefriendshipwithFrancehaddictatedtheentirepolicyoftheRepublic.When,in1511,JuliusIIfinallyformedtheHolyLeagueagainstFrance,andwiththeassistanceoftheSwissdrovetheFren

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choutofItaly,FlorencelayatthemercyofthePope,andhadtosubmittohisterms,oneofwhichwasthattheMedicishouldberestored.ThereturnoftheMedicitoFlorenceon1stSeptember1512,andtheconsequentfalloftheRepublic,wasthesignalforthedismissalofMachiavelliandhisfriends,andthusputanendtohispubliccareer,for,aswehaveseen,hediedwithoutregainingoffice.

LITERATUREANDDEATH--Aet.43-58--1512-27

OnthereturnoftheMedici,Machiavelli,whoforafewweekshadvainlyhopedtoretainhisofficeunderthenewmastersofFlorence,wasdismissedbydecreedated7thNovember1512.ShortlyafterthishewasaccusedofcomplicityinanabortiveconspiracyagainsttheMedici,imprisoned,andputtothequestionbytorture.ThenewMediceanpeople,LeoX,procuredhisrelease,andheretiredtohissmallpropertyatSanCasciano,nearFlorence,wherehedevotedhimselftoliterature.InalettertoFrancescoVettori,dated13thDecember1513,hehasleftaveryinterestingdescriptionofhislifeatthisperiod,whichelucidateshismethodsandhismotivesinwriting"ThePrince."Afterdescribinghisdailyoccupationswithhisfamilyandneighbours,hewrites:"Theeveningbeingcome,Ireturnhomeandgotomystudy;attheentranceIpulloffmypeasant-clothes,coveredwithdustanddirt,andputonmynoblecourtdress,andthusbecominglyre-clothedIpassintotheancientcourtsofthemenofold,where,beinglovingl

yreceivedbythem,Iamfedwiththatfoodwhichisminealone;whereIdonothesitatetospeakwiththem,andtoaskforthereasonoftheiractions,andtheyintheirbenignityanswerme;andforfourhoursIfeelnoweariness,Iforgeteverytrouble,povertydoesnotdismay,deathdoesnotterrifyme;Iampossessedentirelybythosegreatmen.AndbecauseDantesays:

Knowledgedothcomeoflearningwellretained,Unfruitfulelse,

IhavenoteddownwhatIhavegainedfromtheirconversation,andhavecomposedasmallworkon'Principalities,'whereIpourmyselfoutasfullyasIcaninmeditationonthesubject,discussingwhataprincipalityis,whatkindsthereare,howtheycanbeacquired,howtheycanbekept,whytheyarelost:andifanyofmyfancieseverpleasedyou,thisoughtnottodispleaseyou:andtoaprinc

e,especiallytoanewone,itshouldbewelcome:thereforeIdedicateittohisMagnificenceGiuliano.FilippoCasavecchiohasseenit;hewillbeabletotellyouwhatisinit,andofthediscoursesIhavehadwithhim;nevertheless,Iamstillenrichingandpolishingit."

The"littlebook"sufferedmanyvicissitudesbeforeattainingtheforminwhichithasreachedus.Variousmentalinfluenceswereatworkduringitscomposition;itstitleandpatronwerechanged;andforsomeunknownreasonitwasfinallydedicatedtoLorenzode'Medici.AlthoughMachiavellidiscussedwithCasavecchiowhetheritshouldbesentorpresentedinpersontothepatron,thereisnoevidencethatLorenzoeverreceivedorevenreadit:hecertainlynevergaveMachiavellianyemployment.AlthoughitwasplagiarizedduringMachiavelli'slifetime,"ThePrince"wasneverpublishedbyhim,anditstextisstilldisputable.

MachiavelliconcludeshislettertoVettorithus:"Andastothislittlething[hisbook],whenithasbeenreaditwillbeseenthatduringthefifteenyearsIhavegiventothestudyofstatecraftIhaveneithersleptnoridled;andmenoughtevertodesiretobeservedbyonewhohasreapedexperienceattheexpenseofothers.Andofmyloyaltynonecoulddoubt,becausehavingalwayskeptfaithIcouldnotnowlearnhowtobreakit;forhewhohasbeenfaithfulandhonest,asIhave,cannotchangehisnature;andmypovertyisawitnesstomyhonesty."

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BeforeMachiavellihadgot"ThePrince"offhishandshecommencedhis"DiscourseontheFirstDecadeofTitusLivius,"whichshouldbereadconcurrentlywith"ThePrince."Theseandseveralminorworksoccupiedhimuntiltheyear1518,whenheacceptedasmallcommissiontolookaftertheaffairsofsomeFlorentinemerchantsatGenoa.In1519theMediceanrulersofFlorencegrantedafewpoliticalconcessionstohercitizens,andMachiavelliwithotherswasconsulteduponanewconstitutionunderwhichtheGreatCouncilwastoberestored;butononepretextoranotheritwasnotpromulgated.

In1520theFlorentinemerchantsagainhadrecoursetoMachiavellitosettletheirdifficultieswithLucca,butthisyearwaschieflyremarkableforhisre-entryintoFlorentineliterarysociety,wherehewasmuchsoughtafter,andalsofortheproductionofhis"ArtofWar."ItwasinthesameyearthathereceivedacommissionattheinstanceofCardinalde'Medicitowritethe"HistoryofFlorence,"ataskwhichoccupiedhimuntil1525.HisreturntopopularfavourmayhavedeterminedtheMedicitogivehimthisemployment,foranoldwriterobservesthat"anablestatesmanoutofwork,likeahugewhale,willendeavourtooverturntheshipunlesshehasanemptycasktoplaywith."

Whenthe"HistoryofFlorence"wasfinished,MachiavellitookittoRomeforpresentationtohispatron,Giulianode'Medici,whohadinthemeanwhilebecomepopeunderthetitleofClementVII.Itissomewhatremarkablethat,as,in1513,Machiavellihadwritten"ThePrince"fortheinstructionoftheMediciaftertheyhadjustregainedpowerinFlorence,so,in1525,hededicatedthe"Historyof

Florence"totheheadofthefamilywhenitsruinwasnowathand.InthatyearthebattleofPaviadestroyedtheFrenchruleinItaly,andleftFrancisIaprisonerinthehandsofhisgreatrival,CharlesV.ThiswasfollowedbythesackofRome,uponthenewsofwhichthepopularpartyatFlorencethrewofftheyokeoftheMedici,whowereoncemorebanished.

MachiavelliwasabsentfromFlorenceatthistime,buthastenedhisreturn,hopingtosecurehisformerofficeofsecretarytothe"TenofLibertyandPeace."UnhappilyhewastakenillsoonafterhereachedFlorence,wherehediedon22ndJune1527.

THEMANANDHISWORKS

NoonecansaywherethebonesofMachiavellirest,butmodernFlorencehasdecreedhimastatelycenotaphinSantaCroce,bythesideofhermostfamoussons;recognizingthat,whateverothernationsmayhavefoundinhisworks,ItalyfoundinthemtheideaofherunityandthegermsofherrenaissanceamongthenationsofEurope.Whilstitisidletoprotestagainsttheworld-wideandevilsignificationofhisname,itmaybepointedoutthattheharshconstructionofhisdoctrinewhichthissinisterreputationimplieswasunknowntohisownday,andthattheresearchesofrecenttimeshaveenabledustointerprethimmorereasonably.Itisduetotheseinquiriesthattheshapeofan"unholynecromancer,"whichsolonghauntedmen'svision,hasbeguntofade.

Machiavelliwasundoubtedlyamanofgreatobservation,acuteness,andindustry;notingwithappreciativeeyewhateverpassedbeforehim,andwithhissupremeliterarygiftturningittoaccountinhisenforcedretirementfromaffairs.Hedoesnotpresenthimself,norishedepictedbyhiscontemporaries,asatypeofthatrarecombination,thesuccessfulstatesmanandauthor,forheappearstohavebeenonlymoderatelyprosperousinhisseveralembassiesandpoliticalemployments.HewasmisledbyCatherinaSforza,ignoredbyLouisXII,overawedbyCesareBorgia;severalofhisembassieswerequitebarrenofresults;hisattemptstofortifyFlorencefailed,andthesoldierythatheraisedastonishedeverybodybytheircowardice.Intheconductofhisownaffairshewastimidandtime-serv

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ing;hedarednotappearbythesideofSoderini,towhomheowedsomuch,forfearofcompromisinghimself;hisconnectionwiththeMediciwasopentosuspicion,andGiulianoappearstohaverecognizedhisrealfortewhenhesethimtowritethe"HistoryofFlorence,"ratherthanemployhiminthestate.Anditisontheliterarysideofhischaracter,andtherealone,thatwefindnoweaknessandnofailure.

Althoughthelightofalmostfourcenturieshasbeenfocusedon"ThePrince,"itsproblemsarestilldebatableandinteresting,becausetheyaretheeternalproblemsbetweentheruledandtheirrulers.Suchastheyare,itsethicsarethoseofMachiavelli'scontemporaries;yettheycannotbesaidtobeoutofdatesolongasthegovernmentsofEuroperelyonmaterialratherthanonmoralforces.ItshistoricalincidentsandpersonagesbecomeinterestingbyreasonoftheuseswhichMachiavellimakesofthemtoillustratehistheoriesofgovernmentandconduct.

LeavingoutofconsiderationthosemaximsofstatewhichstillfurnishsomeEuropeanandeasternstatesmenwithprinciplesofaction,"ThePrince"isbestrewnwithtruthsthatcanbeprovedateveryturn.Menarestillthedupesoftheirsimplicityandgreed,astheywereinthedaysofAlexanderVI.ThecloakofreligionstillconcealstheviceswhichMachiavellilaidbareinthecharacterofFerdinandofAragon.Menwillnotlookatthingsastheyreallyare,butastheywishthemtobe--andareruined.Inpoliticstherearenoperfectlysafecourses;prudenceconsistsinchoosingtheleastdangerousones.Then--topasstoahighe

rplane--Machiavellireiteratesthat,althoughcrimesmaywinanempire,theydonotwinglory.Necessarywarsarejustwars,andthearmsofanationarehallowedwhenithasnootherresourcebuttofight.

ItisthecryofafarlaterdaythanMachiavelli'sthatgovernmentshouldbeelevatedintoalivingmoralforce,capableofinspiringthepeoplewithajustrecognitionofthefundamentalprinciplesofsociety;tothis"highargument""ThePrince"contributesbutlittle.Machiavellialwaysrefusedtowriteeitherofmenorofgovernmentsotherwisethanashefoundthem,andhewriteswithsuchskillandinsightthathisworkisofabidingvalue.Butwhatinvests"ThePrince"withmorethanamerelyartisticorhistoricalinterestistheincontrovertibletruththatitdealswiththegreatprincipleswhichstillguidenationsandrulersintheirrelationshipwitheachotherandtheirneighbours.

Intranslating"ThePrince"myaimhasbeentoachieveatallcostsanexactliteralrenderingoftheoriginal,ratherthanafluentparaphraseadaptedtothemodernnotionsofstyleandexpression.Machiavelliwasnofacilephrasemonger;theconditionsunderwhichhewroteobligedhimtoweigheveryword;histhemeswerelofty,hissubstancegrave,hismannernoblyplainandserious."Quiseofuitunquaminpartiundisrebus,indefiniendis,inexplanandispressior?"In"ThePrince,"itmaybetrulysaid,thereisreasonassignable,notonlyforeveryword,butforthepositionofeveryword.ToanEnglishmanofShakespeare'stimethetranslationofsuchatreatisewasinsomewaysacomparativelyeasytask,forinthosetimesthegeniusoftheEnglishmorenearlyresembledthatoftheItalianlanguage;totheEnglishmanofto-dayitisnotsosimple.Totakeasingleexample:theword"intrattenere,"employedbyMachiavellitoindicatethepolic

yadoptedbytheRomanSenatetowardstheweakerstatesofGreece,wouldbyanElizabethanbecorrectlyrendered"entertain,"andeverycontemporaryreaderwouldunderstandwhatwasmeantbysayingthat"RomeentertainedtheAetoliansandtheAchaeanswithoutaugmentingtheirpower."Butto-daysuchaphrasewouldseemobsoleteandambiguous,ifnotunmeaning:wearecompelledtosaythat"RomemaintainedfriendlyrelationswiththeAetolians,"etc.,usingfourwordstodotheworkofone.IhavetriedtopreservethepithybrevityoftheItaliansofaraswasconsistentwithanabsolutefidelitytothesense.IftheresultbeanoccasionalasperityIcanonlyhopethatthereader,inhiseagernesstoreachtheauthor'smeaning,mayoverlooktheroughnessoftheroadthatleadshimtoit.

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ThefollowingisalistoftheworksofMachiavelli:

Principalworks.DiscorsosopralecosediPisa,1499;DelmododitrattareipopolidellaValdichianaribellati,1502;DelmodotenutodalducaValentinonell'ammazzareVitellozzoVitelli,OliverottodaFermo,etc.,1502;Discorsosopralaprovisionedeldanaro,1502;Decennaleprimo(poeminterzarima),1506;Ritrattidellecosedell'Alemagna,1508-12;Decennalesecondo,1509;RitrattidellecosediFrancia,1510;DiscorsisopralaprimadecadiT.Livio,3vols.,1512-17;IlPrincipe,1513;Andria,comedytranslatedfromTerence,1513(?);Mandragola,prosecomedyinfiveacts,withprologueinverse,1513;Dellalingua(dialogue),1514;Clizia,comedyinprose,1515(?);Belfagorarcidiavolo(novel),1515;Asinod'oro(poeminterzarima),1517;Dell'artedellaguerra,1519-20;DiscorsosoprailriformarelostatodiFirenze,1520;SommariodellecosedellacittadiLucca,1520;VitadiCastruccioCastracanidaLucca,1520;Istoriefiorentine,8books,1521-5;Frammentistorici,1525.

OtherpoemsincludeSonetti,Canzoni,Ottave,andCanticarnascialeschi.

Editions.Aldo,Venice,1546;dellaTertina,1550;Cambiagi,Florence,6vols.,1782-5;deiClassici,Milan,101813;Silvestri,9vols.,1820-2;Passerini,Fanfani,Milanesi,6vols.onlypublished,1873-7.

Minorworks.Ed.F.L.Polidori,1852;Letterefamiliari,ed.E.Alvisi,1883,2

editions,onewithexcisions;CreditedWritings,ed.G.Canestrini,1857;LetterstoF.Vettori,seeA.Ridolfi,PensieriintornoalloscopodiN.MachiavellinellibroIlPrincipe,etc.;D.Ferrara,ThePrivateCorrespondenceofNicoloMachiavelli,1929.

DEDICATION

TotheMagnificentLorenzoDiPieroDe'Medici:

Thosewhostrivetoobtainthegoodgracesofaprinceareaccustomedtocomebeforehimwithsuchthingsastheyholdmostprecious,orinwhich

theyseehimtakemostdelight;whenceoneoftenseeshorses,arms,clothofgold,preciousstones,andsimilarornamentspresentedtoprinces,worthyoftheirgreatness.

DesiringthereforetopresentmyselftoyourMagnificencewithsometestimonyofmydevotiontowardsyou,IhavenotfoundamongmypossessionsanythingwhichIholdmoredearthan,orvaluesomuchas,theknowledgeoftheactionsofgreatmen,acquiredbylongexperienceincontemporaryaffairs,andacontinualstudyofantiquity;which,havingreflecteduponitwithgreatandprolongeddiligence,Inowsend,digestedintoalittlevolume,toyourMagnificence.

AndalthoughImayconsiderthisworkunworthyofyourcountenance,nev

erthelessItrustmuchtoyourbenignitythatitmaybeacceptable,seeingthatitisnotpossibleformetomakeabettergiftthantoofferyoutheopportunityofunderstandingintheshortesttimeallthatIhavelearntinsomanyyears,andwithsomanytroublesanddangers;whichworkIhavenotembellishedwithswellingormagnificentwords,norstuffedwithroundedperiods,norwithanyextrinsicallurementsoradornmentswhatever,withwhichsomanyareaccustomedtoembellishtheirworks;forIhavewishedeitherthatnohonourshouldbegivenit,orelsethatthetruthofthematterandtheweightinessofthethemeshallmakeitacceptable.

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NordoIholdwiththosewhoregarditasapresumptionifamanoflowandhumbleconditiondaretodiscussandsettletheconcernsofprinces;because,justasthosewhodrawlandscapesplacethemselvesbelowintheplaintocontemplatethenatureofthemountainsandofloftyplaces,andinordertocontemplatetheplainsplacethemselvesuponhighmountains,evensotounderstandthenatureofthepeopleitneedstobeaprince,andtounderstandthatofprincesitneedstobeofthepeople.

Takethen,yourMagnificence,thislittlegiftinthespiritinwhichIsendit;wherein,ifitbediligentlyreadandconsideredbyyou,youwilllearnmyextremedesirethatyoushouldattainthatgreatnesswhichfortuneandyourotherattributespromise.AndifyourMagnificencefromthesummitofyourgreatnesswillsometimesturnyoureyestotheselowerregions,youwillseehowunmeritedlyIsufferagreatandcontinuedmalignityoffortune.

THEPRINCE

CHAPTERI--HOWMANYKINDSOFPRINCIPALITIESTHEREARE,ANDBYWHATMEANSTHEYAREACQUIRED

Allstates,allpowers,thathaveheldandholdruleovermenhavebeenandareeitherrepublicsorprincipalities.

Principalitiesareeitherhereditary,inwhichthefamilyhasbeenlongestablished;ortheyarenew.

Thenewareeitherentirelynew,aswasMilantoFrancescoSforza,ortheyare,asitwere,membersannexedtothehereditarystateoftheprincewhohasacquiredthem,aswasthekingdomofNaplestothatoftheKingofSpain.

Suchdominionsthusacquiredareeitheraccustomedtoliveunderaprince,ortoliveinfreedom;andareacquiredeitherbythearmsoftheprincehimself,or

ofothers,orelsebyfortuneorbyability.

CHAPTERII--CONCERNINGHEREDITARYPRINCIPALITIES

Iwillleaveoutalldiscussiononrepublics,inasmuchasinanotherplaceIhavewrittenofthematlength,andwilladdressmyselfonlytoprincipalities.IndoingsoIwillkeeptotheorderindicatedabove,anddiscusshowsuchprincipalitiesaretoberuledandpreserved.

Isayatoncetherearefewerdifficultiesinholdinghereditarystates,andthoselongaccustomedtothefamilyoftheirprince,thannewones;foritissuffi

cientonlynottotransgressthecustomsofhisancestors,andtodealprudentlywithcircumstancesastheyarise,foraprinceofaveragepowerstomaintainhimselfinhisstate,unlesshebedeprivedofitbysomeextraordinaryandexcessiveforce;andifheshouldbesodeprivedofit,wheneveranythingsinisterhappenstotheusurper,hewillregainit.

WehaveinItaly,forexample,theDukeofFerrara,whocouldnothavewithstoodtheattacksoftheVenetiansin'84,northoseofPopeJuliusin'10,unlesshehadbeenlongestablishedinhisdominions.Forthehereditaryprincehaslesscauseandlessnecessitytooffend;henceithappensthathewillbemoreloved;

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andunlessextraordinaryvicescausehimtobehated,itisreasonabletoexpectthathissubjectswillbenaturallywelldisposedtowardshim;andintheantiquityanddurationofhisrulethememoriesandmotivesthatmakeforchangearelost,foronechangealwaysleavesthetoothingforanother.

CHAPTERIII--CONCERNINGMIXEDPRINCIPALITIES

Butthedifficultiesoccurinanewprincipality.Andfirstly,ifitbenotentirelynew,butis,asitwere,amemberofastatewhich,takencollectively,maybecalledcomposite,thechangesarisechieflyfromaninherentdifficultywhichthereisinallnewprincipalities;formenchangetheirrulerswillingly,hopingtobetterthemselves,andthishopeinducesthemtotakeuparmsagainsthimwhorules:whereintheyaredeceived,becausetheyafterwardsfindbyexperiencetheyhavegonefrombadtoworse.Thisfollowsalsoonanothernaturalandcommonnecessity,whichalwayscausesanewprincetoburdenthosewhohavesubmittedtohimwithhissoldieryandwithinfiniteotherhardshipswhichhemustputuponhisnewacquisition.

Inthiswayyouhaveenemiesinallthosewhomyouhaveinjuredinseizingthatprincipality,andyouarenotabletokeepthosefriendswhoputyoutherebecauseofyournotbeingabletosatisfytheminthewaytheyexpected,andyoucannottakestrongmeasuresagainstthem,feelingboundtothem.For,althoughonem

aybeverystronginarmedforces,yetinenteringaprovinceonehasalwaysneedofthegoodwillofthenatives.

ForthesereasonsLouistheTwelfth,KingofFrance,quicklyoccupiedMilan,andasquicklylostit;andtoturnhimoutthefirsttimeitonlyneededLodovico'sownforces;becausethosewhohadopenedthegatestohim,findingthemselvesdeceivedintheirhopesoffuturebenefit,wouldnotenduretheill-treatmentofthenewprince.Itisverytruethat,afteracquiringrebelliousprovincesasecondtime,theyarenotsolightlylostafterwards,becausetheprince,withlittlereluctance,takestheopportunityoftherebelliontopunishthedelinquents,toclearoutthesuspects,andtostrengthenhimselfintheweakestplaces.ThustocauseFrancetoloseMilanthefirsttimeitwasenoughfortheDukeLodovico(*)toraiseinsurrectionsontheborders;buttocausehimtoloseitaseco

ndtimeitwasnecessarytobringthewholeworldagainsthim,andthathisarmiesshouldbedefeatedanddrivenoutofItaly;whichfollowedfromthecausesabovementioned.

(*)DukeLodovicowasLodovicoMoro,asonofFrancescoSforza,whomarriedBeatriced'Este.HeruledoverMilanfrom1494to1500,anddiedin1510.

NeverthelessMilanwastakenfromFranceboththefirstandthesecondtime.Thegeneralreasonsforthefirsthavebeendiscussed;itremainstonamethoseforthesecond,andtoseewhatresourceshehad,andwhatanyoneinhissituationwouldhavehadformaintaininghimselfmoresecurelyinhisacquisitionthandidtheKingofFrance.

NowIsaythatthosedominionswhich,whenacquired,areaddedtoanancientstatebyhimwhoacquiresthem,areeitherofthesamecountryandlanguage,ortheyarenot.Whentheyare,itiseasiertoholdthem,especiallywhentheyhavenotbeenaccustomedtoself-government;andtoholdthemsecurelyitisenoughtohavedestroyedthefamilyoftheprincewhowasrulingthem;becausethetwopeoples,preservinginotherthingstheoldconditions,andnotbeingunlikeincustoms,willlivequietlytogether,asonehasseeninBrittany,Burgundy,Gascony,andNormandy,whichhavebeenboundtoFranceforsolongatime:and,althoughtheremaybesomedifferenceinlanguage,neverthelessthecustomsarealike,

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andthepeoplewilleasilybeabletogetonamongstthemselves.Hewhohasannexedthem,ifhewishestoholdthem,hasonlytobearinmindtwoconsiderations:theone,thatthefamilyoftheirformerlordisextinguished;theother,thatneithertheirlawsnortheirtaxesarealtered,sothatinaveryshorttimetheywillbecomeentirelyonebodywiththeoldprincipality.

Butwhenstatesareacquiredinacountrydifferinginlanguage,customs,orlaws,therearedifficulties,andgoodfortuneandgreatenergyareneededtoholdthem,andoneofthegreatestandmostrealhelpswouldbethathewhohasacquiredthemshouldgoandresidethere.Thiswouldmakehispositionmoresecureanddurable,asithasmadethatoftheTurkinGreece,who,notwithstandingalltheothermeasurestakenbyhimforholdingthatstate,ifhehadnotsettledthere,wouldnothavebeenabletokeepit.Because,ifoneisonthespot,disordersareseenastheyspringup,andonecanquicklyremedythem;butifoneisnotathand,theyareheardofonlywhentheyaregreat,andthenonecannolongerremedythem.Besidesthis,thecountryisnotpillagedbyyourofficials;thesubjectsaresatisfiedbypromptrecoursetotheprince;thus,wishingtobegood,theyhavemorecausetolovehim,andwishingtobeotherwise,tofearhim.Hewhowouldattackthatstatefromtheoutsidemusthavetheutmostcaution;aslongastheprinceresidesthereitcanonlybewrestedfromhimwiththegreatestdifficulty.

Theotherandbettercourseistosendcoloniestooneortwoplaces,whichmaybeaskeystothatstate,foritisnecessaryeithertodothisorelsetokeep

thereagreatnumberofcavalryandinfantry.Aprincedoesnotspendmuchoncolonies,forwithlittleornoexpensehecansendthemoutandkeepthemthere,andheoffendsaminorityonlyofthecitizensfromwhomhetakeslandsandhousestogivethemtothenewinhabitants;andthosewhomheoffends,remainingpoorandscattered,areneverabletoinjurehim;whilsttherestbeinguninjuredareeasilykeptquiet,andatthesametimeareanxiousnottoerrforfearitshouldhappentothemasithastothosewhohavebeendespoiled.Inconclusion,Isaythatthesecoloniesarenotcostly,theyaremorefaithful,theyinjureless,andtheinjured,ashasbeensaid,beingpoorandscattered,cannothurt.Uponthis,onehastoremarkthatmenoughteithertobewelltreatedorcrushed,becausetheycanavengethemselvesoflighterinjuries,ofmoreseriousonestheycannot;thereforetheinjurythatistobedonetoamanoughttobeofsuchakindthatonedoesnotstandinfearofrevenge.

Butinmaintainingarmedmenthereinplaceofcoloniesonespendsmuchmore,havingtoconsumeonthegarrisonalltheincomefromthestate,sothattheacquisitionturnsintoaloss,andmanymoreareexasperated,becausethewholestateisinjured;throughtheshiftingofthegarrisonupanddownallbecomeacquaintedwithhardship,andallbecomehostile,andtheyareenemieswho,whilstbeatenontheirownground,areyetabletodohurt.Foreveryreason,therefore,suchguardsareasuselessasacolonyisuseful.

Again,theprincewhoholdsacountrydifferingintheaboverespectsoughttomakehimselftheheadanddefenderofhislesspowerfulneighbours,andtoweakenthemorepowerfulamongstthem,takingcarethatnoforeigneraspowerfulashimselfshall,byanyaccident,getafootingthere;foritwillalwayshappentha

tsuchaonewillbeintroducedbythosewhoarediscontented,eitherthroughexcessofambitionorthroughfear,asonehasseenalready.TheRomanswerebroughtintoGreecebytheAetolians;andineveryothercountrywheretheyobtainedafootingtheywerebroughtinbytheinhabitants.Andtheusualcourseofaffairsisthat,assoonasapowerfulforeignerentersacountry,allthesubjectstatesaredrawntohim,movedbythehatredwhichtheyfeelagainsttherulingpower.Sothatinrespecttothosesubjectstateshehasnottotakeanytroubletogainthemovertohimself,forthewholeofthemquicklyrallytothestatewhichhehasacquiredthere.Hehasonlytotakecarethattheydonotgetholdoftoomuchpowerandtoomuchauthority,andthenwithhisownforces,andwitht

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heirgoodwill,hecaneasilykeepdownthemorepowerfulofthem,soastoremainentirelymasterinthecountry.Andhewhodoesnotproperlymanagethisbusinesswillsoonlosewhathehasacquired,andwhilsthedoesholdithewillhaveendlessdifficultiesandtroubles.

TheRomans,inthecountrieswhichtheyannexed,observedcloselythesemeasures;theysentcoloniesandmaintainedfriendlyrelationswith(*)theminorpowers,withoutincreasingtheirstrength;theykeptdownthegreater,anddidnotallowanystrongforeignpowerstogainauthority.Greeceappearstomesufficientforanexample.TheAchaeansandAetolianswerekeptfriendlybythem,thekingdomofMacedoniawashumbled,Antiochuswasdrivenout;yetthemeritsoftheAchaeansandAetoliansneversecuredforthempermissiontoincreasetheirpower,nordidthepersuasionsofPhilipeverinducetheRomanstobehisfriendswithoutfirsthumblinghim,nordidtheinfluenceofAntiochusmakethemagreethatheshouldretainanylordshipoverthecountry.BecausetheRomansdidintheseinstanceswhatallprudentprincesoughttodo,whohavetoregardnotonlypresenttroubles,butalsofutureones,forwhichtheymustpreparewitheveryenergy,because,whenforeseen,itiseasytoremedythem;butifyouwaituntiltheyapproach,themedicineisnolongerintimebecausethemaladyhasbecomeincurable;forithappensinthis,asthephysicianssayithappensinhecticfever,thatinthebeginningofthemaladyitiseasytocurebutdifficulttodetect,butinthecourseoftime,nothavingbeeneitherdetectedortreatedinthebeginning,itbecomeseasytodetectbutdifficulttocure.Thisithappensinaffairsofstate,forwhentheevilsthatarisehavebeenforeseen(whichitisonlygi

ventoawisemantosee),theycanbequicklyredressed,butwhen,throughnothavingbeenforeseen,theyhavebeenpermittedtogrowinawaythateveryonecanseethem,thereisnolongeraremedy.Therefore,theRomans,foreseeingtroubles,dealtwiththematonce,and,eventoavoidawar,wouldnotletthemcometoahead,fortheyknewthatwarisnottobeavoided,butisonlytobeputofftotheadvantageofothers;moreovertheywishedtofightwithPhilipandAntiochusinGreecesoasnottohavetodoitinItaly;theycouldhaveavoidedboth,butthistheydidnotwish;nordidthateverpleasethemwhichisforeverinthemouthsofthewiseonesofourtime:--Letusenjoythebenefitsofthetime--butratherthebenefitsoftheirownvalourandprudence,fortimedriveseverythingbeforeit,andisabletobringwithitgoodaswellasevil,andevilaswellasgood.

(*)Seeremarkintheintroductionontheword"intrattenere."

ButletusturntoFranceandinquirewhethershehasdoneanyofthethingsmentioned.IwillspeakofLouis(*)(andnotofCharles)(+)astheonewhoseconductisthebettertobeobserved,hehavingheldpossessionofItalyforthelongestperiod;andyouwillseethathehasdonetheoppositetothosethingswhichoughttobedonetoretainastatecomposedofdiverselements.

(*)LouisXII,KingofFrance,"TheFatherofthePeople,"born1462,died1515.

(+)CharlesVIII,KingofFrance,born1470,died1498.

KingLouiswasbroughtintoItalybytheambitionoftheVenetians,whodesiredtoobtainhalfthestateofLombardybyhisintervention.Iwillnotblamethecoursetakenbytheking,because,wishingtogetafootholdinItaly,andhavingnofriendsthere--seeingratherthateverydoorwasshuttohimowingtotheconductofCharles--hewasforcedtoacceptthosefriendshipswhichhecouldget,andhewouldhavesucceededveryquicklyinhisdesignifinothermattershehadnotmadesomemistakes.Theking,however,havingacquiredLombardy,regainedatoncetheauthoritywhichCharleshadlost:Genoayielded;theFlorentinesbecamehisfriends;theMarquessofMantua,theDukeofFerrara,theBentivogli,myladyofForli,theLordsofFaenza,ofPesaro,ofRimini,ofCamerino,ofPiomb

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ino,theLucchese,thePisans,theSienese--everybodymadeadvancestohimtobecomehisfriend.ThencouldtheVenetiansrealizetherashnessofthecoursetakenbythem,which,inorderthattheymightsecuretwotownsinLombardy,hadmadethekingmasteroftwo-thirdsofItaly.

LetanyonenowconsiderwithwhatlittledifficultythekingcouldhavemaintainedhispositioninItalyhadheobservedtherulesabovelaiddown,andkeptallhisfriendssecureandprotected;foralthoughtheywerenumeroustheywerebothweakandtimid,someafraidoftheChurch,someoftheVenetians,andthustheywouldalwayshavebeenforcedtostandinwithhim,andbytheirmeanshecouldeasilyhavemadehimselfsecureagainstthosewhoremainedpowerful.ButhewasnosoonerinMilanthanhedidthecontrarybyassistingPopeAlexandertooccupytheRomagna.Itneveroccurredtohimthatbythisactionhewasweakeninghimself,deprivinghimselfoffriendsandofthosewhohadthrownthemselvesintohislap,whilstheaggrandizedtheChurchbyaddingmuchtemporalpowertothespiritual,thusgivingitgreaterauthority.Andhavingcommittedthisprimeerror,hewasobligedtofollowitup,somuchsothat,toputanendtotheambitionofAlexander,andtopreventhisbecomingthemasterofTuscany,hewashimselfforcedtocomeintoItaly.

AndasifitwerenotenoughtohaveaggrandizedtheChurch,anddeprivedhimselfoffriends,he,wishingtohavethekingdomofNaples,dividesitwiththeKingofSpain,andwherehewastheprimearbiterinItalyhetakesanassociate,sothattheambitiousofthatcountryandthemalcontentsofhisownshouldhave

somewheretoshelter;andwhereashecouldhaveleftinthekingdomhisownpensionerasking,hedrovehimout,toputonetherewhowasabletodrivehim,Louis,outinturn.

Thewishtoacquireisintruthverynaturalandcommon,andmenalwaysdosowhentheycan,andforthistheywillbepraisednotblamed;butwhentheycannotdoso,yetwishtodosobyanymeans,thenthereisfollyandblame.Therefore,ifFrancecouldhaveattackedNapleswithherownforcessheoughttohavedoneso;ifshecouldnot,thensheoughtnottohavedividedit.AndifthepartitionwhichshemadewiththeVenetiansinLombardywasjustifiedbytheexcusethatbyitshegotafootholdinItaly,thisotherpartitionmeritedblame,forithadnottheexcuseofthatnecessity.

ThereforeLouismadethesefiveerrors:hedestroyedtheminorpowers,heincreasedthestrengthofoneofthegreaterpowersinItaly,hebroughtinaforeignpower,hedidnotsettleinthecountry,hedidnotsendcolonies.Whicherrors,hadhelived,werenotenoughtoinjurehimhadhenotmadeasixthbytakingawaytheirdominionsfromtheVenetians;because,hadhenotaggrandizedtheChurch,norbroughtSpainintoItaly,itwouldhavebeenveryreasonableandnecessarytohumblethem;buthavingfirsttakenthesesteps,heoughtnevertohaveconsentedtotheirruin,forthey,beingpowerful,wouldalwayshavekeptoffothersfromdesignsonLombardy,towhichtheVenetianswouldneverhaveconsentedexcepttobecomemastersthemselvesthere;alsobecausetheotherswouldnotwishtotakeLombardyfromFranceinordertogiveittotheVenetians,andtoruncountertoboththeywouldnothavehadthecourage.

Andifanyoneshouldsay:"KingLouisyieldedtheRomagnatoAlexanderandthekingdomtoSpaintoavoidwar,"Ianswerforthereasonsgivenabovethatablunderoughtnevertobeperpetratedtoavoidwar,becauseitisnottobeavoided,butisonlydeferredtoyourdisadvantage.AndifanothershouldallegethepledgewhichthekinghadgiventothePopethathewouldassisthimintheenterprise,inexchangeforthedissolutionofhismarriage(*)andforthecaptoRouen,(+)tothatIreplywhatIshallwritelateronconcerningthefaithofprinces,andhowitoughttobekept.

(*)LouisXIIdivorcedhiswife,Jeanne,daughterofLouisXI,andmarr

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iedin1499AnneofBrittany,widowofCharlesVIII,inordertoretaintheDuchyofBrittanyforthecrown.

(+)TheArchbishopofRouen.HewasGeorgesd'Amboise,createdacardinalbyAlexanderVI.Born1460,died1510.

ThusKingLouislostLombardybynothavingfollowedanyoftheconditionsobservedbythosewhohavetakenpossessionofcountriesandwishedtoretainthem.Noristhereanymiracleinthis,butmuchthatisreasonableandquitenatural.AndonthesemattersIspokeatNanteswithRouen,whenValentino,asCesareBorgia,thesonofPopeAlexander,wasusuallycalled,occupiedtheRomagna,andonCardinalRouenobservingtomethattheItaliansdidnotunderstandwar,IrepliedtohimthattheFrenchdidnotunderstandstatecraft,meaningthatotherwisetheywouldnothaveallowedtheChurchtoreachsuchgreatness.AndinfactishasbeenseenthatthegreatnessoftheChurchandofSpaininItalyhasbeencausedbyFrance,andherruinmaybeattributedtothem.Fromthisageneralruleisdrawnwhichneverorrarelyfails:thathewhoisthecauseofanotherbecomingpowerfulisruined;becausethatpredominancyhasbeenbroughtabouteitherbyastutenessorelsebyforce,andbotharedistrustedbyhimwhohasbeenraisedtopower.

CHAPTERIV--WHYTHEKINGDOMOFDARIUS,CONQUEREDBYALEXANDER,DIDNOTREBELA

GAINSTTHESUCCESSORSOFALEXANDERATHISDEATH

Consideringthedifficultieswhichmenhavehadtoholdtoanewlyacquiredstate,somemightwonderhow,seeingthatAlexandertheGreatbecamethemasterofAsiainafewyears,anddiedwhilstitwasscarcelysettled(whenceitmightappearreasonablethatthewholeempirewouldhaverebelled),neverthelesshissuccessorsmaintainedthemselves,andhadtomeetnootherdifficultythanthatwhicharoseamongthemselvesfromtheirownambitions.

Ianswerthattheprincipalitiesofwhichonehasrecordarefoundtobegovernedintwodifferentways;eitherbyaprince,withabodyofservants,whoassisthimtogovernthekingdomasministersbyhisfavourandpermission;orbyaprinceandbarons,whoholdthatdignitybyantiquityofbloodandnotbythegrac

eoftheprince.Suchbaronshavestatesandtheirownsubjects,whorecognizethemaslordsandholdtheminnaturalaffection.Thosestatesthataregovernedbyaprinceandhisservantsholdtheirprinceinmoreconsideration,becauseinallthecountrythereisnoonewhoisrecognizedassuperiortohim,andiftheyyieldobediencetoanothertheydoitastoaministerandofficial,andtheydonotbearhimanyparticularaffection.

TheexamplesofthesetwogovernmentsinourtimearetheTurkandtheKingofFrance.TheentiremonarchyoftheTurkisgovernedbyonelord,theothersarehisservants;and,dividinghiskingdomintosanjaks,hesendstheredifferentadministrators,andshiftsandchangesthemashechooses.ButtheKingofFranceisplacedinthemidstofanancientbodyoflords,acknowledgedbytheirownsubjects,andbelovedbythem;theyhavetheirownprerogatives,norcantheking

taketheseawayexceptathisperil.Therefore,hewhoconsidersbothofthesestateswillrecognizegreatdifficultiesinseizingthestateoftheTurk,but,onceitisconquered,greateaseinholdingit.ThecausesofthedifficultiesinseizingthekingdomoftheTurkarethattheusurpercannotbecalledinbytheprincesofthekingdom,norcanhehopetobeassistedinhisdesignsbytherevoltofthosewhomthelordhasaroundhim.Thisarisesfromthereasonsgivenabove;forhisministers,beingallslavesandbondmen,canonlybecorruptedwithgreatdifficulty,andonecanexpectlittleadvantagefromthemwhentheyhavebeencorrupted,astheycannotcarrythepeoplewiththem,forthereasonsassigned.Hence,hewhoattackstheTurkmustbearinmindthathewillfindhimuni

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ted,andhewillhavetorelymoreonhisownstrengththanontherevoltofothers;but,ifoncetheTurkhasbeenconquered,androutedinthefieldinsuchawaythathecannotreplacehisarmies,thereisnothingtofearbutthefamilyofthisprince,and,thisbeingexterminated,thereremainsnoonetofear,theothershavingnocreditwiththepeople;andastheconquerordidnotrelyonthembeforehisvictory,soheoughtnottofearthemafterit.

ThecontraryhappensinkingdomsgovernedlikethatofFrance,becauseonecaneasilyentertherebygainingoversomebaronofthekingdom,foronealwaysfindsmalcontentsandsuchasdesireachange.Suchmen,forthereasonsgiven,canopenthewayintothestateandrenderthevictoryeasy;butifyouwishtoholditafterwards,youmeetwithinfinitedifficulties,bothfromthosewhohaveassistedyouandfromthoseyouhavecrushed.Norisitenoughforyoutohaveexterminatedthefamilyoftheprince,becausethelordsthatremainmakethemselvestheheadsoffreshmovementsagainstyou,andasyouareunableeithertosatisfyorexterminatethem,thatstateislostwhenevertimebringstheopportunity.

NowifyouwillconsiderwhatwasthenatureofthegovernmentofDarius,youwillfinditsimilartothekingdomoftheTurk,andthereforeitwasonlynecessaryforAlexander,firsttooverthrowhiminthefield,andthentotakethecountryfromhim.Afterwhichvictory,Dariusbeingkilled,thestateremainedsecuretoAlexander,fortheabovereasons.Andifhissuccessorshadbeenunitedtheywouldhaveenjoyeditsecurelyandattheirease,fortherewerenotumultsra

isedinthekingdomexceptthosetheyprovokedthemselves.

ButitisimpossibletoholdwithsuchtranquillitystatesconstitutedlikethatofFrance.HencearosethosefrequentrebellionsagainsttheRomansinSpain,France,andGreece,owingtothemanyprincipalitiestherewereinthesestates,ofwhich,aslongasthememoryofthemendured,theRomansalwaysheldaninsecurepossession;butwiththepowerandlongcontinuanceoftheempirethememoryofthempassedaway,andtheRomansthenbecamesecurepossessors.Andwhenfightingafterwardsamongstthemselves,eachonewasabletoattachtohimselfhisownpartsofthecountry,accordingtotheauthorityhehadassumedthere;andthefamilyoftheformerlordbeingexterminated,noneotherthantheRomanswereacknowledged.

WhenthesethingsarerememberednoonewillmarvelattheeasewithwhichAlexanderheldtheEmpireofAsia,oratthedifficultieswhichothershavehadtokeepanacquisition,suchasPyrrhusandmanymore;thisisnotoccasionedbythelittleorabundanceofabilityintheconqueror,butbythewantofuniformityinthesubjectstate.

CHAPTERV--CONCERNINGTHEWAYTOGOVERNCITIESORPRINCIPALITIESWHICHLIVEDUNDERTHEIROWNLAWSBEFORETHEYWEREANNEXED

Wheneverthosestateswhichhavebeenacquiredasstatedhavebeenaccustomedtoliveundertheirownlawsandinfreedom,therearethreecoursesforthosewho

wishtoholdthem:thefirstistoruinthem,thenextistoresidethereinperson,thethirdistopermitthemtoliveundertheirownlaws,drawingatribute,andestablishingwithinitanoligarchywhichwillkeepitfriendlytoyou.Becausesuchagovernment,beingcreatedbytheprince,knowsthatitcannotstandwithouthisfriendshipandinterest,anddoesitutmosttosupporthim;andthereforehewhowouldkeepacityaccustomedtofreedomwillholditmoreeasilybythemeansofitsowncitizensthaninanyotherway.

Thereare,forexample,theSpartansandtheRomans.TheSpartansheldAthensandThebes,establishingthereanoligarchy,neverthelesstheylostthem.TheRoma

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ns,inordertoholdCapua,Carthage,andNumantia,dismantledthem,anddidnotlosethem.TheywishedtoholdGreeceastheSpartansheldit,makingitfreeandpermittingitslaws,anddidnotsucceed.Sotoholdittheywerecompelledtodismantlemanycitiesinthecountry,forintruththereisnosafewaytoretainthemotherwisethanbyruiningthem.Andhewhobecomesmasterofacityaccustomedtofreedomanddoesnotdestroyit,mayexpecttobedestroyedbyit,forinrebellionithasalwaysthewatchwordoflibertyanditsancientprivilegesasarallyingpoint,whichneithertimenorbenefitswillevercauseittoforget.Andwhateveryoumaydoorprovideagainst,theyneverforgetthatnameortheirprivilegesunlesstheyaredisunitedordispersed,butateverychancetheyimmediatelyrallytothem,asPisaafterthehundredyearsshehadbeenheldinbondagebytheFlorentines.

Butwhencitiesorcountriesareaccustomedtoliveunderaprince,andhisfamilyisexterminated,they,beingontheonehandaccustomedtoobeyandontheotherhandnothavingtheoldprince,cannotagreeinmakingonefromamongstthemselves,andtheydonotknowhowtogovernthemselves.Forthisreasontheyareveryslowtotakeuparms,andaprincecangainthemtohimselfandsecurethemmuchmoreeasily.Butinrepublicsthereismorevitality,greaterhatred,andmoredesireforvengeance,whichwillneverpermitthemtoallowthememoryoftheirformerlibertytorest;sothatthesafestwayistodestroythemortoresidethere.

CHAPTERVI--CONCERNINGNEWPRINCIPALITIESWHICHAREACQUIREDBYONE'SOWNARMSANDABILITY

Letnoonebesurprisedif,inspeakingofentirelynewprincipalitiesasIshalldo,Iadducethehighestexamplesbothofprinceandofstate;becausemen,walkingalmostalwaysinpathsbeatenbyothers,andfollowingbyimitationtheirdeeds,areyetunabletokeepentirelytothewaysofothersorattaintothepowerofthosetheyimitate.Awisemanoughtalwaystofollowthepathsbeatenbygreatmen,andtoimitatethosewhohavebeensupreme,sothatifhisabilitydoesnotequaltheirs,atleastitwillsavourofit.Lethimactlikethecleverarcherswho,designingtohitthemarkwhichyetappearstoofardistant,andknowingthelimitstowhichthestrengthoftheirbowattains,takeaimmuchhigh

erthanthemark,nottoreachbytheirstrengthorarrowtosogreataheight,buttobeablewiththeaidofsohighanaimtohitthemarktheywishtoreach.

Isay,therefore,thatinentirelynewprincipalities,wherethereisanewprince,moreorlessdifficultyisfoundinkeepingthem,accordinglyasthereismoreorlessabilityinhimwhohasacquiredthestate.Now,asthefactofbecomingaprincefromaprivatestationpresupposeseitherabilityorfortune,itisclearthatoneorotherofthesethingswillmitigateinsomedegreemanydifficulties.Nevertheless,hewhohasreliedleastonfortuneisestablishedthestrongest.Further,itfacilitatesmatterswhentheprince,havingnootherstate,iscompelledtoresidethereinperson.

Buttocometothosewho,bytheirownabilityandnotthroughfortune,haverisentobeprinces,IsaythatMoses,Cyrus,Romulus,Theseus,andsuchlikearethemostexcellentexamples.AndalthoughonemaynotdiscussMoses,hehavingbeenamereexecutorofthewillofGod,yetheoughttobeadmired,ifonlyforthatfavourwhichmadehimworthytospeakwithGod.ButinconsideringCyrusandotherswhohaveacquiredorfoundedkingdoms,allwillbefoundadmirable;andiftheirparticulardeedsandconductshallbeconsidered,theywillnotbefoundinferiortothoseofMoses,althoughhehadsogreatapreceptor.Andinexaminingtheiractionsandlivesonecannotseethattheyowedanythingtofortunebeyondopportunity,whichbroughtthemthematerialtomouldintotheformwhich

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seemedbesttothem.Withoutthatopportunitytheirpowersofmindwouldhavebeenextinguished,andwithoutthosepowerstheopportunitywouldhavecomeinvain.

Itwasnecessary,therefore,toMosesthatheshouldfindthepeopleofIsraelinEgyptenslavedandoppressedbytheEgyptians,inorderthattheyshouldbedisposedtofollowhimsoastobedeliveredoutofbondage.ItwasnecessarythatRomulusshouldnotremaininAlba,andthatheshouldbeabandonedathisbirth,inorderthatheshouldbecomeKingofRomeandfounderofthefatherland.ItwasnecessarythatCyrusshouldfindthePersiansdiscontentedwiththegovernmentoftheMedes,andtheMedessoftandeffeminatethroughtheirlongpeace.TheseuscouldnothaveshownhisabilityhadhenotfoundtheAtheniansdispersed.Theseopportunities,therefore,madethosemenfortunate,andtheirhighabilityenabledthemtorecognizetheopportunitywherebytheircountrywasennobledandmadefamous.

Thosewhobyvalorouswaysbecomeprinces,likethesemen,acquireaprincipalitywithdifficulty,buttheykeepitwithease.Thedifficultiestheyhaveinacquiringitriseinpartfromthenewrulesandmethodswhichtheyareforcedtointroducetoestablishtheirgovernmentanditssecurity.Anditoughttoberememberedthatthereisnothingmoredifficulttotakeinhand,moreperiloustoconduct,ormoreuncertaininitssuccess,thentotaketheleadintheintroductionofaneworderofthings.Becausetheinnovatorhasforenemiesallthosewhohavedonewellundertheoldconditions,andlukewarmdefendersinthosewhoma

ydowellunderthenew.Thiscoolnessarisespartlyfromfearoftheopponents,whohavethelawsontheirside,andpartlyfromtheincredulityofmen,whodonotreadilybelieveinnewthingsuntiltheyhavehadalongexperienceofthem.Thusithappensthatwheneverthosewhoarehostilehavetheopportunitytoattacktheydoitlikepartisans,whilsttheothersdefendlukewarmly,insuchwisethattheprinceisendangeredalongwiththem.

Itisnecessary,therefore,ifwedesiretodiscussthismatterthoroughly,toinquirewhethertheseinnovatorscanrelyonthemselvesorhavetodependonothers:thatistosay,whether,toconsummatetheirenterprise,havetheytouseprayersorcantheyuseforce?Inthefirstinstancetheyalwayssucceedbadly,andnevercompassanything;butwhentheycanrelyonthemselvesanduseforce,thentheyarerarelyendangered.Henceitisthatallarmedprophetshaveconquere

d,andtheunarmedoneshavebeendestroyed.Besidesthereasonsmentioned,thenatureofthepeopleisvariable,andwhilstitiseasytopersuadethem,itisdifficulttofixtheminthatpersuasion.Andthusitisnecessarytotakesuchmeasuresthat,whentheybelievenolonger,itmaybepossibletomakethembelievebyforce.

IfMoses,Cyrus,Theseus,andRomulushadbeenunarmedtheycouldnothaveenforcedtheirconstitutionsforlong--ashappenedinourtimetoFraGirolamoSavonarola,whowasruinedwithhisneworderofthingsimmediatelythemultitudebelievedinhimnolonger,andhehadnomeansofkeepingsteadfastthosewhobelievedorofmakingtheunbelieverstobelieve.Thereforesuchasthesehavegreatdifficultiesinconsummatingtheirenterprise,foralltheirdangersareintheascent,yetwithabilitytheywillovercomethem;butwhentheseareovercome,an

dthosewhoenviedthemtheirsuccessareexterminated,theywillbegintoberespected,andtheywillcontinueafterwardspowerful,secure,honoured,andhappy.

TothesegreatexamplesIwishtoaddalesserone;stillitbearssomeresemblancetothem,andIwishittosufficemeforallofalikekind:itisHierotheSyracusan.(*)ThismanrosefromaprivatestationtobePrinceofSyracuse,nordidhe,either,oweanythingtofortunebutopportunity;fortheSyracusans,beingoppressed,chosehimfortheircaptain,afterwardshewasrewardedbybeingmadetheirprince.Hewasofsogreatability,evenasaprivatecitizen,that

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onewhowritesofhimsayshewantednothingbutakingdomtobeaking.Thismanabolishedtheoldsoldiery,organizedthenew,gaveupoldalliances,madenewones;andashehadhisownsoldiersandallies,onsuchfoundationshewasabletobuildanyedifice:thus,whilsthehadenduredmuchtroubleinacquiring,hehadbutlittleinkeeping.

(*)HieroII,bornabout307B.C.,died216B.C.

CHAPTERVII--CONCERNINGNEWPRINCIPALITIESWHICHAREACQUIREDEITHERBYTHEARMSOFOTHERSORBYGOODFORTUNE

Thosewhosolelybygoodfortunebecomeprincesfrombeingprivatecitizenshavelittletroubleinrising,butmuchinkeepingatop;theyhavenotanydifficultiesonthewayup,becausetheyfly,buttheyhavemanywhentheyreachthesummit.Sucharethosetowhomsomestateisgiveneitherformoneyorbythefavourofhimwhobestowsit;ashappenedtomanyinGreece,inthecitiesofIoniaandoftheHellespont,whereprincesweremadebyDarius,inorderthattheymightholdthecitiesbothforhissecurityandhisglory;asalsowerethoseemperorswho,bythecorruptionofthesoldiers,frombeingcitizenscametoempire.Suchstandsimplyelevateduponthegoodwillandthefortuneofhimwhohaselevatedthem--twomostinconstantandunstablethings.Neitherhavetheytheknowledgerequisitefortheposition;because,unlesstheyaremenofgreatworthandab

ility,itisnotreasonabletoexpectthattheyshouldknowhowtocommand,havingalwayslivedinaprivatecondition;besides,theycannotholditbecausetheyhavenotforceswhichtheycankeepfriendlyandfaithful.

Statesthatriseunexpectedly,then,likeallotherthingsinnaturewhicharebornandgrowrapidly,cannotleavetheirfoundationsandcorrespondencies(*)fixedinsuchawaythatthefirststormwillnotoverthrowthem;unless,asissaid,thosewhounexpectedlybecomeprincesaremenofsomuchabilitythattheyknowtheyhavetobepreparedatoncetoholdthatwhichfortunehasthrownintotheirlaps,andthatthosefoundations,whichothershavelaidBEFOREtheybecameprinces,theymustlayAFTERWARDS.

(*)"Leradiciecorrispondenze,"theirroots(i.e.foundations)andco

rrespondenciesorrelationswithotherstates--acommonmeaningof"correspondence"and"correspondency"inthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.

Concerningthesetwomethodsofrisingtobeaprincebyabilityorfortune,Iwishtoadducetwoexampleswithinourownrecollection,andtheseareFrancescoSforza(*)andCesareBorgia.Francesco,bypropermeansandwithgreatability,frombeingaprivatepersonrosetobeDukeofMilan,andthatwhichhehadacquiredwithathousandanxietieshekeptwithlittletrouble.Ontheotherhand,CesareBorgia,calledbythepeopleDukeValentino,acquiredhisstateduringtheascendancyofhisfather,andonitsdeclinehelostit,notwithstandingthathehadtakeneverymeasureanddoneallthatoughttobedonebyawiseandablemantofixfirmlyhisrootsinthestateswhichthearmsandfortunesofothershadbestowedonhim.(*)FrancescoSforza,born1401,died1466.Hemarrie

dBiancaMariaVisconti,anaturaldaughterofFilippoVisconti,theDukeofMilan,onwhosedeathheprocuredhisownelevationtotheduchy.MachiavelliwastheaccreditedagentoftheFlorentineRepublictoCesareBorgia(1478-1507)duringthetransactionswhichleduptotheassassinationsoftheOrsiniandVitelliatSinigalia,andalongwithhisletterstohischiefsinFlorencehehasleftanaccount,writtentenyearsbefore"ThePrince,"oftheproceedingsofthedukeinhis"DescritionedelmodotenutodalducaValentinonelloammazzareVitellozzoVitelli,"etc.,atranslationofwhichisappendedtothepresentwork.

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Because,asisstatedabove,hewhohasnotfirstlaidhisfoundationsmaybeablewithgreatabilitytolaythemafterwards,buttheywillbelaidwithtroubletothearchitectanddangertothebuilding.If,therefore,allthestepstakenbythedukebeconsidered,itwillbeseenthathelaidsolidfoundationsforhisfuturepower,andIdonotconsideritsuperfluoustodiscussthem,becauseIdonotknowwhatbetterpreceptstogiveanewprincethantheexampleofhisactions;andifhisdispositionswereofnoavail,thatwasnothisfault,buttheextraordinaryandextrememalignityoffortune.

AlexandertheSixth,inwishingtoaggrandizetheduke,hisson,hadmanyimmediateandprospectivedifficulties.Firstly,hedidnotseehiswaytomakehimmasterofanystatethatwasnotastateoftheChurch;andifhewaswillingtorobtheChurchheknewthattheDukeofMilanandtheVenetianswouldnotconsent,becauseFaenzaandRiminiwerealreadyundertheprotectionoftheVenetians.Besidesthis,hesawthearmsofItaly,especiallythosebywhichhemighthavebeenassisted,inhandsthatwouldfeartheaggrandizementofthePope,namely,theOrsiniandtheColonnesiandtheirfollowing.Itbehovedhim,therefore,toupsetthisstateofaffairsandembroilthepowers,soastomakehimselfsecurelymasterofpartoftheirstates.Thiswaseasyforhimtodo,becausehefoundtheVenetians,movedbyotherreasons,inclinedtobringbacktheFrenchintoItaly;hewouldnotonlynotopposethis,buthewouldrenderitmoreeasybydissolvingtheformermarriageofKingLouis.ThereforethekingcameintoItalywiththeassistanceoftheVenetiansandtheconsentofAlexander.HewasnosoonerinMilanthanthePopehadsoldiersfromhimfortheattemptontheRomagna,w

hichyieldedtohimonthereputationoftheking.Theduke,therefore,havingacquiredtheRomagnaandbeatentheColonnesi,whilewishingtoholdthatandtoadvancefurther,washinderedbytwothings:theone,hisforcesdidnotappearloyaltohim,theother,thegoodwillofFrance:thatistosay,hefearedthattheforcesoftheOrsini,whichhewasusing,wouldnotstandtohim,thatnotonlymighttheyhinderhimfromwinningmore,butmightthemselvesseizewhathehadwon,andthatthekingmightalsodothesame.OftheOrsinihehadawarningwhen,aftertakingFaenzaandattackingBologna,hesawthemgoveryunwillinglytothatattack.Andastotheking,helearnedhismindwhenhehimself,aftertakingtheDuchyofUrbino,attackedTuscany,andthekingmadehimdesistfromthatundertaking;hencethedukedecidedtodependnomoreuponthearmsandtheluckofothers.

ForthefirstthingheweakenedtheOrsiniandColonnesipartiesinRome,bygainingtohimselfalltheiradherentswhoweregentlemen,makingthemhisgentlemen,givingthemgoodpay,and,accordingtotheirrank,honouringthemwithofficeandcommandinsuchawaythatinafewmonthsallattachmenttothefactionswasdestroyedandturnedentirelytotheduke.AfterthisheawaitedanopportunitytocrushtheOrsini,havingscatteredtheadherentsoftheColonnahouse.Thiscametohimsoonandheuseditwell;fortheOrsini,perceivingatlengththattheaggrandizementofthedukeandtheChurchwasruintothem,calledameetingoftheMagioneinPerugia.FromthissprungtherebellionatUrbinoandthetumultsintheRomagna,withendlessdangerstotheduke,allofwhichheovercamewiththehelpoftheFrench.Havingrestoredhisauthority,nottoleaveitatriskbytrustingeithertotheFrenchorotheroutsideforces,hehadrecoursetohiswiles,andheknewsowellhowtoconcealhismindthat,bythemediatio

nofSignorPagolo--whomthedukedidnotfailtosecurewithallkindsofattention,givinghimmoney,apparel,andhorses--theOrsiniwerereconciled,sothattheirsimplicitybroughtthemintohispoweratSinigalia.(*)Havingexterminatedtheleaders,andturnedtheirpartisansintohisfriends,thedukelaidsufficientlygoodfoundationstohispower,havingalltheRomagnaandtheDuchyofUrbino;andthepeoplenowbeginningtoappreciatetheirprosperity,hegainedthemallovertohimself.Andasthispointisworthyofnotice,andtobeimitatedbyothers,Iamnotwillingtoleaveitout.

(*)Sinigalia,31stDecember1502.

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WhenthedukeoccupiedtheRomagnahefounditundertheruleofweakmasters,whoratherplunderedtheirsubjectsthanruledthem,andgavethemmorecausefordisunionthanforunion,sothatthecountrywasfullofrobbery,quarrels,andeverykindofviolence;andso,wishingtobringbackpeaceandobediencetoauthority,heconsidereditnecessarytogiveitagoodgovernor.ThereuponhepromotedMesserRamirod'Orco,(*)aswiftandcruelman,towhomhegavethefullestpower.Thismaninashorttimerestoredpeaceandunitywiththegreatestsuccess.Afterwardsthedukeconsideredthatitwasnotadvisabletoconfersuchexcessiveauthority,forhehadnodoubtbutthathewouldbecomeodious,sohesetupacourtofjudgmentinthecountry,underamostexcellentpresident,whereinallcitieshadtheiradvocates.Andbecauseheknewthatthepastseverityhadcausedsomehatredagainsthimself,so,toclearhimselfinthemindsofthepeople,andgainthementirelytohimself,hedesiredtoshowthat,ifanycrueltyhadbeenpractised,ithadnotoriginatedwithhim,butinthenaturalsternnessoftheminister.UnderthispretencehetookRamiro,andonemorningcausedhimtobeexecutedandleftonthepiazzaatCesenawiththeblockandabloodyknifeathisside.Thebarbarityofthisspectaclecausedthepeopletobeatoncesatisfiedanddismayed.

(*)Ramirod'Orco.RamirodeLorqua.

Butletusreturnwhencewestarted.Isaythattheduke,findinghimselfnowsufficientlypowerfulandpartlysecuredfromimmediatedangersbyhavingarmedhi

mselfinhisownway,andhavinginagreatmeasurecrushedthoseforcesinhisvicinitythatcouldinjurehimifhewishedtoproceedwithhisconquest,hadnexttoconsiderFrance,forheknewthattheking,whotoolatewasawareofhismistake,wouldnotsupporthim.AndfromthistimehebegantoseeknewalliancesandtotemporizewithFranceintheexpeditionwhichshewasmakingtowardsthekingdomofNaplesagainsttheSpaniardswhowerebesiegingGaeta.Itwashisintentiontosecurehimselfagainstthem,andthishewouldhavequicklyaccomplishedhadAlexanderlived.

Suchwashislineofactionastopresentaffairs.Butastothefuturehehadtofear,inthefirstplace,thatanewsuccessortotheChurchmightnotbefriendlytohimandmightseektotakefromhimthatwhichAlexanderhadgivenhim,sohedecidedtoactinfourways.Firstly,byexterminatingthefamiliesoftho

selordswhomhehaddespoiled,soastotakeawaythatpretextfromthePope.Secondly,bywinningtohimselfallthegentlemenofRome,soastobeabletocurbthePopewiththeiraid,ashasbeenobserved.Thirdly,byconvertingthecollegemoretohimself.Fourthly,byacquiringsomuchpowerbeforethePopeshoulddiethathecouldbyhisownmeasuresresistthefirstshock.Ofthesefourthings,atthedeathofAlexander,hehadaccomplishedthree.Forhehadkilledasmanyofthedispossessedlordsashecouldlayhandson,andfewhadescaped;hehadwonovertheRomangentlemen,andhehadthemostnumerouspartyinthecollege.Andastoanyfreshacquisition,heintendedtobecomemasterofTuscany,forhealreadypossessedPerugiaandPiombino,andPisawasunderhisprotection.AndashehadnolongertostudyFrance(fortheFrenchwerealreadydrivenoutofthekingdomofNaplesbytheSpaniards,andinthiswaybothwerecompelledtobuyhisgoodwill),hepounceddownuponPisa.Afterthis,LuccaandSienay

ieldedatonce,partlythroughhatredandpartlythroughfearoftheFlorentines;andtheFlorentineswouldhavehadnoremedyhadhecontinuedtoprosper,ashewasprosperingtheyearthatAlexanderdied,forhehadacquiredsomuchpowerandreputationthathewouldhavestoodbyhimself,andnolongerhavedependedontheluckandtheforcesofothers,butsolelyonhisownpowerandability.

ButAlexanderdiedfiveyearsafterhehadfirstdrawnthesword.HeleftthedukewiththestateofRomagnaaloneconsolidated,withtherestintheair,betweentwomostpowerfulhostilearmies,andsickuntodeath.Yettherewereinthedukesuchboldnessandability,andheknewsowellhowmenaretobewonorlos

8/2/2019 Prince Fxd


t,andsofirmwerethefoundationswhichinsoshortatimehehadlaid,thatifhehadnothadthosearmiesonhisback,orifhehadbeeningoodhealth,hewouldhaveovercomealldifficulties.Anditisseenthathisfoundationsweregood,fortheRomagnaawaitedhimformorethanamonth.InRome,althoughbuthalfalive,heremainedsecure;andwhilsttheBaglioni,theVitelli,andtheOrsinimightcometoRome,theycouldnoteffectanythingagainsthim.IfhecouldnothavemadePopehimwhomhewished,atleasttheonewhomhedidnotwishwouldnothavebeenelected.ButifhehadbeeninsoundhealthatthedeathofAlexander,(*)everythingwouldhavebeendifferenttohim.OnthedaythatJuliustheSecond(+)waselected,hetoldmethathehadthoughtofeverythingthatmightoccuratthedeathofhisfather,andhadprovidedaremedyforall,exceptthathehadneveranticipatedthat,whenthedeathdidhappen,hehimselfwouldbeonthepointtodie.

(*)AlexanderVIdiedoffever,18thAugust1503.

(+)JuliusIIwasGiulianodellaRovere,CardinalofSanPietroadVincula,born1443,died1513.

Whenalltheactionsofthedukearerecalled,Idonotknowhowtoblamehim,butratheritappearstobe,asIhavesaid,thatIoughttoofferhimforimitationtoallthosewho,bythefortuneorthearmsofothers,areraisedtogovernment.Becausehe,havingaloftyspiritandfar-reachingaims,couldnothaveregulatedhisconductotherwise,andonlytheshortnessofthelifeofAlexandera

ndhisownsicknessfrustratedhisdesigns.Therefore,hewhoconsidersitnecessarytosecurehimselfinhisnewprincipality,towinfriends,toovercomeeitherbyforceorfraud,tomakehimselfbelovedandfearedbythepeople,tobefollowedandreveredbythesoldiers,toexterminatethosewhohavepowerorreasontohurthim,tochangetheoldorderofthingsfornew,tobesevereandgracious,magnanimousandliberal,todestroyadisloyalsoldieryandtocreatenew,tomaintainfriendshipwithkingsandprincesinsuchawaythattheymusthelphimwithzealandoffendwithcaution,cannotfindamorelivelyexamplethantheactionsofthisman.

OnlycanhebeblamedfortheelectionofJuliustheSecond,inwhomhemadeabadchoice,because,asissaid,notbeingabletoelectaPopetohisownmind,hecouldhavehinderedanyotherfrombeingelectedPope;andheoughtneverto

haveconsentedtotheelectionofanycardinalwhomhehadinjuredorwhohadcausetofearhimiftheybecamepontiffs.Formeninjureeitherfromfearorhatred.Thosewhomhehadinjured,amongstothers,wereSanPietroadVincula,Colonna,SanGiorgio,andAscanio.(*)Therest,inbecomingPope,hadtofearhim,RouenandtheSpaniardsexcepted;thelatterfromtheirrelationshipandobligations,theformerfromhisinfluence,thekingdomofFrancehavingrelationswithhim.Therefore,aboveeverything,thedukeoughttohavecreatedaSpaniardPope,and,failinghim,heoughttohaveconsentedtoRouenandnotSanPietroadVincula.Hewhobelievesthatnewbenefitswillcausegreatpersonagestoforgetoldinjuriesisdeceived.Therefore,thedukeerredinhischoice,anditwasthecauseofhisultimateruin.

(*)SanGiorgioisRaffaelloRiario.AscanioisAscanioSforza.

CHAPTERVIII--CONCERNINGTHOSEWHOHAVEOBTAINEDAPRINCIPALITYBYWICKEDNESS

Althoughaprincemayrisefromaprivatestationintwoways,neitherofwhichcanbeentirelyattributedtofortuneorgenius,yetitismanifesttomethatImustnotbesilentonthem,althoughonecouldbemorecopiouslytreatedwhenIdiscussrepublics.Thesemethodsarewhen,eitherbysomewickedornefariousways,oneascendstotheprincipality,orwhenbythefavourofhisfellow-citize

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nsaprivatepersonbecomestheprinceofhiscountry.Andspeakingofthefirstmethod,itwillbeillustratedbytwoexamples--oneancient,theothermodern--andwithoutenteringfurtherintothesubject,Iconsiderthesetwoexampleswillsufficethosewhomaybecompelledtofollowthem.

Agathocles,theSicilian,(*)becameKingofSyracusenotonlyfromaprivatebutfromalowandabjectposition.Thisman,thesonofapotter,throughallthechangesinhisfortunesalwaysledaninfamouslife.Nevertheless,heaccompaniedhisinfamieswithsomuchabilityofmindandbodythat,havingdevotedhimselftothemilitaryprofession,herosethroughitsrankstobePraetorofSyracuse.Beingestablishedinthatposition,andhavingdeliberatelyresolvedtomakehimselfprinceandtoseizebyviolence,withoutobligationtoothers,thatwhichhadbeenconcededtohimbyassent,hecametoanunderstandingforthispurposewithAmilcar,theCarthaginian,who,withhisarmy,wasfightinginSicily.OnemorningheassembledthepeopleandthesenateofSyracuse,asifhehadtodiscusswiththemthingsrelatingtotheRepublic,andatagivensignalthesoldierskilledallthesenatorsandtherichestofthepeople;thesedead,heseizedandheldtheprincedomofthatcitywithoutanycivilcommotion.AndalthoughhewastwiceroutedbytheCarthaginians,andultimatelybesieged,yetnotonlywasheabletodefendhiscity,butleavingpartofhismenforitsdefence,withtheothersheattackedAfrica,andinashorttimeraisedthesiegeofSyracuse.TheCarthaginians,reducedtoextremenecessity,werecompelledtocometotermswithAgathocles,and,leavingSicilytohim,hadtobecontentwiththepossessionofAfrica.

(*)AgathoclestheSicilian,born361B.C.,died289B.C.

Therefore,hewhoconsiderstheactionsandthegeniusofthismanwillseenothing,orlittle,whichcanbeattributedtofortune,inasmuchasheattainedpre-eminence,asisshownabove,notbythefavourofanyone,butstepbystepinthemilitaryprofession,whichstepsweregainedwithathousandtroublesandperils,andwereafterwardsboldlyheldbyhimwithmanyhazardousdangers.Yetitcannotbecalledtalenttoslayfellow-citizens,todeceivefriends,tobewithoutfaith,withoutmercy,withoutreligion;suchmethodsmaygainempire,butnotglory.Still,ifthecourageofAgathoclesinenteringintoandextricatinghimselffromdangersbeconsidered,togetherwithhisgreatnessofmindinenduringandovercominghardships,itcannotbeseenwhyheshouldbeesteemedlessthan

themostnotablecaptain.Nevertheless,hisbarbarouscrueltyandinhumanitywithinfinitewickednessdonotpermithimtobecelebratedamongthemostexcellentmen.Whatheachievedcannotbeattributedeithertofortuneorgenius.

Inourtimes,duringtheruleofAlexandertheSixth,OliverottodaFermo,havingbeenleftanorphanmanyyearsbefore,wasbroughtupbyhismaternaluncle,GiovanniFogliani,andintheearlydaysofhisyouthsenttofightunderPagoloVitelli,that,beingtrainedunderhisdiscipline,hemightattainsomehighpositioninthemilitaryprofession.AfterPagolodied,hefoughtunderhisbrotherVitellozzo,andinaveryshorttime,beingendowedwithwitandavigorousbodyandmind,hebecamethefirstmaninhisprofession.Butitappearingapaltrythingtoserveunderothers,heresolved,withtheaidofsomecitizensofFermo,towhomtheslaveryoftheircountrywasdearerthanitsliberty,andwithth

ehelpoftheVitelleschi,toseizeFermo.SohewrotetoGiovanniFoglianithat,havingbeenawayfromhomeformanyyears,hewishedtovisithimandhiscity,andinsomemeasuretolookuponhispatrimony;andalthoughhehadnotlabouredtoacquireanythingexcepthonour,yet,inorderthatthecitizensshouldseehehadnotspenthistimeinvain,hedesiredtocomehonourably,sowouldbeaccompaniedbyonehundredhorsemen,hisfriendsandretainers;andheentreatedGiovannitoarrangethatheshouldbereceivedhonourablybytheFermians,allofwhichwouldbenotonlytohishonour,butalsotothatofGiovannihimself,whohadbroughthimup.

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Giovanni,therefore,didnotfailinanyattentionsduetohisnephew,andhecausedhimtobehonourablyreceivedbytheFermians,andhelodgedhiminhisownhouse,where,havingpassedsomedays,andhavingarrangedwhatwasnecessaryforhiswickeddesigns,OliverottogaveasolemnbanquettowhichheinvitedGiovanniFoglianiandthechiefsofFermo.Whentheviandsandalltheotherentertainmentsthatareusualinsuchbanquetswerefinished,Oliverottoartfullybegancertaingravediscourses,speakingofthegreatnessofPopeAlexanderandhissonCesare,andoftheirenterprises,towhichdiscourseGiovanniandothersanswered;butheroseatonce,sayingthatsuchmattersoughttobediscussedinamoreprivateplace,andhebetookhimselftoachamber,whitherGiovanniandtherestofthecitizenswentinafterhim.NosoonerweretheyseatedthansoldiersissuedfromsecretplacesandslaughteredGiovanniandtherest.AfterthesemurdersOliverotto,mountedonhorseback,rodeupanddownthetownandbesiegedthechiefmagistrateinthepalace,sothatinfearthepeoplewereforcedtoobeyhim,andtoformagovernment,ofwhichhemadehimselftheprince.Hekilledallthemalcontentswhowereabletoinjurehim,andstrengthenedhimselfwithnewcivilandmilitaryordinances,insuchawaythat,intheyearduringwhichheheldtheprincipality,notonlywashesecureinthecityofFermo,buthehadbecomeformidabletoallhisneighbours.AndhisdestructionwouldhavebeenasdifficultasthatofAgathoclesifhehadnotallowedhimselftobeoverreachedbyCesareBorgia,whotookhimwiththeOrsiniandVitelliatSinigalia,aswasstatedabove.Thusoneyearafterhehadcommittedthisparricide,hewasstrangled,togetherwithVitellozzo,whomhehadmadehisleaderinvalourandwickedness.

SomemaywonderhowitcanhappenthatAgathocles,andhislike,afterinfinitetreacheriesandcruelties,shouldliveforlongsecureinhiscountry,anddefendhimselffromexternalenemies,andneverbeconspiredagainstbyhisowncitizens;seeingthatmanyothers,bymeansofcruelty,haveneverbeenableeveninpeacefultimestoholdthestate,stilllessinthedoubtfultimesofwar.Ibelievethatthisfollowsfromseverities(*)beingbadlyorproperlyused.Thosemaybecalledproperlyused,ifofevilitispossibletospeakwell,thatareappliedatoneblowandarenecessarytoone'ssecurity,andthatarenotpersistedinafterwardsunlesstheycanbeturnedtotheadvantageofthesubjects.Thebadlyemployedarethosewhich,notwithstandingtheymaybefewinthecommencement,multiplywithtimeratherthandecrease.Thosewhopractisethefirstsystemareable,byaidofGodorman,tomitigateinsomedegreetheirrule,asAgath

oclesdid.Itisimpossibleforthosewhofollowtheothertomaintainthemselves.

(*)MrBurdsuggeststhatthiswordprobablycomesnearthemodernequivalentofMachiavelli'sthoughtwhenhespeaksof"crudelta"thanthemoreobvious"cruelties."

Henceitistoberemarkedthat,inseizingastate,theusurperoughttoexaminecloselyintoallthoseinjurieswhichitisnecessaryforhimtoinflict,andtodothemallatonestrokesoasnottohavetorepeatthemdaily;andthusbynotunsettlingmenhewillbeabletoreassurethem,andwinthemtohimselfbybenefits.Hewhodoesotherwise,eitherfromtimidityoreviladvice,isalwayscompelledtokeeptheknifeinhishand;neithercanherelyonhissubjects,n

orcantheyattachthemselvestohim,owingtotheircontinuedandrepeatedwrongs.Forinjuriesoughttobedoneallatonetime,sothat,beingtastedless,theyoffendless;benefitsoughttobegivenlittlebylittle,sothattheflavourofthemmaylastlonger.

Andaboveallthings,aprinceoughttoliveamongsthispeopleinsuchawaythatnounexpectedcircumstances,whetherofgoodorevil,shallmakehimchange;becauseifthenecessityforthiscomesintroubledtimes,youaretoolateforharshmeasures;andmildoneswillnothelpyou,fortheywillbeconsideredasforcedfromyou,andnoonewillbeunderanyobligationtoyouforthem.

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CHAPTERIX--CONCERNINGACIVILPRINCIPALITY

Butcomingtotheotherpoint--wherealeadingcitizenbecomestheprinceofhiscountry,notbywickednessoranyintolerableviolence,butbythefavourofhisfellowcitizens--thismaybecalledacivilprincipality:norisgeniusorfortunealtogethernecessarytoattaintoit,butratherahappyshrewdness.Isaythenthatsuchaprincipalityisobtainedeitherbythefavourofthepeopleorbythefavourofthenobles.Becauseinallcitiesthesetwodistinctpartiesarefound,andfromthisitarisesthatthepeopledonotwishtoberulednoroppressedbythenobles,andthenobleswishtoruleandoppressthepeople;andfromthesetwooppositedesirestherearisesincitiesoneofthreeresults,eitheraprincipality,self-government,oranarchy.

Aprincipalityiscreatedeitherbythepeopleorbythenobles,accordinglyasoneorotherofthemhastheopportunity;forthenobles,seeingtheycannotwithstandthepeople,begintocryupthereputationofoneofthemselves,andtheymakehimaprince,sothatunderhisshadowtheycangiveventtotheirambitions.Thepeople,findingtheycannotresistthenobles,alsocryupthereputationofoneofthemselves,andmakehimaprincesoastobedefendedbyhisauthority.Hewhoobtainssovereigntybytheassistanceofthenoblesmaintainshimselfwithmoredifficultythanhewhocomestoitbytheaidofthepeople,because

theformerfindshimselfwithmanyaroundhimwhoconsiderthemselveshisequals,andbecauseofthishecanneitherrulenormanagethemtohisliking.Buthewhoreachessovereigntybypopularfavourfindshimselfalone,andhasnonearoundhim,orfew,whoarenotpreparedtoobeyhim.

Besidesthis,onecannotbyfairdealing,andwithoutinjurytoothers,satisfythenobles,butyoucansatisfythepeople,fortheirobjectismorerighteousthanthatofthenobles,thelatterwishingtooppress,whiletheformeronlydesirenottobeoppressed.Itistobeaddedalsothataprincecanneversecurehimselfagainstahostilepeople,becauseoftheirbeingtoomany,whilstfromthenobleshecansecurehimself,astheyarefewinnumber.Theworstthataprincemayexpectfromahostilepeopleistobeabandonedbythem;butfromhostilenobleshehasnotonlytofearabandonment,butalsothattheywillriseagains

thim;forthey,beingintheseaffairsmorefar-seeingandastute,alwayscomeforwardintimetosavethemselves,andtoobtainfavoursfromhimwhomtheyexpecttoprevail.Further,theprinceiscompelledtolivealwayswiththesamepeople,buthecandowellwithoutthesamenobles,beingabletomakeandunmakethemdaily,andtogiveortakeawayauthoritywhenitpleaseshim.

Therefore,tomakethispointclearer,Isaythatthenoblesoughttobelookedatmainlyintwoways:thatistosay,theyeithershapetheircourseinsuchawayasbindsthementirelytoyourfortune,ortheydonot.Thosewhosobindthemselves,andarenotrapacious,oughttobehonouredandloved;thosewhodonotbindthemselvesmaybedealtwithintwoways;theymayfailtodothisthroughpusillanimityandanaturalwantofcourage,inwhichcaseyououghttomakeuseofthem,especiallyofthosewhoareofgoodcounsel;andthus,whilstinpro

sperityyouhonourthem,inadversityyoudonothavetofearthem.Butwhenfortheirownambitiousendstheyshunbindingthemselves,itisatokenthattheyaregivingmorethoughttothemselvesthantoyou,andaprinceoughttoguardagainstsuch,andtofearthemasiftheywereopenenemies,becauseinadversitytheyalwayshelptoruinhim.

Therefore,onewhobecomesaprincethroughthefavourofthepeopleoughttokeepthemfriendly,andthishecaneasilydoseeingtheyonlyasknottobeoppressedbyhim.Butonewho,inoppositiontothepeople,becomesaprincebythefavourofthenobles,ought,aboveeverything,toseektowinthepeopleoverto

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himself,andthishemayeasilydoifhetakesthemunderhisprotection.Becausemen,whentheyreceivegoodfromhimofwhomtheywereexpectingevil,areboundmorecloselytotheirbenefactor;thusthepeoplequicklybecomemoredevotedtohimthanifhehadbeenraisedtotheprincipalitybytheirfavours;andtheprincecanwintheiraffectionsinmanyways,butasthesevaryaccordingtothecircumstancesonecannotgivefixedrules,soIomitthem;but,Irepeat,itisnecessaryforaprincetohavethepeoplefriendly,otherwisehehasnosecurityinadversity.

Nabis,(*)PrinceoftheSpartans,sustainedtheattackofallGreece,andofavictoriousRomanarmy,andagainstthemhedefendedhiscountryandhisgovernment;andfortheovercomingofthisperilitwasonlynecessaryforhimtomakehimselfsecureagainstafew,butthiswouldnothavebeensufficienthadthepeoplebeenhostile.Anddonotletanyoneimpugnthisstatementwiththetriteproverbthat"Hewhobuildsonthepeople,buildsonthemud,"forthisistruewhenaprivatecitizenmakesafoundationthere,andpersuadeshimselfthatthepeoplewillfreehimwhenheisoppressedbyhisenemiesorbythemagistrates;whereinhewouldfindhimselfveryoftendeceived,ashappenedtotheGracchiinRomeandtoMesserGiorgioScali(+)inFlorence.Butgrantedaprincewhohasestablishedhimselfasabove,whocancommand,andisamanofcourage,undismayedinadversity,whodoesnotfailinotherqualifications,andwho,byhisresolutionandenergy,keepsthewholepeopleencouraged--suchaonewillneverfindhimselfdeceivedinthem,anditwillbeshownthathehaslaidhisfoundationswell.

(*)Nabis,tyrantofSparta,conqueredbytheRomansunderFlamininusin195B.C.;killed192B.C.

(+)MesserGiorgioScali.ThiseventistobefoundinMachiavelli's"FlorentineHistory,"BookIII.

Theseprincipalitiesareliabletodangerwhentheyarepassingfromtheciviltotheabsoluteorderofgovernment,forsuchprinceseitherrulepersonallyorthroughmagistrates.Inthelattercasetheirgovernmentisweakerandmoreinsecure,becauseitrestsentirelyonthegoodwillofthosecitizenswhoareraisedtothemagistracy,andwho,especiallyintroubledtimes,candestroythegovernmentwithgreatease,eitherbyintrigueoropendefiance;andtheprincehasno

tthechanceamidtumultstoexerciseabsoluteauthority,becausethecitizensandsubjects,accustomedtoreceiveordersfrommagistrates,arenotofamindtoobeyhimamidtheseconfusions,andtherewillalwaysbeindoubtfultimesascarcityofmenwhomhecantrust.Forsuchaprincecannotrelyuponwhatheobservesinquiettimes,whencitizenshaveneedofthestate,becausetheneveryoneagreeswithhim;theyallpromise,andwhendeathisfardistanttheyallwishtodieforhim;butintroubledtimes,whenthestatehasneedofitscitizens,thenhefindsbutfew.Andsomuchthemoreisthisexperimentdangerous,inasmuchasitcanonlybetriedonce.Thereforeawiseprinceoughttoadoptsuchacoursethathiscitizenswillalwaysineverysortandkindofcircumstancehaveneedofthestateandofhim,andthenhewillalwaysfindthemfaithful.

CHAPTERX--CONCERNINGTHEWAYINWHICHTHESTRENGTHOFALLPRINCIPALITIESOUGHTTOBEMEASURED

Itisnecessarytoconsideranotherpointinexaminingthecharacteroftheseprincipalities:thatis,whetheraprincehassuchpowerthat,incaseofneed,hecansupporthimselfwithhisownresources,orwhetherhehasalwaysneedoftheassistanceofothers.AndtomakethisquiteclearIsaythatIconsiderthosewhoareabletosupportthemselvesbytheirownresourceswhocan,eitherbyabundanceofmenormoney,raiseasufficientarmytojoinbattleagainstanyone

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whocomestoattackthem;andIconsiderthosealwaystohaveneedofotherswhocannotshowthemselvesagainsttheenemyinthefield,butareforcedtodefendthemselvesbyshelteringbehindwalls.Thefirstcasehasbeendiscussed,butwewillspeakofitagainshoulditrecur.Inthesecondcaseonecansaynothingexcepttoencouragesuchprincestoprovisionandfortifytheirtowns,andnotonanyaccounttodefendthecountry.Andwhoevershallfortifyhistownwell,andshallhavemanagedtheotherconcernsofhissubjectsinthewaystatedabove,andtobeoftenrepeated,willneverbeattackedwithoutgreatcaution,formenarealwaysadversetoenterpriseswheredifficultiescanbeseen,anditwillbeseennottobeaneasythingtoattackonewhohashistownwellfortified,andisnothatedbyhispeople.

ThecitiesofGermanyareabsolutelyfree,theyownbutlittlecountryaroundthem,andtheyyieldobediencetotheemperorwhenitsuitsthem,nordotheyfearthisoranyotherpowertheymayhavenearthem,becausetheyarefortifiedinsuchawaythateveryonethinksthetakingofthembyassaultwouldbetediousanddifficult,seeingtheyhaveproperditchesandwalls,theyhavesufficientartillery,andtheyalwayskeepinpublicdepotsenoughforoneyear'seating,drinking,andfiring.Andbeyondthis,tokeepthepeoplequietandwithoutlosstothestate,theyalwayshavethemeansofgivingworktothecommunityinthoselaboursthatarethelifeandstrengthofthecity,andonthepursuitofwhichthepeoplearesupported;theyalsoholdmilitaryexercisesinrepute,andmoreoverhavemanyordinancestoupholdthem.

Therefore,aprincewhohasastrongcity,andhadnotmadehimselfodious,willnotbeattacked,orifanyoneshouldattackhewillonlybedrivenoffwithdisgrace;again,becausethattheaffairsofthisworldaresochangeable,itisalmostimpossibletokeepanarmyawholeyearinthefieldwithoutbeinginterferedwith.Andwhoevershouldreply:Ifthepeoplehavepropertyoutsidethecity,andseeitburnt,theywillnotremainpatient,andthelongsiegeandself-interestwillmakethemforgettheirprince;tothisIanswerthatapowerfulandcourageousprincewillovercomeallsuchdifficultiesbygivingatonetimehopetohissubjectsthattheevilwillnotbeforlong,atanothertimefearofthecrueltyoftheenemy,thenpreservinghimselfadroitlyfromthosesubjectswhoseemtohimtobetoobold.

Further,theenemywouldnaturallyonhisarrivalatonceburnandruinthecoun

tryatthetimewhenthespiritsofthepeoplearestillhotandreadyforthedefence;and,therefore,somuchthelessoughttheprincetohesitate;becauseafteratime,whenspiritshavecooled,thedamageisalreadydone,theillsareincurred,andthereisnolongeranyremedy;andthereforetheyaresomuchthemorereadytounitewiththeirprince,heappearingtobeunderobligationstothemnowthattheirhouseshavebeenburntandtheirpossessionsruinedinhisdefence.Foritisthenatureofmentobeboundbythebenefitstheyconferasmuchasbythosetheyreceive.Therefore,ifeverythingiswellconsidered,itwillnotbedifficultforawiseprincetokeepthemindsofhiscitizenssteadfastfromfirsttolast,whenhedoesnotfailtosupportanddefendthem.

CHAPTERXI--CONCERNINGECCLESIASTICALPRINCIPALITIES

Itonlyremainsnowtospeakofecclesiasticalprincipalities,touchingwhichalldifficultiesarepriortogettingpossession,becausetheyareacquiredeitherbycapacityorgoodfortune,andtheycanbeheldwithouteither;fortheyaresustainedbytheancientordinancesofreligion,whicharesoall-powerful,andofsuchacharacterthattheprincipalitiesmaybeheldnomatterhowtheirprincesbehaveandlive.Theseprincesalonehavestatesanddonotdefendthem;andtheyhavesubjectsanddonotrulethem;andthestates,althoughunguarded,arenottakenfromthem,andthesubjects,althoughnotruled,donotcare,andth

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eyhaveneitherthedesirenortheabilitytoalienatethemselves.Suchprincipalitiesonlyaresecureandhappy.Butbeingupheldbypowers,towhichthehumanmindcannotreach,Ishallspeaknomoreofthem,because,beingexaltedandmaintainedbyGod,itwouldbetheactofapresumptuousandrashmantodiscussthem.

Nevertheless,ifanyoneshouldaskofmehowcomesitthattheChurchhasattainedsuchgreatnessintemporalpower,seeingthatfromAlexanderbackwardstheItalianpotentates(notonlythosewhohavebeencalledpotentates,buteverybaronandlord,thoughthesmallest)havevaluedthetemporalpowerveryslightly--yetnowakingofFrancetremblesbeforeit,andithasbeenabletodrivehimfromItaly,andtoruintheVenetians--althoughthismaybeverymanifest,itdoesnotappeartomesuperfluoustorecallitinsomemeasuretomemory.

BeforeCharles,KingofFrance,passedintoItaly,(*)thiscountrywasunderthedominionofthePope,theVenetians,theKingofNaples,theDukeofMilan,andtheFlorentines.Thesepotentateshadtwoprincipalanxieties:theone,thatnoforeignershouldenterItalyunderarms;theother,thatnoneofthemselvesshouldseizemoreterritory.ThoseaboutwhomtherewasthemostanxietywerethePopeandtheVenetians.TorestraintheVenetianstheunionofalltheotherswasnecessary,asitwasforthedefenceofFerrara;andtokeepdownthePopetheymadeuseofthebaronsofRome,who,beingdividedintotwofactions,OrsiniandColonnesi,hadalwaysapretextfordisorder,and,standingwitharmsintheirhandsundertheeyesofthePontiff,keptthepontificateweakandpowerless.A

ndalthoughtheremightarisesometimesacourageouspope,suchasSixtus,yetneitherfortunenorwisdomcouldridhimoftheseannoyances.Andtheshortlifeofapopeisalsoacauseofweakness;forinthetenyears,whichistheaveragelifeofapope,hecanwithdifficultyloweroneofthefactions;andif,sotospeak,onepeopleshouldalmostdestroytheColonnesi,anotherwouldarisehostiletotheOrsini,whowouldsupporttheiropponents,andyetwouldnothavetimetoruintheOrsini.ThiswasthereasonwhythetemporalpowersofthepopewerelittleesteemedinItaly.

(*)CharlesVIIIinvadedItalyin1494.

AlexandertheSixtharoseafterwards,whoofallthepontiffsthathaveeverbeenshowedhowapopewithbothmoneyandarmswasabletoprevail;andthroughth

einstrumentalityoftheDukeValentino,andbyreasonoftheentryoftheFrench,hebroughtaboutallthosethingswhichIhavediscussedaboveintheactionsoftheduke.AndalthoughhisintentionwasnottoaggrandizetheChurch,buttheduke,nevertheless,whathedidcontributedtothegreatnessoftheChurch,which,afterhisdeathandtheruinoftheduke,becametheheirtoallhislabours.

PopeJuliuscameafterwardsandfoundtheChurchstrong,possessingalltheRomagna,thebaronsofRomereducedtoimpotence,and,throughthechastisementsofAlexander,thefactionswipedout;healsofoundthewayopentoaccumulatemoneyinamannersuchashadneverbeenpractisedbeforeAlexander'stime.SuchthingsJuliusnotonlyfollowed,butimprovedupon,andheintendedtogainBologna,toruintheVenetians,andtodrivetheFrenchoutofItaly.Alloftheseente

rprisesprosperedwithhim,andsomuchthemoretohiscredit,inasmuchashedideverythingtostrengthentheChurchandnotanyprivateperson.HekeptalsotheOrsiniandColonnesifactionswithintheboundsinwhichhefoundthem;andalthoughtherewasamongthemsomemindtomakedisturbance,neverthelessheheldtwothingsfirm:theone,thegreatnessoftheChurch,withwhichheterrifiedthem;andtheother,notallowingthemtohavetheirowncardinals,whocausedthedisordersamongthem.Forwheneverthesefactionshavetheircardinalstheydonotremainquietforlong,becausecardinalsfosterthefactionsinRomeandoutofit,andthebaronsarecompelledtosupportthem,andthusfromtheambitionsofprelatesarisedisordersandtumultsamongthebarons.Forthesereasons

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hisHolinessPopeLeo(*)foundthepontificatemostpowerful,anditistobehopedthat,ifothersmadeitgreatinarms,hewillmakeitstillgreaterandmoreveneratedbyhisgoodnessandinfiniteothervirtues.

(*)PopeLeoXwastheCardinalde'Medici.

CHAPTERXII--HOWMANYKINDSOFSOLDIERYTHEREARE,ANDCONCERNINGMERCENARIES

HavingdiscoursedparticularlyonthecharacteristicsofsuchprincipalitiesasinthebeginningIproposedtodiscuss,andhavingconsideredinsomedegreethecausesoftheirbeinggoodorbad,andhavingshownthemethodsbywhichmanyhavesoughttoacquirethemandtoholdthem,itnowremainsformetodiscussgenerallythemeansofoffenceanddefencewhichbelongtoeachofthem.

Wehaveseenabovehownecessaryitisforaprincetohavehisfoundationswelllaid,otherwiseitfollowsofnecessityhewillgotoruin.Thechieffoundationsofallstates,newaswellasoldorcomposite,aregoodlawsandgoodarms;andastherecannotbegoodlawswherethestateisnotwellarmed,itfollowsthatwheretheyarewellarmedtheyhavegoodlaws.Ishallleavethelawsoutofthediscussionandshallspeakofthearms.

Isay,therefore,thatthearmswithwhichaprincedefendshisstateareeither

hisown,ortheyaremercenaries,auxiliaries,ormixed.Mercenariesandauxiliariesareuselessanddangerous;andifoneholdshisstatebasedonthesearms,hewillstandneitherfirmnorsafe;fortheyaredisunited,ambitious,andwithoutdiscipline,unfaithful,valiantbeforefriends,cowardlybeforeenemies;theyhaveneitherthefearofGodnorfidelitytomen,anddestructionisdeferredonlysolongastheattackis;forinpeaceoneisrobbedbythem,andinwarbytheenemy.Thefactis,theyhavenootherattractionorreasonforkeepingthefieldthanatrifleofstipend,whichisnotsufficienttomakethemwillingtodieforyou.Theyarereadyenoughtobeyoursoldierswhilstyoudonotmakewar,butifwarcomestheytakethemselvesofforrunfromthefoe;whichIshouldhavelittletroubletoprove,fortheruinofItalyhasbeencausedbynothingelsethanbyrestingallherhopesformanyyearsonmercenaries,andalthoughtheyformerlymadesomedisplayandappearedvaliantamongstthemselves,yetwh

entheforeignerscametheyshowedwhattheywere.ThusitwasthatCharles,KingofFrance,wasallowedtoseizeItalywithchalkinhand;(*)andhewhotoldusthatoursinswerethecauseofittoldthetruth,buttheywerenotthesinsheimagined,butthosewhichIhaverelated.Andastheywerethesinsofprinces,itistheprinceswhohavealsosufferedthepenalty.

(*)"Withchalkinhand,""colgesso."Thisisoneofthe_bonsmots_ofAlexanderVI,andreferstotheeasewithwhichCharlesVIIIseizedItaly,implyingthatitwasonlynecessaryforhimtosendhisquartermasterstochalkupthebilletsforhissoldierstoconquerthecountry.Cf."TheHistoryofHenryVII,"byLordBacon:"KingCharleshadconqueredtherealmofNaples,andlostitagain,inakindofafelicityofadream.HepassedthewholelengthofItalywithoutresistance:sothatitwastruewhat

PopeAlexanderwaswonttosay:ThattheFrenchmencameintoItalywithchalkintheirhands,tomarkuptheirlodgings,ratherthanwithswordstofight."

Iwishtodemonstratefurthertheinfelicityofthesearms.Themercenarycaptainsareeithercapablemenortheyarenot;iftheyare,youcannottrustthem,becausetheyalwaysaspiretotheirowngreatness,eitherbyoppressingyou,whoaretheirmaster,orotherscontrarytoyourintentions;butifthecaptainisnotskilful,youareruinedintheusualway.

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Andifitbeurgedthatwhoeverisarmedwillactinthesameway,whethermercenaryornot,Ireplythatwhenarmshavetoberesortedto,eitherbyaprinceorarepublic,thentheprinceoughttogoinpersonandperformthedutyofacaptain;therepublichastosenditscitizens,andwhenoneissentwhodoesnotturnoutsatisfactorily,itoughttorecallhim,andwhenoneisworthy,toholdhimbythelawssothathedoesnotleavethecommand.Andexperiencehasshownprincesandrepublics,single-handed,makingthegreatestprogress,andmercenariesdoingnothingexceptdamage;anditismoredifficulttobringarepublic,armedwithitsownarms,undertheswayofoneofitscitizensthanitistobringonearmedwithforeignarms.RomeandSpartastoodformanyagesarmedandfree.TheSwitzersarecompletelyarmedandquitefree.

Ofancientmercenaries,forexample,therearetheCarthaginians,whowereoppressedbytheirmercenarysoldiersafterthefirstwarwiththeRomans,althoughtheCarthaginianshadtheirowncitizensforcaptains.AfterthedeathofEpaminondas,PhilipofMacedonwasmadecaptainoftheirsoldiersbytheThebans,andaftervictoryhetookawaytheirliberty.

DukeFilippobeingdead,theMilaneseenlistedFrancescoSforzaagainsttheVenetians,andhe,havingovercometheenemyatCaravaggio,(*)alliedhimselfwiththemtocrushtheMilanese,hismasters.Hisfather,Sforza,havingbeenengagedbyQueenJohanna(+)ofNaples,leftherunprotected,sothatshewasforcedtothrowherselfintothearmsoftheKingofAragon,inordertosaveherkingdom.AndiftheVenetiansandFlorentinesformerlyextendedtheirdominionsbythese

arms,andyettheircaptainsdidnotmakethemselvesprinces,buthavedefendedthem,IreplythattheFlorentinesinthiscasehavebeenfavouredbychance,foroftheablecaptains,ofwhomtheymighthavestoodinfear,somehavenotconquered,somehavebeenopposed,andothershaveturnedtheirambitionselsewhere.OnewhodidnotconquerwasGiovanniAcuto,(%)andsincehedidnotconquerhisfidelitycannotbeproved;buteveryonewillacknowledgethat,hadheconquered,theFlorentineswouldhavestoodathisdiscretion.SforzahadtheBracceschialwaysagainsthim,sotheywatchedeachother.FrancescoturnedhisambitiontoLombardy;BraccioagainsttheChurchandthekingdomofNaples.Butletuscometothatwhichhappenedashortwhileago.TheFlorentinesappointedastheircaptainPagoloVitelli,amostprudentman,whofromaprivatepositionhadrisentothegreatestrenown.IfthismanhadtakenPisa,nobodycandenythatitwouldhavebeenproperfortheFlorentinestokeepinwithhim,forifhebecamet

hesoldieroftheirenemiestheyhadnomeansofresisting,andiftheyheldtohimtheymustobeyhim.TheVenetians,iftheirachievementsareconsidered,willbeseentohaveactedsafelyandgloriouslysolongastheysenttowartheirownmen,whenwitharmedgentlemenandplebianstheydidvaliantly.Thiswasbeforetheyturnedtoenterprisesonland,butwhentheybegantofightonlandtheyforsookthisvirtueandfollowedthecustomofItaly.Andinthebeginningoftheirexpansiononland,throughnothavingmuchterritory,andbecauseoftheirgreatreputation,theyhadnotmuchtofearfromtheircaptains;butwhentheyexpanded,asunderCarmignuola,(#)theyhadatasteofthismistake;for,havingfoundhimamostvaliantman(theybeattheDukeofMilanunderhisleadership),and,ontheotherhand,knowinghowlukewarmhewasinthewar,theyfearedtheywouldnolongerconquerunderhim,andforthisreasontheywerenotwilling,norweretheyable,tolethimgo;andso,nottoloseagainthatwhichtheyha

dacquired,theywerecompelled,inordertosecurethemselves,tomurderhim.TheyhadafterwardsfortheircaptainsBartolomeodaBergamo,RobertodaSanSeverino,thecountofPitigliano,(&)andthelike,underwhomtheyhadtodreadlossandnotgain,ashappenedafterwardsatVaila,($)whereinonebattletheylostthatwhichineighthundredyearstheyhadacquiredwithsomuchtrouble.Becausefromsucharmsconquestscomebutslowly,longdelayedandinconsiderable,butthelossessuddenandportentous.

(*)BattleofCaravaggio,15thSeptember1448.

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(+)JohannaIIofNaples,thewidowofLadislao,KingofNaples.

(%)GiovanniAcuto.AnEnglishknightwhosenamewasSirJohnHawkwood.HefoughtintheEnglishwarsinFrance,andwasknightedbyEdwardIII;afterwardshecollectedabodyoftroopsandwentintoItaly.Thesebecamethefamous"WhiteCompany."Hetookpartinmanywars,anddiedinFlorencein1394.Hewasbornabout1320atSibleHedingham,avillageinEssex.HemarriedDomnia,adaughterofBernaboVisconti.

(#)Carmignuola.FrancescoBussone,bornatCarmagnolaabout1390,executedatVenice,5thMay1432.

(&)BartolomeoColleoniofBergamo;died1457.RobertoofSanSeverino;diedfightingforVeniceagainstSigismund,DukeofAustria,in1487."PrimocapitanoinItalia."--Machiavelli.CountofPitigliano;NicoloOrsini,born1442,died1510.

($)BattleofVailain1509.

AndaswiththeseexamplesIhavereachedItaly,whichhasbeenruledformanyyearsbymercenaries,Iwishtodiscussthemmoreseriously,inorderthat,havingseentheirriseandprogress,onemaybebetterpreparedtocounteractthem.YoumustunderstandthattheempirehasrecentlycometoberepudiatedinItaly,thatthePopehasacquiredmoretemporalpower,andthatItalyhasbeendivided

upintomorestates,forthereasonthatmanyofthegreatcitiestookuparmsagainsttheirnobles,who,formerlyfavouredbytheemperor,wereoppressingthem,whilsttheChurchwasfavouringthemsoastogainauthorityintemporalpower:inmanyotherstheircitizensbecameprinces.FromthisitcametopassthatItalyfellpartlyintothehandsoftheChurchandofrepublics,and,theChurchconsistingofpriestsandtherepublicofcitizensunaccustomedtoarms,bothcommencedtoenlistforeigners.

ThefirstwhogaverenowntothissoldierywasAlberigodaConio,(*)theRomagnian.Fromtheschoolofthismansprang,amongothers,BraccioandSforza,whointheirtimewerethearbitersofItaly.AfterthesecamealltheothercaptainswhotillnowhavedirectedthearmsofItaly;andtheendofalltheirvalourhasbeen,thatshehasbeenoverrunbyCharles,robbedbyLouis,ravagedbyFerdin

and,andinsultedbytheSwitzers.Theprinciplethathasguidedthemhasbeen,first,tolowerthecreditofinfantrysothattheymightincreasetheirown.Theydidthisbecause,subsistingontheirpayandwithoutterritory,theywereunabletosupportmanysoldiers,andafewinfantrydidnotgivethemanyauthority;sotheywereledtoemploycavalry,withamoderateforceofwhichtheyweremaintainedandhonoured;andaffairswerebroughttosuchapassthat,inanarmyoftwentythousandsoldiers,therewerenottobefoundtwothousandfootsoldiers.Theyhad,besidesthis,usedeveryarttolessenfatigueanddangertothemselvesandtheirsoldiers,notkillinginthefray,buttakingprisonersandliberatingwithoutransom.Theydidnotattacktownsatnight,nordidthegarrisonsofthetownsattackencampmentsatnight;theydidnotsurroundthecampeitherwithstockadeorditch,nordidtheycampaigninthewinter.Allthesethingswerepermittedbytheirmilitaryrules,anddevisedbythemtoavoid,asIhave

said,bothfatigueanddangers;thustheyhavebroughtItalytoslaveryandcontempt.

(*)AlberigodaConio.AlbericodaBarbiano,CountofCunioinRomagna.Hewastheleaderofthefamous"CompanyofStGeorge,"composedentirelyofItaliansoldiers.Hediedin1409.

CHAPTERXIII--CONCERNINGAUXILIARIES,MIXEDSOLDIERY,ANDONE'SOWN

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Auxiliaries,whicharetheotheruselessarm,areemployedwhenaprinceiscalledinwithhisforcestoaidanddefend,aswasdonebyPopeJuliusinthemostrecenttimes;forhe,having,intheenterpriseagainstFerrara,hadpoorproofofhismercenaries,turnedtoauxiliaries,andstipulatedwithFerdinand,KingofSpain,(*)forhisassistancewithmenandarms.Thesearmsmaybeusefulandgoodinthemselves,butforhimwhocallsthemintheyarealwaysdisadvantageous;forlosing,oneisundone,andwinning,oneistheircaptive.

(*)FerdinandV(F.IIofAragonandSicily,F.IIIofNaples),surnamed"TheCatholic,"born1542,died1516.

Andalthoughancienthistoriesmaybefullofexamples,IdonotwishtoleavethisrecentoneofPopeJuliustheSecond,theperilofwhichcannotfailtobeperceived;forhe,wishingtogetFerrara,threwhimselfentirelyintothehandsoftheforeigner.Buthisgoodfortunebroughtaboutathirdevent,sothathedidnotreapthefruitofhisrashchoice;because,havinghisauxiliariesroutedatRavenna,andtheSwitzershavingrisenanddrivenouttheconquerors(againstallexpectation,bothhisandothers),itsocametopassthathedidnotbecomeprisonertohisenemies,theyhavingfled,nortohisauxiliaries,hehavingconqueredbyotherarmsthantheirs.

TheFlorentines,beingentirelywithoutarms,senttenthousandFrenchmentotakePisa,wherebytheyranmoredangerthanatanyothertimeoftheirtroubles.

TheEmperorofConstantinople,(*)toopposehisneighbours,senttenthousandTurksintoGreece,who,onthewarbeingfinished,werenotwillingtoquit;thiswasthebeginningoftheservitudeofGreecetotheinfidels.

(*)JoannesCantacuzenus,born1300,died1383.

Therefore,lethimwhohasnodesiretoconquermakeuseofthesearms,fortheyaremuchmorehazardousthanmercenaries,becausewiththemtheruinisreadymade;theyareallunited,allyieldobediencetoothers;butwithmercenaries,whentheyhaveconquered,moretimeandbetteropportunitiesareneededtoinjureyou;theyarenotallofonecommunity,theyarefoundandpaidbyyou,andathirdparty,whichyouhavemadetheirhead,isnotableallatoncetoassumeen

oughauthoritytoinjureyou.Inconclusion,inmercenariesdastardyismostdangerous;inauxiliaries,valour.Thewiseprince,therefore,hasalwaysavoidedthesearmsandturnedtohisown;andhasbeenwillingrathertolosewiththemthantoconquerwiththeothers,notdeemingthatarealvictorywhichisgainedwiththearmsofothers.

IshallneverhesitatetociteCesareBorgiaandhisactions.ThisdukeenteredtheRomagnawithauxiliaries,takingthereonlyFrenchsoldiers,andwiththemhecapturedImolaandForli;butafterwards,suchforcesnotappearingtohimreliable,heturnedtomercenaries,discerninglessdangerinthem,andenlistedtheOrsiniandVitelli;whompresently,onhandlingandfindingthemdoubtful,unfaithful,anddangerous,hedestroyedandturnedtohisownmen.Andthedifferencebetweenoneandtheotheroftheseforcescaneasilybeseenwhenoneconside

rsthedifferencetherewasinthereputationoftheduke,whenhehadtheFrench,whenhehadtheOrsiniandVitelli,andwhenhereliedonhisownsoldiers,onwhosefidelityhecouldalwayscountandfounditeverincreasing;hewasneveresteemedmorehighlythanwheneveryonesawthathewascompletemasterofhisownforces.

IwasnotintendingtogobeyondItalianandrecentexamples,butIamunwillingtoleaveoutHiero,theSyracusan,hebeingoneofthoseIhavenamedabove.Thisman,asIhavesaid,madeheadofthearmybytheSyracusans,soonfoundoutthatamercenarysoldiery,constitutedlikeourItaliancondottieri,wasofnou

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se;anditappearingtohimthathecouldneitherkeepthemnotletthemgo,hehadthemallcuttopieces,andafterwardsmadewarwithhisownforcesandnotwithaliens.

IwishalsotorecalltomemoryaninstancefromtheOldTestamentapplicabletothissubject.DavidofferedhimselftoSaultofightwithGoliath,thePhilistinechampion,and,togivehimcourage,Saularmedhimwithhisownweapons;whichDavidrejectedassoonashehadthemonhisback,sayinghecouldmakenouseofthem,andthathewishedtomeettheenemywithhisslingandhisknife.Inconclusion,thearmsofotherseitherfallfromyourback,ortheyweighyoudown,ortheybindyoufast.

CharlestheSeventh,(*)thefatherofKingLouistheEleventh,(+)havingbygoodfortuneandvalourliberatedFrancefromtheEnglish,recognizedthenecessityofbeingarmedwithforcesofhisown,andheestablishedinhiskingdomordinancesconcerningmen-at-armsandinfantry.Afterwardshisson,KingLouis,abolishedtheinfantryandbegantoenlisttheSwitzers,whichmistake,followedbyothers,is,asisnowseen,asourceofperiltothatkingdom;because,havingraisedthereputationoftheSwitzers,hehasentirelydiminishedthevalueofhisownarms,forhehasdestroyedtheinfantryaltogether;andhismen-at-armshehassubordinatedtoothers,for,beingastheyaresoaccustomedtofightalongwithSwitzers,itdoesnotappearthattheycannowconquerwithoutthem.HenceitarisesthattheFrenchcannotstandagainsttheSwitzers,andwithouttheSwitzerstheydonotcomeoffwellagainstothers.ThearmiesoftheFrenchhavethus

becomemixed,partlymercenaryandpartlynational,bothofwhicharmstogetheraremuchbetterthanmercenariesaloneorauxiliariesalone,butmuchinferiortoone'sownforces.Andthisexampleprovesit,forthekingdomofFrancewouldbeunconquerableiftheordinanceofCharleshadbeenenlargedormaintained.

(*)CharlesVIIofFrance,surnamed"TheVictorious,"born1403,died1461.

(+)LouisXI,sonoftheabove,born1423,died1483.

Butthescantywisdomofman,onenteringintoanaffairwhichlookswellatfirst,cannotdiscernthepoisonthatishiddeninit,asIhavesaidaboveofhecticfevers.Therefore,ifhewhorulesaprincipalitycannotrecognizeevilsunti

ltheyareuponhim,heisnottrulywise;andthisinsightisgiventofew.AndifthefirstdisastertotheRomanEmpire(*)shouldbeexamined,itwillbefoundtohavecommencedonlywiththeenlistingoftheGoths;becausefromthattimethevigouroftheRomanEmpirebegantodecline,andallthatvalourwhichhadraiseditpassedawaytoothers.

(*)"ManyspeakerstotheHousetheothernightinthedebateonthereductionofarmamentsseemedtoshowamostlamentableignoranceoftheconditionsunderwhichtheBritishEmpiremaintainsitsexistence.WhenMrBalfourrepliedtotheallegationsthattheRomanEmpiresankundertheweightofitsmilitaryobligations,hesaidthatthiswas'whollyunhistorical.'HemightwellhaveaddedthattheRomanpowerwasatitszenithwheneverycitizenacknowledgedhisliabilitytofightfortheState,butthat

itbegantodeclineassoonasthisobligationwasnolongerrecognized."--PallMallGazette,15thMay1906.

Iconclude,therefore,thatnoprincipalityissecurewithouthavingitsownforces;onthecontrary,itisentirelydependentongoodfortune,nothavingthevalourwhichinadversitywoulddefendit.Andithasalwaysbeentheopinionandjudgmentofwisementhatnothingcanbesouncertainorunstableasfameorpowernotfoundedonitsownstrength.Andone'sownforcesarethosewhicharecomposedeitherofsubjects,citizens,ordependents;allothersaremercenariesorauxiliaries.Andthewaytomakereadyone'sownforceswillbeeasilyfoundi

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ftherulessuggestedbymeshallbereflectedupon,andifonewillconsiderhowPhilip,thefatherofAlexandertheGreat,andmanyrepublicsandprinceshavearmedandorganizedthemselves,towhichrulesIentirelycommitmyself.

CHAPTERXIV--THATWHICHCONCERNSAPRINCEONTHESUBJECTOFTHEARTOFWAR

Aprinceoughttohavenootheraimorthought,norselectanythingelseforhisstudy,thanwaranditsrulesanddiscipline;forthisisthesoleartthatbelongstohimwhorules,anditisofsuchforcethatitnotonlyupholdsthosewhoarebornprinces,butitoftenenablesmentorisefromaprivatestationtothatrank.And,onthecontrary,itisseenthatwhenprinceshavethoughtmoreofeasethanofarmstheyhavelosttheirstates.Andthefirstcauseofyourlosingitistoneglectthisart;andwhatenablesyoutoacquireastateistobemasteroftheart.FrancescoSforza,throughbeingmartial,fromaprivatepersonbecameDukeofMilan;andthesons,throughavoidingthehardshipsandtroublesofarms,fromdukesbecameprivatepersons.Foramongotherevilswhichbeingunarmedbringsyou,itcausesyoutobedespised,andthisisoneofthoseignominiesagainstwhichaprinceoughttoguardhimself,asisshownlateron.Becausethereisnothingproportionatebetweenthearmedandtheunarmed;anditisnotreasonablethathewhoisarmedshouldyieldobediencewillinglytohimwhoisunarmed,orthattheunarmedmanshouldbesecureamongarmedservants.Because,therebeingintheonedisdainandintheothersuspicion,itisnotpossible

forthemtoworkwelltogether.Andthereforeaprincewhodoesnotunderstandtheartofwar,overandabovetheothermisfortunesalreadymentioned,cannotberespectedbyhissoldiers,norcanherelyonthem.Heoughtnever,therefore,tohaveoutofhisthoughtsthissubjectofwar,andinpeaceheshouldaddicthimselfmoretoitsexercisethaninwar;thishecandointwoways,theonebyaction,theotherbystudy.

Asregardsaction,heoughtaboveallthingstokeephismenwellorganizedanddrilled,tofollowincessantlythechase,bywhichheaccustomshisbodytohardships,andlearnssomethingofthenatureoflocalities,andgetstofindouthowthemountainsrise,howthevalleysopenout,howtheplainslie,andtounderstandthenatureofriversandmarshes,andinallthistotakethegreatestcare.Whichknowledgeisusefulintwoways.Firstly,helearnstoknowhiscountry

,andisbetterabletoundertakeitsdefence;afterwards,bymeansoftheknowledgeandobservationofthatlocality,heunderstandswitheaseanyotherwhichitmaybenecessaryforhimtostudyhereafter;becausethehills,valleys,andplains,andriversandmarshesthatare,forinstance,inTuscany,haveacertainresemblancetothoseofothercountries,sothatwithaknowledgeoftheaspectofonecountryonecaneasilyarriveataknowledgeofothers.Andtheprincethatlacksthisskilllackstheessentialwhichitisdesirablethatacaptainshouldpossess,foritteacheshimtosurprisehisenemy,toselectquarters,toleadarmies,toarraythebattle,tobesiegetownstoadvantage.

Philopoemen,(*)PrinceoftheAchaeans,amongotherpraiseswhichwritershavebestowedonhim,iscommendedbecauseintimeofpeaceheneverhadanythinginhismindbuttherulesofwar;andwhenhewasinthecountrywithfriends,heof

tenstoppedandreasonedwiththem:"Iftheenemyshouldbeuponthathill,andweshouldfindourselvesherewithourarmy,withwhomwouldbetheadvantage?Howshouldonebestadvancetomeethim,keepingtheranks?Ifweshouldwishtoretreat,howoughtwetopursue?"Andhewouldsetforthtothem,ashewent,allthechancesthatcouldbefallanarmy;hewouldlistentotheiropinionandstatehis,confirmingitwithreasons,sothatbythesecontinualdiscussionstherecouldneverarise,intimeofwar,anyunexpectedcircumstancesthathecouldnotdealwith.

(*)Philopoemen,"thelastoftheGreeks,"born252B.C.,died183B.C.

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Buttoexercisetheintellecttheprinceshouldreadhistories,andstudytheretheactionsofillustriousmen,toseehowtheyhavebornethemselvesinwar,toexaminethecausesoftheirvictoriesanddefeat,soastoavoidthelatterandimitatetheformer;andabovealldoasanillustriousmandid,whotookasanexemplaronewhohadbeenpraisedandfamousbeforehim,andwhoseachievementsanddeedshealwayskeptinhismind,asitissaidAlexandertheGreatimitatedAchilles,CaesarAlexander,ScipioCyrus.AndwhoeverreadsthelifeofCyrus,writtenbyXenophon,willrecognizeafterwardsinthelifeofScipiohowthatimitationwashisglory,andhowinchastity,affability,humanity,andliberalityScipioconformedtothosethingswhichhavebeenwrittenofCyrusbyXenophon.Awiseprinceoughttoobservesomesuchrules,andneverinpeacefultimesstandidle,butincreasehisresourceswithindustryinsuchawaythattheymaybeavailabletohiminadversity,sothatiffortunechancesitmayfindhimpreparedtoresistherblows.

CHAPTERXV--CONCERNINGTHINGSFORWHICHMEN,ANDESPECIALLYPRINCES,AREPRAISEDORBLAMED

Itremainsnowtoseewhatoughttobetherulesofconductforaprincetowardssubjectandfriends.AndasIknowthatmanyhavewrittenonthispoint,IexpectIshallbeconsideredpresumptuousinmentioningitagain,especiallyasind

iscussingitIshalldepartfromthemethodsofotherpeople.But,itbeingmyintentiontowriteathingwhichshallbeusefultohimwhoapprehendsit,itappearstomemoreappropriatetofollowuptherealtruthofthematterthantheimaginationofit;formanyhavepicturedrepublicsandprincipalitieswhichinfacthaveneverbeenknownorseen,becausehowonelivesissofardistantfromhowoneoughttolive,thathewhoneglectswhatisdoneforwhatoughttobedone,soonereffectshisruinthanhispreservation;foramanwhowishestoactentirelyuptohisprofessionsofvirtuesoonmeetswithwhatdestroyshimamongsomuchthatisevil.

Henceitisnecessaryforaprincewishingtoholdhisowntoknowhowtodowrong,andtomakeuseofitornotaccordingtonecessity.Therefore,puttingononesideimaginarythingsconcerningaprince,anddiscussingthosewhicharerea

l,Isaythatallmenwhentheyarespokenof,andchieflyprincesforbeingmorehighlyplaced,areremarkableforsomeofthosequalitieswhichbringthemeitherblameorpraise;andthusitisthatoneisreputedliberal,anothermiserly,usingaTuscanterm(becauseanavariciouspersoninourlanguageisstillhewhodesirestopossessbyrobbery,whilstwecallonemiserlywhodepriveshimselftoomuchoftheuseofhisown);oneisreputedgenerous,onerapacious;onecruel,onecompassionate;onefaithless,anotherfaithful;oneeffeminateandcowardly,anotherboldandbrave;oneaffable,anotherhaughty;onelascivious,anotherchaste;onesincere,anothercunning;onehard,anothereasy;onegrave,anotherfrivolous;onereligious,anotherunbelieving,andthelike.AndIknowthateveryonewillconfessthatitwouldbemostpraiseworthyinaprincetoexhibitalltheabovequalitiesthatareconsideredgood;butbecausetheycanneitherbeentirelypossessednorobserved,forhumanconditionsdonotpermitit,i

tisnecessaryforhimtobesufficientlyprudentthathemayknowhowtoavoidthereproachofthoseviceswhichwouldlosehimhisstate;andalsotokeephimself,ifitbepossible,fromthosewhichwouldnotlosehimit;butthisnotbeingpossible,hemaywithlesshesitationabandonhimselftothem.Andagain,heneednotmakehimselfuneasyatincurringareproachforthoseviceswithoutwhichthestatecanonlybesavedwithdifficulty,forifeverythingisconsideredcarefully,itwillbefoundthatsomethingwhichlookslikevirtue,iffollowed,wouldbehisruin;whilstsomethingelse,whichlookslikevice,yetfollowedbringshimsecurityandprosperity.

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CHAPTERXVI--CONCERNINGLIBERALITYANDMEANNESS

Commencingthenwiththefirstoftheabove-namedcharacteristics,Isaythatitwouldbewelltobereputedliberal.Nevertheless,liberalityexercisedinawaythatdoesnotbringyouthereputationforit,injuresyou;forifoneexercisesithonestlyandasitshouldbeexercised,itmaynotbecomeknown,andyouwillnotavoidthereproachofitsopposite.Therefore,anyonewishingtomaintainamongmenthenameofliberalisobligedtoavoidnoattributeofmagnificence;sothataprincethusinclinedwillconsumeinsuchactsallhisproperty,andwillbecompelledintheend,ifhewishtomaintainthenameofliberal,toundulyweighdownhispeople,andtaxthem,anddoeverythinghecantogetmoney.Thiswillsoonmakehimodioustohissubjects,andbecomingpoorhewillbelittlevaluedbyanyone;thus,withhisliberality,havingoffendedmanyandrewardedfew,heisaffectedbytheveryfirsttroubleandimperilledbywhatevermaybethefirstdanger;recognizingthishimself,andwishingtodrawbackfromit,herunsatonceintothereproachofbeingmiserly.

Therefore,aprince,notbeingabletoexercisethisvirtueofliberalityinsuchawaythatitisrecognized,excepttohiscost,ifheiswiseheoughtnottofearthereputationofbeingmean,forintimehewillcometobemoreconsideredthanifliberal,seeingthatwithhiseconomyhisrevenuesareenough,thathecandefendhimselfagainstallattacks,andisabletoengageinenterprisesw

ithoutburdeninghispeople;thusitcomestopassthatheexercisesliberalitytowardsallfromwhomhedoesnottake,whoarenumberless,andmeannesstowardsthosetowhomhedoesnotgive,whoarefew.

Wehavenotseengreatthingsdoneinourtimeexceptbythosewhohavebeenconsideredmean;theresthavefailed.PopeJuliustheSecondwasassistedinreachingthepapacybyareputationforliberality,yethedidnotstriveafterwardstokeepitup,whenhemadewarontheKingofFrance;andhemademanywarswithoutimposinganyextraordinarytaxonhissubjects,forhesuppliedhisadditionalexpensesoutofhislongthriftiness.ThepresentKingofSpainwouldnothaveundertakenorconqueredinsomanyenterprisesifhehadbeenreputedliberal.Aprince,therefore,providedthathehasnottorobhissubjects,thathecandefendhimself,thathedoesnotbecomepoorandabject,thatheisnotforced

tobecomerapacious,oughttoholdoflittleaccountareputationforbeingmean,foritisoneofthoseviceswhichwillenablehimtogovern.

Andifanyoneshouldsay:Caesarobtainedempirebyliberality,andmanyothershavereachedthehighestpositionsbyhavingbeenliberal,andbybeingconsideredso,Ianswer:Eitheryouareaprinceinfact,orinawaytobecomeone.Inthefirstcasethisliberalityisdangerous,intheseconditisverynecessarytobeconsideredliberal;andCaesarwasoneofthosewhowishedtobecomepre-eminentinRome;butifhehadsurvivedafterbecomingso,andhadnotmoderatedhisexpenses,hewouldhavedestroyedhisgovernment.Andifanyoneshouldreply:Manyhavebeenprinces,andhavedonegreatthingswitharmies,whohavebeenconsideredveryliberal,Ireply:Eitheraprincespendsthatwhichishisownorhissubjects'orelsethatofothers.Inthefirstcaseheoughttobespari

ng,inthesecondheoughtnottoneglectanyopportunityforliberality.Andtotheprincewhogoesforthwithhisarmy,supportingitbypillage,sack,andextortion,handlingthatwhichbelongstoothers,thisliberalityisnecessary,otherwisehewouldnotbefollowedbysoldiers.Andofthatwhichisneitheryoursnoryoursubjects'youcanbeareadygiver,aswereCyrus,Caesar,andAlexander;becauseitdoesnottakeawayyourreputationifyousquanderthatofothers,butaddstoit;itisonlysquanderingyourownthatinjuresyou.

Andthereisnothingwastessorapidlyasliberality,forevenwhilstyouexerciseityoulosethepowertodoso,andsobecomeeitherpoorordespised,orels

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e,inavoidingpoverty,rapaciousandhated.Andaprinceshouldguardhimself,aboveallthings,againstbeingdespisedandhated;andliberalityleadsyoutoboth.Thereforeitiswisertohaveareputationformeannesswhichbringsreproachwithouthatred,thantobecompelledthroughseekingareputationforliberalitytoincuranameforrapacitywhichbegetsreproachwithhatred.

CHAPTERXVII--CONCERNINGCRUELTYANDCLEMENCY,ANDWHETHERITISBETTERTOBELOVEDTHANFEARED

Comingnowtotheotherqualitiesmentionedabove,Isaythateveryprinceoughttodesiretobeconsideredclementandnotcruel.Neverthelessheoughttotakecarenottomisusethisclemency.CesareBorgiawasconsideredcruel;notwithstanding,hiscrueltyreconciledtheRomagna,unifiedit,andrestoredittopeaceandloyalty.Andifthisberightlyconsidered,hewillbeseentohavebeenmuchmoremercifulthantheFlorentinepeople,who,toavoidareputationforcruelty,permittedPistoiatobedestroyed.(*)Thereforeaprince,solongashekeepshissubjectsunitedandloyal,oughtnottomindthereproachofcruelty;becausewithafewexampleshewillbemoremercifulthanthosewho,throughtoomuchmercy,allowdisorderstoarise,fromwhichfollowmurdersorrobberies;forthesearewonttoinjurethewholepeople,whilstthoseexecutionswhichoriginatewithaprinceoffendtheindividualonly.

(*)DuringtheriotingbetweentheCancellieriandPanciatichifactionsin1502and1503.

Andofallprinces,itisimpossibleforthenewprincetoavoidtheimputationofcruelty,owingtonewstatesbeingfullofdangers.HenceVirgil,throughthemouthofDido,excusestheinhumanityofherreignowingtoitsbeingnew,saying:

"Resdura,etregninovitasmetaliacoguntMoliri,etlatefinescustodetueri."(*)

Neverthelessheoughttobeslowtobelieveandtoact,norshouldhehimselfshowfear,butproceedinatemperatemannerwithprudenceandhumanity,sothatt

oomuchconfidencemaynotmakehimincautiousandtoomuchdistrustrenderhimintolerable.

(*)...againstmywill,myfateAthroneunsettled,andaninfantstate,Bidmedefendmyrealmswithallmypow'rs,Andguardwiththeseseveritiesmyshores.

ChristopherPitt.

Uponthisaquestionarises:whetheritbebettertobelovedthanfearedorfearedthanloved?Itmaybeansweredthatoneshouldwishtobeboth,but,becauseitisdifficulttounitetheminoneperson,itismuchsafertobefearedthanloved,when,ofthetwo,eithermustbedispensedwith.Becausethisistobea

ssertedingeneralofmen,thattheyareungrateful,fickle,false,cowardly,covetous,andaslongasyousucceedtheyareyoursentirely;theywillofferyoutheirblood,property,life,andchildren,asissaidabove,whentheneedisfardistant;butwhenitapproachestheyturnagainstyou.Andthatprincewho,relyingentirelyontheirpromises,hasneglectedotherprecautions,isruined;becausefriendshipsthatareobtainedbypayments,andnotbygreatnessornobilityofmind,mayindeedbeearned,buttheyarenotsecured,andintimeofneedcannotbereliedupon;andmenhavelessscrupleinoffendingonewhoisbelovedthanonewhoisfeared,forloveispreservedbythelinkofobligationwhich,owingtothebasenessofmen,isbrokenateveryopportunityfortheiradvantage;

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butfearpreservesyoubyadreadofpunishmentwhichneverfails.

Neverthelessaprinceoughttoinspirefearinsuchawaythat,ifhedoesnotwinlove,heavoidshatred;becausehecanendureverywellbeingfearedwhilstheisnothated,whichwillalwaysbeaslongasheabstainsfromthepropertyofhiscitizensandsubjectsandfromtheirwomen.Butwhenitisnecessaryforhimtoproceedagainstthelifeofsomeone,hemustdoitonproperjustificationandformanifestcause,butaboveallthingshemustkeephishandsoffthepropertyofothers,becausemenmorequicklyforgetthedeathoftheirfatherthanthelossoftheirpatrimony.Besides,pretextsfortakingawaythepropertyareneverwanting;forhewhohasoncebeguntolivebyrobberywillalwaysfindpretextsforseizingwhatbelongstoothers;butreasonsfortakinglife,onthecontrary,aremoredifficulttofindandsoonerlapse.Butwhenaprinceiswithhisarmy,andhasundercontrolamultitudeofsoldiers,thenitisquitenecessaryforhimtodisregardthereputationofcruelty,forwithoutithewouldneverholdhisarmyunitedordisposedtoitsduties.

AmongthewonderfuldeedsofHannibalthisoneisenumerated:thathavingledanenormousarmy,composedofmanyvariousracesofmen,tofightinforeignlands,nodissensionsaroseeitheramongthemoragainsttheprince,whetherinhisbadorinhisgoodfortune.Thisarosefromnothingelsethanhisinhumancruelty,which,withhisboundlessvalour,madehimreveredandterribleinthesightofhissoldiers,butwithoutthatcruelty,hisothervirtueswerenotsufficienttoproducethiseffect.Andshort-sightedwritersadmirehisdeedsfromonepoin

tofviewandfromanothercondemntheprincipalcauseofthem.ThatitistruehisothervirtueswouldnothavebeensufficientforhimmaybeprovedbythecaseofScipio,thatmostexcellentman,notonlyofhisowntimesbutwithinthememoryofman,againstwhom,nevertheless,hisarmyrebelledinSpain;thisarosefromnothingbuthistoogreatforbearance,whichgavehissoldiersmorelicensethanisconsistentwithmilitarydiscipline.ForthishewasupbraidedintheSenatebyFabiusMaximus,andcalledthecorrupteroftheRomansoldiery.TheLocrianswerelaidwastebyalegateofScipio,yettheywerenotavengedbyhim,norwastheinsolenceofthelegatepunished,owingentirelytohiseasynature.InsomuchthatsomeoneintheSenate,wishingtoexcusehim,saidthereweremanymenwhoknewmuchbetterhownottoerrthantocorrecttheerrorsofothers.Thisdisposition,ifhehadbeencontinuedinthecommand,wouldhavedestroyedintimethefameandgloryofScipio;but,hebeingunderthecontroloftheSe

nate,thisinjuriouscharacteristicnotonlyconcealeditself,butcontributedtohisglory.

Returningtothequestionofbeingfearedorloved,Icometotheconclusionthat,menlovingaccordingtotheirownwillandfearingaccordingtothatoftheprince,awiseprinceshouldestablishhimselfonthatwhichisinhisowncontrolandnotinthatofothers;hemustendeavouronlytoavoidhatred,asisnoted.

CHAPTERXVIII(*)--CONCERNINGTHEWAYINWHICHPRINCESSHOULDKEEPFAITH

(*)"ThepresentchapterhasgivengreateroffencethananyotherportionofMachiavelli'swritings."Burd,"IlPrincipe,"p.297.

Everyoneadmitshowpraiseworthyitisinaprincetokeepfaith,andtolivewithintegrityandnotwithcraft.Neverthelessourexperiencehasbeenthatthoseprinceswhohavedonegreatthingshaveheldgoodfaithoflittleaccount,andhaveknownhowtocircumventtheintellectofmenbycraft,andintheendhaveovercomethosewhohavereliedontheirword.Youmustknowtherearetwowaysofcontesting,(*)theonebythelaw,theotherbyforce;thefirstmethodispropertomen,thesecondtobeasts;butbecausethefirstisfrequentlynotsuffi

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cient,itisnecessarytohaverecoursetothesecond.Thereforeitisnecessaryforaprincetounderstandhowtoavailhimselfofthebeastandtheman.Thishasbeenfigurativelytaughttoprincesbyancientwriters,whodescribehowAchillesandmanyotherprincesofoldweregiventotheCentaurChirontonurse,whobroughtthemupinhisdiscipline;whichmeanssolelythat,astheyhadforateacheronewhowashalfbeastandhalfman,soitisnecessaryforaprincetoknowhowtomakeuseofbothnatures,andthatonewithouttheotherisnotdurable.Aprince,therefore,beingcompelledknowinglytoadoptthebeast,oughttochoosethefoxandthelion;becausethelioncannotdefendhimselfagainstsnaresandthefoxcannotdefendhimselfagainstwolves.Therefore,itisnecessarytobeafoxtodiscoverthesnaresandaliontoterrifythewolves.Thosewhorelysimplyontheliondonotunderstandwhattheyareabout.Thereforeawiselordcannot,noroughtheto,keepfaithwhensuchobservancemaybeturnedagainsthim,andwhenthereasonsthatcausedhimtopledgeitexistnolonger.Ifmenwereentirelygoodthispreceptwouldnothold,butbecausetheyarebad,andwillnotkeepfaithwithyou,youtooarenotboundtoobserveitwiththem.Norwillthereeverbewantingtoaprincelegitimatereasonstoexcusethisnon-observance.Ofthisendlessmodernexamplescouldbegiven,showinghowmanytreatiesandengagementshavebeenmadevoidandofnoeffectthroughthefaithlessnessofprinces;andhewhohasknownbesthowtoemploythefoxhassucceededbest.

(*)"Contesting,"i.e."strivingformastery."MrBurdpointsoutthatthispassageisimitateddirectlyfromCicero's"DeOfficiis":"Namcumsin

tduogeneradecertandi,unumperdisceptationem,alterumpervim;cumqueilludpropriumsithominis,hocbeluarum;confugiendumestadposterius,siutinonlicetsuperiore."

Butitisnecessarytoknowwellhowtodisguisethischaracteristic,andtobeagreatpretenderanddissembler;andmenaresosimple,andsosubjecttopresentnecessities,thathewhoseekstodeceivewillalwaysfindsomeonewhowillallowhimselftobedeceived.OnerecentexampleIcannotpassoverinsilence.AlexandertheSixthdidnothingelsebutdeceivemen,noreverthoughtofdoingotherwise,andhealwaysfoundvictims;forthereneverwasamanwhohadgreaterpowerinasserting,orwhowithgreateroathswouldaffirmathing,yetwouldobserveitless;neverthelesshisdeceitsalwayssucceededaccordingtohiswishes,(*)becausehewellunderstoodthissideofmankind.

(*)"Nondimancosempreglisuccederonogliinganni(advotum)."Thewords"advotum"areomittedintheTestinaaddition,1550.

Alexanderneverdidwhathesaid,Cesareneversaidwhathedid.

ItalianProverb.

ThereforeitisunnecessaryforaprincetohaveallthegoodqualitiesIhaveenumerated,butitisverynecessarytoappeartohavethem.AndIshalldaretosaythisalso,thattohavethemandalwaystoobservethemisinjurious,andthattoappeartohavethemisuseful;toappearmerciful,faithful,humane,religious,upright,andtobeso,butwithamindsoframedthatshouldyourequiren

ottobeso,youmaybeableandknowhowtochangetotheopposite.

Andyouhavetounderstandthis,thataprince,especiallyanewone,cannotobserveallthosethingsforwhichmenareesteemed,beingoftenforced,inordertomaintainthestate,toactcontrarytofidelity,(*)friendship,humanity,andreligion.Thereforeitisnecessaryforhimtohaveamindreadytoturnitselfaccordinglyasthewindsandvariationsoffortuneforceit,yet,asIhavesaidabove,nottodivergefromthegoodifhecanavoiddoingso,but,ifcompelled,thentoknowhowtosetaboutit.

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(*)"Contrarytofidelity"or"faith,""controallafede,"and"tuttofede,""altogetherfaithful,"inthenextparagraph.Itisnoteworthythatthesetwophrases,"controallafede"and"tuttofede,"wereomittedintheTestinaedition,whichwaspublishedwiththesanctionofthepapalauthorities.Itmaybethatthemeaningattachedtotheword"fede"was"thefaith,"i.e.theCatholiccreed,andnotasrenderedhere"fidelity"and"faithful."Observethattheword"religione"wassufferedtostandinthetextoftheTestina,beingusedtosignifyindifferentlyeveryshadeofbelief,aswitness"thereligion,"aphraseinevitablyemployedtodesignatetheHuguenotheresy.SouthinhisSermonIX,p.69,ed.1843,commentsonthispassageasfollows:"ThatgreatpatronandCoryphaeusofthistribe,NicoloMachiavel,laiddownthisforamasterruleinhispoliticalscheme:'Thattheshowofreligionwashelpfultothepolitician,buttherealityofithurtfulandpernicious.'"

Forthisreasonaprinceoughttotakecarethatheneverletsanythingslipfromhislipsthatisnotrepletewiththeabove-namedfivequalities,thathemayappeartohimwhoseesandhearshimaltogethermerciful,faithful,humane,upright,andreligious.Thereisnothingmorenecessarytoappeartohavethanthislastquality,inasmuchasmenjudgegenerallymorebytheeyethanbythehand,becauseitbelongstoeverybodytoseeyou,tofewtocomeintouchwithyou.Everyoneseeswhatyouappeartobe,fewreallyknowwhatyouare,andthosefewdarenotopposethemselvestotheopinionofthemany,whohavethemajestyofthestatetodefendthem;andintheactionsofallmen,andespeciallyofprince

s,whichitisnotprudenttochallenge,onejudgesbytheresult.

Forthatreason,letaprincehavethecreditofconqueringandholdinghisstate,themeanswillalwaysbeconsideredhonest,andhewillbepraisedbyeverybody;becausethevulgararealwaystakenbywhatathingseemstobeandbywhatcomesofit;andintheworldthereareonlythevulgar,forthefewfindaplacethereonlywhenthemanyhavenogroundtoreston.

Oneprince(*)ofthepresenttime,whomitisnotwelltoname,neverpreachesanythingelsebutpeaceandgoodfaith,andtobothheismosthostile,andeither,ifhehadkeptit,wouldhavedeprivedhimofreputationandkingdommanyatime.

(*)FerdinandofAragon."WhenMachiavelliwaswriting'ThePrince'itwouldhavebeenclearlyimpossibletomentionFerdinand'snameherewithoutgivingoffence."Burd's"IlPrincipe,"p.308.

CHAPTERXIX--THATONESHOULDAVOIDBEINGDESPISEDANDHATED

Now,concerningthecharacteristicsofwhichmentionismadeabove,Ihavespokenofthemoreimportantones,theothersIwishtodiscussbrieflyunderthisgenerality,thattheprincemustconsider,ashasbeeninpartsaidbefore,howtoavoidthosethingswhichwillmakehimhatedorcontemptible;andasoftenasheshallhavesucceededhewillhavefulfilledhispart,andheneednotfearany

dangerinotherreproaches.

Itmakeshimhatedaboveallthings,asIhavesaid,toberapacious,andtobeaviolatorofthepropertyandwomenofhissubjects,frombothofwhichhemustabstain.Andwhenneithertheirpropertynortheirhonoristouched,themajorityofmenlivecontent,andhehasonlytocontendwiththeambitionofafew,whomhecancurbwitheaseinmanyways.

Itmakeshimcontemptibletobeconsideredfickle,frivolous,effeminate,mean-spirited,irresolute,fromallofwhichaprinceshouldguardhimselfasfromar

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ock;andheshouldendeavourtoshowinhisactionsgreatness,courage,gravity,andfortitude;andinhisprivatedealingswithhissubjectslethimshowthathisjudgmentsareirrevocable,andmaintainhimselfinsuchreputationthatnoonecanhopeeithertodeceivehimortogetroundhim.

Thatprinceishighlyesteemedwhoconveysthisimpressionofhimself,andhewhoishighlyesteemedisnoteasilyconspiredagainst;for,provideditiswellknownthatheisanexcellentmanandreveredbyhispeople,hecanonlybeattackedwithdifficulty.Forthisreasonaprinceoughttohavetwofears,onefromwithin,onaccountofhissubjects,theotherfromwithout,onaccountofexternalpowers.Fromthelatterheisdefendedbybeingwellarmedandhavinggoodallies,andifheiswellarmedhewillhavegoodfriends,andaffairswillalwaysremainquietwithinwhentheyarequietwithout,unlesstheyshouldhavebeenalreadydisturbedbyconspiracy;andevenshouldaffairsoutsidebedisturbed,ifhehascarriedouthispreparationsandhaslivedasIhavesaid,aslongashedoesnotdespair,hewillresisteveryattack,asIsaidNabistheSpartandid.

Butconcerninghissubjects,whenaffairsoutsidearedisturbedhehasonlytofearthattheywillconspiresecretly,fromwhichaprincecaneasilysecurehimselfbyavoidingbeinghatedanddespised,andbykeepingthepeoplesatisfiedwithhim,whichitismostnecessaryforhimtoaccomplish,asIsaidaboveatlength.Andoneofthemostefficaciousremediesthataprincecanhaveagainstconspiraciesisnottobehatedanddespisedbythepeople,forhewhoconspiresagainstaprincealwaysexpectstopleasethembyhisremoval;butwhentheconspi

ratorcanonlylookforwardtooffendingthem,hewillnothavethecouragetotakesuchacourse,forthedifficultiesthatconfrontaconspiratorareinfinite.Andasexperienceshows,manyhavebeentheconspiracies,butfewhavebeensuccessful;becausehewhoconspirescannotactalone,norcanhetakeacompanionexceptfromthosewhomhebelievestobemalcontents,andassoonasyouhaveopenedyourmindtoamalcontentyouhavegivenhimthematerialwithwhichtocontenthimself,forbydenouncingyouhecanlookforeveryadvantage;sothat,seeingthegainfromthiscoursetobeassured,andseeingtheothertobedoubtfulandfullofdangers,hemustbeaveryrarefriend,orathoroughlyobstinateenemyoftheprince,tokeepfaithwithyou.

And,toreducethematterintoasmallcompass,Isaythat,onthesideoftheconspirator,thereisnothingbutfear,jealousy,prospectofpunishmenttoterri

fyhim;butonthesideoftheprincethereisthemajestyoftheprincipality,thelaws,theprotectionoffriendsandthestatetodefendhim;sothat,addingtoallthesethingsthepopulargoodwill,itisimpossiblethatanyoneshouldbesorashastoconspire.Forwhereasingeneraltheconspiratorhastofearbeforetheexecutionofhisplot,inthiscasehehasalsotofearthesequeltothecrime;becauseonaccountofithehasthepeopleforanenemy,andthuscannothopeforanyescape.

Endlessexamplescouldbegivenonthissubject,butIwillbecontentwithone,broughttopasswithinthememoryofourfathers.MesserAnnibaleBentivogli,whowasprinceinBologna(grandfatherofthepresentAnnibale),havingbeenmurderedbytheCanneschi,whohadconspiredagainsthim,notoneofhisfamilysurvivedbutMesserGiovanni,(*)whowasinchildhood:immediatelyafterhisassassi

nationthepeopleroseandmurderedalltheCanneschi.ThissprungfromthepopulargoodwillwhichthehouseofBentivoglienjoyedinthosedaysinBologna;whichwassogreatthat,althoughnoneremainedthereafterthedeathofAnnibalewhowasabletorulethestate,theBolognese,havinginformationthattherewasoneoftheBentivoglifamilyinFlorence,whouptothattimehadbeenconsideredthesonofablacksmith,senttoFlorenceforhimandgavehimthegovernmentoftheircity,anditwasruledbyhimuntilMesserGiovannicameinduecoursetothegovernment.

(*)GiovanniBentivogli,borninBologna1438,diedatMilan1508.Her

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uledBolognafrom1462to1506.Machiavelli'sstrongcondemnationofconspiraciesmaygetitsedgefromhisownveryrecentexperience(February1513),whenhehadbeenarrestedandtorturedforhisallegedcomplicityintheBoscoliconspiracy.

ForthisreasonIconsiderthataprinceoughttoreckonconspiraciesoflittleaccountwhenhispeopleholdhiminesteem;butwhenitishostiletohim,andbearshatredtowardshim,heoughttofeareverythingandeverybody.Andwell-orderedstatesandwiseprinceshavetakeneverycarenottodrivethenoblestodesperation,andtokeepthepeoplesatisfiedandcontented,forthisisoneofthemostimportantobjectsaprincecanhave.

AmongthebestorderedandgovernedkingdomsofourtimesisFrance,andinitarefoundmanygoodinstitutionsonwhichdependthelibertyandsecurityoftheking;ofthesethefirstistheparliamentanditsauthority,becausehewhofoundedthekingdom,knowingtheambitionofthenobilityandtheirboldness,consideredthatabittotheirmouthswouldbenecessarytoholdthemin;and,ontheotherside,knowingthehatredofthepeople,foundedinfear,againstthenobles,hewishedtoprotectthem,yethewasnotanxiousforthistobetheparticularcareoftheking;therefore,totakeawaythereproachwhichhewouldbeliabletofromthenoblesforfavouringthepeople,andfromthepeopleforfavouringthenobles,hesetupanarbiter,whoshouldbeonewhocouldbeatdownthegreatandfavourthelesserwithoutreproachtotheking.Neithercouldyouhaveabetteroramoreprudentarrangement,oragreatersourceofsecuritytothek

ingandkingdom.Fromthisonecandrawanotherimportantconclusion,thatprincesoughttoleaveaffairsofreproachtothemanagementofothers,andkeepthoseofgraceintheirownhands.Andfurther,Iconsiderthataprinceoughttocherishthenobles,butnotsoastomakehimselfhatedbythepeople.

Itmayappear,perhaps,tosomewhohaveexaminedthelivesanddeathsoftheRomanemperorsthatmanyofthemwouldbeanexamplecontrarytomyopinion,seeingthatsomeofthemlivednoblyandshowedgreatqualitiesofsoul,neverthelesstheyhavelosttheirempireorhavebeenkilledbysubjectswhohaveconspiredagainstthem.Wishing,therefore,toanswertheseobjections,Iwillrecallthecharactersofsomeoftheemperors,andwillshowthatthecausesoftheirruinwerenotdifferenttothoseallegedbyme;atthesametimeIwillonlysubmitforconsiderationthosethingsthatarenoteworthytohimwhostudiestheaffairs

ofthosetimes.

ItseemstomesufficienttotakeallthoseemperorswhosucceededtotheempirefromMarcusthephilosopherdowntoMaximinus;theywereMarcusandhissonCommodus,Pertinax,Julian,SeverusandhissonAntoninusCaracalla,Macrinus,Heliogabalus,Alexander,andMaximinus.

Thereisfirsttonotethat,whereasinotherprincipalitiestheambitionofthenoblesandtheinsolenceofthepeopleonlyhavetobecontendedwith,theRomanemperorshadathirddifficultyinhavingtoputupwiththecrueltyandavariceoftheirsoldiers,amattersobesetwithdifficultiesthatitwastheruinofmany;foritwasahardthingtogivesatisfactionbothtosoldiersandpeople;becausethepeoplelovedpeace,andforthisreasontheylovedtheunaspiring

prince,whilstthesoldierslovedthewarlikeprincewhowasbold,cruel,andrapacious,whichqualitiestheywerequitewillingheshouldexerciseuponthepeople,sothattheycouldgetdoublepayandgiveventtotheirowngreedandcruelty.Henceitarosethatthoseemperorswerealwaysoverthrownwho,eitherbybirthortraining,hadnogreatauthority,andmostofthem,especiallythosewhocamenewtotheprincipality,recognizingthedifficultyofthesetwoopposinghumours,wereinclinedtogivesatisfactiontothesoldiers,caringlittleaboutinjuringthepeople.Whichcoursewasnecessary,because,asprincescannothelpbeinghatedbysomeone,theyought,inthefirstplace,toavoidbeinghatedbyeveryone,andwhentheycannotcompassthis,theyoughttoendeavourwiththe

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utmostdiligencetoavoidthehatredofthemostpowerful.Therefore,thoseemperorswhothroughinexperiencehadneedofspecialfavouradheredmorereadilytothesoldiersthantothepeople;acoursewhichturnedoutadvantageoustothemornot,accordinglyastheprinceknewhowtomaintainauthorityoverthem.

FromthesecausesitarosethatMarcus,Pertinax,andAlexander,beingallmenofmodestlife,loversofjustice,enemiestocruelty,humane,andbenignant,cametoasadendexceptMarcus;healonelivedanddiedhonoured,becausehehadsucceededtothethronebyhereditarytitle,andowednothingeithertothesoldiersorthepeople;andafterwards,beingpossessedofmanyvirtueswhichmadehimrespected,healwayskeptbothordersintheirplaceswhilsthelived,andwasneitherhatednordespised.

ButPertinaxwascreatedemperoragainstthewishesofthesoldiers,who,beingaccustomedtolivelicentiouslyunderCommodus,couldnotendurethehonestlifetowhichPertinaxwishedtoreducethem;thus,havinggivencauseforhatred,towhichhatredtherewasaddedcontemptforhisoldage,hewasoverthrownattheverybeginningofhisadministration.Andhereitshouldbenotedthathatredisacquiredasmuchbygoodworksasbybadones,therefore,asIsaidbefore,aprincewishingtokeephisstateisveryoftenforcedtodoevil;forwhenthatbodyiscorruptwhomyouthinkyouhaveneedoftomaintainyourself--itmaybeeitherthepeopleorthesoldiersorthenobles--youhavetosubmittoitshumoursandtogratifythem,andthengoodworkswilldoyouharm.

ButletuscometoAlexander,whowasamanofsuchgreatgoodness,thatamongtheotherpraiseswhichareaccordedhimisthis,thatinthefourteenyearsheheldtheempirenoonewaseverputtodeathbyhimunjudged;nevertheless,beingconsideredeffeminateandamanwhoallowedhimselftobegovernedbyhismother,hebecamedespised,thearmyconspiredagainsthim,andmurderedhim.

TurningnowtotheoppositecharactersofCommodus,Severus,AntoninusCaracalla,andMaximinus,youwillfindthemallcruelandrapacious-menwho,tosatisfytheirsoldiers,didnothesitatetocommiteverykindofiniquityagainstthepeople;andall,exceptSeverus,cametoabadend;butinSeverustherewassomuchvalourthat,keepingthesoldiersfriendly,althoughthepeoplewereoppressedbyhim,hereignedsuccessfully;forhisvalourmadehimsomuchadmiredinthesightofthesoldiersandpeoplethatthelatterwerekeptinawayastonished

andawedandtheformerrespectfulandsatisfied.Andbecausetheactionsofthisman,asanewprince,weregreat,Iwishtoshowbrieflythatheknewwellhowtocounterfeitthefoxandthelion,whichnatures,asIsaidabove,itisnecessaryforaprincetoimitate.

KnowingtheslothoftheEmperorJulian,hepersuadedthearmyinSclavonia,ofwhichhewascaptain,thatitwouldberighttogotoRomeandavengethedeathofPertinax,whohadbeenkilledbythepraetoriansoldiers;andunderthispretext,withoutappearingtoaspiretothethrone,hemovedthearmyonRome,andreachedItalybeforeitwasknownthathehadstarted.OnhisarrivalatRome,theSenate,throughfear,electedhimemperorandkilledJulian.AfterthisthereremainedforSeverus,whowishedtomakehimselfmasterofthewholeempire,twodifficulties;oneinAsia,whereNiger,headoftheAsiaticarmy,hadcausedhi

mselftobeproclaimedemperor;theotherinthewestwhereAlbinuswas,whoalsoaspiredtothethrone.Andasheconsidereditdangeroustodeclarehimselfhostiletoboth,hedecidedtoattackNigerandtodeceiveAlbinus.Tothelatterhewrotethat,beingelectedemperorbytheSenate,hewaswillingtosharethatdignitywithhimandsenthimthetitleofCaesar;and,moreover,thattheSenatehadmadeAlbinushiscolleague;whichthingswereacceptedbyAlbinusastrue.ButafterSeverushadconqueredandkilledNiger,andsettledorientalaffairs,hereturnedtoRomeandcomplainedtotheSenatethatAlbinus,littlerecognizingthebenefitsthathehadreceivedfromhim,hadbytreacherysoughttomurderhim,andforthisingratitudehewascompelledtopunishhim.Afterwardsheso

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ughthimoutinFrance,andtookfromhimhisgovernmentandlife.Hewhowill,therefore,carefullyexaminetheactionsofthismanwillfindhimamostvaliantlionandamostcunningfox;hewillfindhimfearedandrespectedbyeveryone,andnothatedbythearmy;anditneednotbewonderedatthathe,anewman,wasabletoholdtheempiresowell,becausehissupremerenownalwaysprotectedhimfromthathatredwhichthepeoplemighthaveconceivedagainsthimforhisviolence.

ButhissonAntoninuswasamosteminentman,andhadveryexcellentqualities,whichmadehimadmirableinthesightofthepeopleandacceptabletothesoldiers,forhewasawarlikeman,mostenduringoffatigue,adespiserofalldelicatefoodandotherluxuries,whichcausedhimtobebelovedbythearmies.Nevertheless,hisferocityandcrueltiesweresogreatandsounheardofthat,afterendlesssinglemurders,hekilledalargenumberofthepeopleofRomeandallthoseofAlexandria.Hebecamehatedbythewholeworld,andalsofearedbythosehehadaroundhim,tosuchanextentthathewasmurderedinthemidstofhisarmybyacenturion.Andhereitmustbenotedthatsuch-likedeaths,whicharedeliberatelyinflictedwitharesolvedanddesperatecourage,cannotbeavoidedbyprinces,becauseanyonewhodoesnotfeartodiecaninflictthem;butaprincemayfearthemthelessbecausetheyareveryrare;hehasonlytobecarefulnottodoanygraveinjurytothosewhomheemploysorhasaroundhimintheserviceofthestate.Antoninushadnottakenthiscare,buthadcontumeliouslykilledabrotherofthatcenturion,whomalsohedailythreatened,yetretainedinhisbodyguard;which,asitturnedout,wasarashthingtodo,andprovedtheem

peror'sruin.

ButletuscometoCommodus,towhomitshouldhavebeenveryeasytoholdtheempire,for,beingthesonofMarcus,hehadinheritedit,andhehadonlytofollowinthefootstepsofhisfathertopleasehispeopleandsoldiers;but,beingbynaturecruelandbrutal,hegavehimselfuptoamusingthesoldiersandcorruptingthem,sothathemightindulgehisrapacityuponthepeople;ontheotherhand,notmaintaininghisdignity,oftendescendingtothetheatretocompetewithgladiators,anddoingothervilethings,littleworthyoftheimperialmajesty,hefellintocontemptwiththesoldiers,andbeinghatedbyonepartyanddespisedbytheother,hewasconspiredagainstandwaskilled.

ItremainstodiscussthecharacterofMaximinus.Hewasaverywarlikeman,and

thearmies,beingdisgustedwiththeeffeminacyofAlexander,ofwhomIhavealreadyspoken,killedhimandelectedMaximinustothethrone.Thishedidnotpossessforlong,fortwothingsmadehimhatedanddespised;theone,hishavingkeptsheepinThrace,whichbroughthimintocontempt(itbeingwellknowntoall,andconsideredagreatindignitybyeveryone),andtheother,hishavingattheaccessiontohisdominionsdeferredgoingtoRomeandtakingpossessionoftheimperialseat;hehadalsogainedareputationfortheutmostferocitybyhaving,throughhisprefectsinRomeandelsewhereintheempire,practisedmanycruelties,sothatthewholeworldwasmovedtoangeratthemeannessofhisbirthandtofearathisbarbarity.FirstAfricarebelled,thentheSenatewithallthepeopleofRome,andallItalyconspiredagainsthim,towhichmaybeaddedhisownarmy;thislatter,besiegingAquileiaandmeetingwithdifficultiesintakingit,weredisgustedwithhiscruelties,andfearinghimlesswhentheyfound

somanyagainsthim,murderedhim.

IdonotwishtodiscussHeliogabalus,Macrinus,orJulian,who,beingthoroughlycontemptible,werequicklywipedout;butIwillbringthisdiscoursetoaconclusionbysayingthatprincesinourtimeshavethisdifficultyofgivinginordinatesatisfactiontotheirsoldiersinafarlessdegree,because,notwithstandingonehastogivethemsomeindulgence,thatissoondone;noneoftheseprinceshavearmiesthatareveteransinthegovernanceandadministrationofprovinces,aswerethearmiesoftheRomanEmpire;andwhereasitwasthenmorenecessarytogivesatisfactiontothesoldiersthantothepeople,itisnowmoreneces

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sarytoallprinces,excepttheTurkandtheSoldan,tosatisfythepeopleratherthesoldiers,becausethepeoplearethemorepowerful.

FromtheaboveIhaveexceptedtheTurk,whoalwayskeepsroundhimtwelvethousandinfantryandfifteenthousandcavalryonwhichdependthesecurityandstrengthofthekingdom,anditisnecessarythat,puttingasideeveryconsiderationforthepeople,heshouldkeepthemhisfriends.ThekingdomoftheSoldanissimilar;beingentirelyinthehandsofsoldiers,itfollowsagainthat,withoutregardtothepeople,hemustkeepthemhisfriends.ButyoumustnotethatthestateoftheSoldanisunlikeallotherprincipalities,forthereasonthatitisliketheChristianpontificate,whichcannotbecalledeitheranhereditaryoranewlyformedprincipality;becausethesonsoftheoldprincearenottheheirs,buthewhoiselectedtothatpositionbythosewhohaveauthority,andthesonsremainonlynoblemen.Andthisbeinganancientcustom,itcannotbecalledanewprincipality,becausetherearenoneofthosedifficultiesinitthataremetwithinnewones;foralthoughtheprinceisnew,theconstitutionofthestateisold,anditisframedsoastoreceivehimasifhewereitshereditarylord.

Butreturningtothesubjectofourdiscourse,Isaythatwhoeverwillconsideritwillacknowledgethateitherhatredorcontempthasbeenfataltotheabove-namedemperors,anditwillberecognizedalsohowithappenedthat,anumberofthemactinginonewayandanumberinanother,onlyoneineachwaycametoahappyendandtheresttounhappyones.Becauseitwouldhavebeenuselessandda

ngerousforPertinaxandAlexander,beingnewprinces,toimitateMarcus,whowasheirtotheprincipality;andlikewiseitwouldhavebeenutterlydestructivetoCaracalla,Commodus,andMaximinustohaveimitatedSeverus,theynothavingsufficientvalourtoenablethemtotreadinhisfootsteps.Thereforeaprince,newtotheprincipality,cannotimitatetheactionsofMarcus,nor,again,isitnecessarytofollowthoseofSeverus,butheoughttotakefromSeverusthosepartswhicharenecessarytofoundhisstate,andfromMarcusthosewhichareproperandglorioustokeepastatethatmayalreadybestableandfirm.

CHAPTERXX--AREFORTRESSES,ANDMANYOTHERTHINGSTOWHICHPRINCESOFTENRESORT,ADVANTAGEOUSORHURTFUL?

1.Someprinces,soastoholdsecurelythestate,havedisarmedtheirsubjects;othershavekepttheirsubjecttownsdistractedbyfactions;othershavefosteredenmitiesagainstthemselves;othershavelaidthemselvesouttogainoverthosewhomtheydistrustedinthebeginningoftheirgovernments;somehavebuiltfortresses;somehaveoverthrownanddestroyedthem.Andalthoughonecannotgiveafinaljudgmentonallofthesethingsunlessonepossessestheparticularsofthosestatesinwhichadecisionhastobemade,neverthelessIwillspeakascomprehensivelyasthematterofitselfwilladmit.

2.Thereneverwasanewprincewhohasdisarmedhissubjects;ratherwhenhehasfoundthemdisarmedhehasalwaysarmedthem,because,byarmingthem,thosearmsbecomeyours,thosemenwhoweredistrustedbecomefaithful,andthosewhow

erefaithfularekeptso,andyoursubjectsbecomeyouradherents.Andwhereasallsubjectscannotbearmed,yetwhenthosewhomyoudoarmarebenefited,theotherscanbehandledmorefreely,andthisdifferenceintheirtreatment,whichtheyquiteunderstand,makestheformeryourdependents,andthelatter,consideringittobenecessarythatthosewhohavethemostdangerandserviceshouldhavethemostreward,excuseyou.Butwhenyoudisarmthem,youatonceoffendthembyshowingthatyoudistrustthem,eitherforcowardiceorforwantofloyalty,andeitheroftheseopinionsbreedshatredagainstyou.Andbecauseyoucannotremainunarmed,itfollowsthatyouturntomercenaries,whichareofthecharacteralreadyshown;eveniftheyshouldbegoodtheywouldnotbesufficientto

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6.Ithasbeenacustomwithprinces,inordertoholdtheirstatesmoresecurely,tobuildfortressesthatmayserveasabridleandbittothosewhomightdesigntoworkagainstthem,andasaplaceofrefugefromafirstattack.Ipraisethissystembecauseithasbeenmadeuseofformerly.Notwithstandingthat,MesserNicoloVitelliinourtimeshasbeenseentodemolishtwofortressesinCittadiCastellosothathemightkeepthatstate;GuidoUbaldo,DukeofUrbino,onreturningtohisdominion,whencehehadbeendrivenbyCesareBorgia,razedtothefoundationsallthefortressesinthatprovince,andconsideredthatwithoutthemitwouldbemoredifficulttoloseit;theBentivoglireturningtoBolognacametoasimilardecision.Fortresses,therefore,areusefulornotaccordingtocircumstances;iftheydoyougoodinonewaytheyinjureyouinanother.Andthisquestioncanbereasonedthus:theprincewhohasmoretofearfromthepeoplethanfromforeignersoughttobuildfortresses,buthewhohasmoretofearfromforeignersthanfromthepeopleoughttoleavethemalone.ThecastleofMilan,builtbyFrancescoSforza,hasmade,andwillmake,moretroubleforthehouseofSforzathananyotherdisorderinthestate.Forthisreasonthebestpossiblefortressis--nottobehatedbythepeople,because,althoughyoumayholdthefortresses,yettheywillnotsaveyouifthepeoplehateyou,fortherewillneverbewantingforeignerstoassistapeoplewhohavetakenarmsagainstyou.Ithasnotbeenseeninourtimesthatsuchfortresseshavebeenofusetoanyprince,unlesstotheCountessofForli,(*)whentheCountGirolamo,herconsort,waskilled;forbythatmeansshewasabletowithstandthepopularattackandwaitforassistancefromMilan,andthusrecoverherstate;andtheposture

ofaffairswassuchatthattimethattheforeignerscouldnotassistthepeople.ButfortresseswereoflittlevaluetoherafterwardswhenCesareBorgiaattackedher,andwhenthepeople,herenemy,werealliedwithforeigners.Therefore,itwouldhavebeensaferforher,boththenandbefore,nottohavebeenhatedbythepeoplethantohavehadthefortresses.Allthesethingsconsideredthen,Ishallpraisehimwhobuildsfortressesaswellashimwhodoesnot,andIshallblamewhoever,trustinginthem,careslittleaboutbeinghatedbythepeople.

(*)CatherineSforza,adaughterofGaleazzoSforzaandLucreziaLandriani,born1463,died1509.ItwastotheCountessofForlithatMachiavelliwassentasenvyon1499.AletterfromFortunatitothecountessannouncestheappointment:"Ihavebeenwiththesignori,"wroteFortunati,"t

olearnwhomtheywouldsendandwhen.TheytellmethatNicoloMachiavelli,alearnedyoungFlorentinenoble,secretarytomyLordsoftheTen,istoleavewithmeatonce."Cf."CatherineSforza,"byCountPasolini,translatedbyP.Sylvester,1898.

CHAPTERXXI--HOWAPRINCESHOULDCONDUCTHIMSELFSOASTOGAINRENOWN

Nothingmakesaprincesomuchesteemedasgreatenterprisesandsettingafineexample.WehaveinourtimeFerdinandofAragon,thepresentKingofSpain.Hecanalmostbecalledanewprince,becausehehasrisen,byfameandglory,frombeinganinsignificantkingtobetheforemostkinginChristendom;andifyou

willconsiderhisdeedsyouwillfindthemallgreatandsomeofthemextraordinary.InthebeginningofhisreignheattackedGranada,andthisenterprisewasthefoundationofhisdominions.Hedidthisquietlyatfirstandwithoutanyfearofhindrance,forheheldthemindsofthebaronsofCastileoccupiedinthinkingofthewarandnotanticipatinganyinnovations;thustheydidnotperceivethatbythesemeanshewasacquiringpowerandauthorityoverthem.HewasablewiththemoneyoftheChurchandofthepeopletosustainhisarmies,andbythatlongwartolaythefoundationforthemilitaryskillwhichhassincedistinguishedhim.Further,alwaysusingreligionasaplea,soastoundertakegreaterschemes,hedevotedhimselfwithpiouscrueltytodrivingoutandclearinghis

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kingdomoftheMoors;norcouldtherebeamoreadmirableexample,noronemorerare.UnderthissamecloakheassailedAfrica,hecamedownonItaly,hehasfinallyattackedFrance;andthushisachievementsanddesignshavealwaysbeengreat,andhavekeptthemindsofhispeopleinsuspenseandadmirationandoccupiedwiththeissueofthem.Andhisactionshaveariseninsuchaway,oneoutoftheother,thatmenhaveneverbeengiventimetoworksteadilyagainsthim.

Again,itmuchassistsaprincetosetunusualexamplesininternalaffairs,similartothosewhicharerelatedofMesserBernabodaMilano,who,whenhehadtheopportunity,byanyoneincivillifedoingsomeextraordinarything,eithergoodorbad,wouldtakesomemethodofrewardingorpunishinghim,whichwouldbemuchspokenabout.Andaprinceought,aboveallthings,alwaysendeavourineveryactiontogainforhimselfthereputationofbeingagreatandremarkableman.

Aprinceisalsorespectedwhenheiseitheratruefriendoradownrightenemy,thatistosay,when,withoutanyreservation,hedeclareshimselfinfavourofonepartyagainsttheother;whichcoursewillalwaysbemoreadvantageousthanstandingneutral;becauseiftwoofyourpowerfulneighbourscometoblows,theyareofsuchacharacterthat,ifoneofthemconquers,youhaveeithertofearhimornot.Ineithercaseitwillalwaysbemoreadvantageousforyoutodeclareyourselfandtomakewarstrenuously;because,inthefirstcase,ifyoudonotdeclareyourself,youwillinvariablyfallapreytotheconqueror,tothepleasureandsatisfactionofhimwhohasbeenconquered,andyouwillhavenoreas

onstooffer,noranythingtoprotectortoshelteryou.Becausehewhoconquersdoesnotwantdoubtfulfriendswhowillnotaidhiminthetimeoftrial;andhewholoseswillnotharbouryoubecauseyoudidnotwillingly,swordinhand,courthisfate.

AntiochuswentintoGreece,beingsentforbytheAetolianstodriveouttheRomans.HesentenvoystotheAchaeans,whowerefriendsoftheRomans,exhortingthemtoremainneutral;andontheotherhandtheRomansurgedthemtotakeuparms.ThisquestioncametobediscussedinthecounciloftheAchaeans,wherethelegateofAntiochusurgedthemtostandneutral.TothistheRomanlegateanswered:"Asforthatwhichhasbeensaid,thatitisbetterandmoreadvantageousforyourstatenottointerfereinourwar,nothingcanbemoreerroneous;becausebynotinterferingyouwillbeleft,withoutfavourorconsideration,theguer

donoftheconqueror."Thusitwillalwayshappenthathewhoisnotyourfriendwilldemandyourneutrality,whilsthewhoisyourfriendwillentreatyoutodeclareyourselfwitharms.Andirresoluteprinces,toavoidpresentdangers,generallyfollowtheneutralpath,andaregenerallyruined.Butwhenaprincedeclareshimselfgallantlyinfavourofoneside,ifthepartywithwhomheallieshimselfconquers,althoughthevictormaybepowerfulandmayhavehimathismercy,yetheisindebtedtohim,andthereisestablishedabondofamity;andmenareneversoshamelessastobecomeamonumentofingratitudebyoppressingyou.Victoriesafterallareneversocompletethatthevictormustnotshowsomeregard,especiallytojustice.Butifhewithwhomyouallyyourselfloses,youmaybeshelteredbyhim,andwhilstheisablehemayaidyou,andyoubecomecompanionsonafortunethatmayriseagain.

Inthesecondcase,whenthosewhofightareofsuchacharacterthatyouhavenoanxietyastowhomayconquer,somuchthemoreisitgreaterprudencetobeallied,becauseyouassistatthedestructionofonebytheaidofanotherwho,ifhehadbeenwise,wouldhavesavedhim;andconquering,asitisimpossiblethatheshouldnotdowithyourassistance,heremainsatyourdiscretion.Andhereitistobenotedthataprinceoughttotakecarenevertomakeanalliancewithonemorepowerfulthanhimselfforthepurposesofattackingothers,unlessnecessitycompelshim,asissaidabove;becauseifheconquersyouareathisdiscretion,andprincesoughttoavoidasmuchaspossiblebeingatthediscretionofanyone.TheVenetiansjoinedwithFranceagainsttheDukeofMilan,andth

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isalliance,whichcausedtheirruin,couldhavebeenavoided.Butwhenitcannotbeavoided,ashappenedtotheFlorentineswhenthePopeandSpainsentarmiestoattackLombardy,theninsuchacase,fortheabovereasons,theprinceoughttofavouroneoftheparties.

NeverletanyGovernmentimaginethatitcanchooseperfectlysafecourses;ratherletitexpecttohavetotakeverydoubtfulones,becauseitisfoundinordinaryaffairsthatoneneverseekstoavoidonetroublewithoutrunningintoanother;butprudenceconsistsinknowinghowtodistinguishthecharacteroftroubles,andforchoicetotakethelesserevil.

Aprinceoughtalsotoshowhimselfapatronofability,andtohonourtheproficientineveryart.Atthesametimeheshouldencouragehiscitizenstopractisetheircallingspeaceably,bothincommerceandagriculture,andineveryotherfollowing,sothattheoneshouldnotbedeterredfromimprovinghispossessionsforfearlesttheybetakenawayfromhimoranotherfromopeninguptradeforfearoftaxes;buttheprinceoughttoofferrewardstowhoeverwishestodothesethingsanddesignsinanywaytohonourhiscityorstate.

Further,heoughttoentertainthepeoplewithfestivalsandspectaclesatconvenientseasonsoftheyear;andaseverycityisdividedintoguildsorintosocieties,(*)heoughttoholdsuchbodiesinesteem,andassociatewiththemsometimes,andshowhimselfanexampleofcourtesyandliberality;nevertheless,alwaysmaintainingthemajestyofhisrank,forthishemustneverconsenttoabatei

nanything.

(*)"Guildsorsocieties,""inartiointribu.""Arti"werecraftortradeguilds,cf.Florio:"Arte...awholecompanyofanytradeinanycityorcorporationtown."TheguildsofFlorencearemostadmirablydescribedbyMrEdgcumbeStaleyinhisworkonthesubject(Methuen,1906).Institutionsofasomewhatsimilarcharacter,called"artel,"existinRussiato-day,cf.SirMackenzieWallace's"Russia,"ed.1905:"Thesons...werealwaysduringtheworkingseasonmembersofanartel.Insomeofthelargertownsthereareartelsofamuchmorecomplexkind--permanentassociations,possessinglargecapital,andpecuniarilyresponsiblefortheactsoftheindividualmembers."Theword"artel,"despiteitsapparentsimilarity,has,MrAylmerMaudeassuresme,noconnectionwith"ars"or"a

rte."Itsrootisthatoftheverb"rotisya,"tobindoneselfbyanoath;anditisgenerallyadmittedtobeonlyanotherformof"rota,"whichnowsignifiesa"regimentalcompany."Inbothwordstheunderlyingideaisthatofabodyofmenunitedbyanoath."Tribu"werepossiblygentilegroups,unitedbycommondescent,andincludedindividualsconnectedbymarriage.Perhapsourwords"sects"or"clans"wouldbemostappropriate.

CHAPTERXXII--CONCERNINGTHESECRETARIESOFPRINCES

Thechoiceofservantsisofnolittleimportancetoaprince,andtheyaregoodornotaccordingtothediscriminationoftheprince.Andthefirstopinionwhi

choneformsofaprince,andofhisunderstanding,isbyobservingthemenhehasaroundhim;andwhentheyarecapableandfaithfulhemayalwaysbeconsideredwise,becausehehasknownhowtorecognizethecapableandtokeepthemfaithful.Butwhentheyareotherwiseonecannotformagoodopinionofhim,fortheprimeerrorwhichhemadewasinchoosingthem.

TherewerenonewhoknewMesserAntoniodaVenafroastheservantofPandolfoPetrucci,PrinceofSiena,whowouldnotconsiderPandolfotobeaveryclevermaninhavingVenafroforhisservant.Becausetherearethreeclassesofintellects:onewhichcomprehendsbyitself;anotherwhichappreciateswhatotherscompre

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(*)MaximilianI,bornin1459,died1519,EmperoroftheHolyRomanEmpire.Hemarried,first,Mary,daughterofCharlestheBold;afterherdeath,BiancaSforza;andthusbecameinvolvedinItalianpolitics.

Aprince,therefore,oughtalwaystotakecounsel,butonlywhenhewishesandnotwhenotherswish;heoughtrathertodiscourageeveryonefromofferingadviceunlessheasksit;but,however,heoughttobeaconstantinquirer,andafterwardsapatientlistenerconcerningthethingsofwhichheinquired;also,onlearningthatanyone,onanyconsideration,hasnottoldhimthetruth,heshouldlethisangerbefelt.

Andiftherearesomewhothinkthataprincewhoconveysanimpressionofhiswisdomisnotsothroughhisownability,butthroughthegoodadvisersthathehasaroundhim,beyonddoubttheyaredeceived,becausethisisanaxiomwhichneverfails:thataprincewhoisnotwisehimselfwillnevertakegoodadvice,unlessbychancehehasyieldedhisaffairsentirelytoonepersonwhohappenstobeaveryprudentman.Inthiscaseindeedhemaybewellgoverned,butitwouldnotbeforlong,becausesuchagovernorwouldinashorttimetakeawayhisstatefromhim.

Butifaprincewhoisnotinexperiencedshouldtakecounselfrommorethanonehewillnevergetunitedcounsels,norwillheknowhowtounitethem.Eachofthecounsellorswillthinkofhisowninterests,andtheprincewillnotknowhowtocontrolthemortoseethroughthem.Andtheyarenottofoundotherwise,be

causemenwillalwaysproveuntruetoyouunlesstheyarekepthonestbyconstraint.Thereforeitmustbeinferredthatgoodcounsels,whencesoevertheycome,arebornofthewisdomoftheprince,andnotthewisdomoftheprincefromgoodcounsels.

CHAPTERXXIV--WHYTHEPRINCESOFITALYHAVELOSTTHEIRSTATES

Theprevioussuggestions,carefullyobserved,willenableanewprincetoappearwellestablished,andrenderhimatoncemoresecureandfixedinthestatethanifhehadbeenlongseatedthere.Fortheactionsofanewprincearemorenarrowlyobservedthanthoseofanhereditaryone,andwhentheyareseentobeabl

etheygainmoremenandbindfartighterthanancientblood;becausemenareattractedmorebythepresentthanbythepast,andwhentheyfindthepresentgoodtheyenjoyitandseeknofurther;theywillalsomaketheutmostdefenceofaprinceifhefailsthemnotinotherthings.Thusitwillbeadoublegloryforhimtohaveestablishedanewprincipality,andadornedandstrengtheneditwithgoodlaws,goodarms,goodallies,andwithagoodexample;sowillitbeadoubledisgracetohimwho,bornaprince,shalllosehisstatebywantofwisdom.

AndifthoseseigniorsareconsideredwhohavelosttheirstatesinItalyinourtimes,suchastheKingofNaples,theDukeofMilan,andothers,therewillbefoundinthem,firstly,onecommondefectinregardtoarmsfromthecauseswhichhavebeendiscussedatlength;inthenextplace,someoneofthemwillbeseen,eithertohavehadthepeoplehostile,orifhehashadthepeoplefriendly,

hehasnotknownhowtosecurethenobles.Intheabsenceofthesedefectsstatesthathavepowerenoughtokeepanarmyinthefieldcannotbelost.

PhilipofMacedon,notthefatherofAlexandertheGreat,buthewhowasconqueredbyTitusQuintius,hadnotmuchterritorycomparedtothegreatnessoftheRomansandofGreecewhoattackedhim,yetbeingawarlikemanwhoknewhowtoattractthepeopleandsecurethenobles,hesustainedthewaragainsthisenemiesformanyyears,andifintheendhelostthedominionofsomecities,neverthelessheretainedthekingdom.

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Therefore,donotletourprincesaccusefortuneforthelossoftheirprincipalitiesaftersomanyyears'possession,butrathertheirownsloth,becauseinquiettimestheyneverthoughttherecouldbeachange(itisacommondefectinmannottomakeanyprovisioninthecalmagainstthetempest),andwhenafterwardsthebadtimescametheythoughtofflightandnotofdefendingthemselves,andtheyhopedthatthepeople,disgustedwiththeinsolenceoftheconquerors,wouldrecallthem.Thiscourse,whenothersfail,maybegood,butitisverybadtohaveneglectedallotherexpedientsforthat,sinceyouwouldneverwishtofallbecauseyoutrustedtobeabletofindsomeonelaterontorestoreyou.Thisagaineitherdoesnothappen,or,ifitdoes,itwillnotbeforyoursecurity,becausethatdeliveranceisofnoavailwhichdoesnotdependuponyourself;thoseonlyarereliable,certain,anddurablethatdependonyourselfandyourvalour.

CHAPTERXXV--WHATFORTUNECANEFFECTINHUMANAFFAIRSANDHOWTOWITHSTANDHER

Itisnotunknowntomehowmanymenhavehad,andstillhave,theopinionthattheaffairsoftheworldareinsuchwisegovernedbyfortuneandbyGodthatmenwiththeirwisdomcannotdirectthemandthatnoonecanevenhelpthem;andbecauseofthistheywouldhaveusbelievethatitisnotnecessarytolabourmuchinaffairs,buttoletchancegovernthem.Thisopinionhasbeenmorecreditedinourtimesbecauseofthegreatchangesinaffairswhichhavebeenseen,and

maystillbeseen,everyday,beyondallhumanconjecture.Sometimesponderingoverthis,Iaminsomedegreeinclinedtotheiropinion.Nevertheless,nottoextinguishourfreewill,IholdittobetruethatFortuneisthearbiterofone-halfofouractions,(*)butthatshestillleavesustodirecttheotherhalf,orperhapsalittleless.

(*)FredericktheGreatwasaccustomedtosay:"TheolderonegetsthemoreconvincedonebecomesthathisMajestyKingChancedoesthree-quartersofthebusinessofthismiserableuniverse."Sorel's"EasternQuestion."

Icomparehertooneofthoseragingrivers,whichwheninfloodoverflowstheplains,sweepingawaytreesandbuildings,bearingawaythesoilfromplacetoplace;everythingfliesbeforeit,allyieldtoitsviolence,withoutbeingablei

nanywaytowithstandit;andyet,thoughitsnaturebesuch,itdoesnotfollowthereforethatmen,whentheweatherbecomesfair,shallnotmakeprovision,bothwithdefencesandbarriers,insuchamannerthat,risingagain,thewatersmaypassawaybycanal,andtheirforcebeneithersounrestrainednorsodangerous.Soithappenswithfortune,whoshowsherpowerwherevalourhasnotpreparedtoresisther,andthithersheturnsherforceswheresheknowsthatbarriersanddefenceshavenotbeenraisedtoconstrainher.

AndifyouwillconsiderItaly,whichistheseatofthesechanges,andwhichhasgiventothemtheirimpulse,youwillseeittobeanopencountrywithoutbarriersandwithoutanydefence.Forifithadbeendefendedbypropervalour,asareGermany,Spain,andFrance,eitherthisinvasionwouldnothavemadethegreatchangesithasmadeoritwouldnothavecomeatall.AndthisIconsidereno

ughtosayconcerningresistancetofortuneingeneral.

Butconfiningmyselfmoretotheparticular,Isaythataprincemaybeseenhappyto-dayandruinedto-morrowwithouthavingshownanychangeofdispositionorcharacter.This,Ibelieve,arisesfirstlyfromcausesthathavealreadybeendiscussedatlength,namely,thattheprincewhoreliesentirelyonfortuneislostwhenitchanges.Ibelievealsothathewillbesuccessfulwhodirectshisactionsaccordingtothespiritofthetimes,andthathewhoseactionsdonotaccordwiththetimeswillnotbesuccessful.Becausemenareseen,inaffairsthatleadtotheendwhicheverymanhasbeforehim,namely,gloryandriches,toge

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etointroduceaneworderofthingswhichwoulddohonourtohimandgoodtothepeopleofthiscountry,itappearstomethatsomanythingsconcurtofavouranewprincethatIneverknewatimemorefitthanthepresent.

Andif,asIsaid,itwasnecessarythatthepeopleofIsraelshouldbecaptivesoastomakemanifesttheabilityofMoses;thatthePersiansshouldbeoppressedbytheMedessoastodiscoverthegreatnessofthesoulofCyrus;andthattheAtheniansshouldbedispersedtoillustratethecapabilitiesofTheseus:thenatthepresenttime,inordertodiscoverthevirtueofanItalianspirit,itwasnecessarythatItalyshouldbereducedtotheextremitythatsheisnowin,thatsheshouldbemoreenslavedthantheHebrews,moreoppressedthanthePersians,morescatteredthantheAthenians;withouthead,withoutorder,beaten,despoiled,torn,overrun;andtohaveenduredeverykindofdesolation.

Althoughlatelysomesparkmayhavebeenshownbyone,whichmadeusthinkhewasordainedbyGodforourredemption,neverthelessitwasafterwardsseen,intheheightofhiscareer,thatfortunerejectedhim;sothatItaly,leftaswithoutlife,waitsforhimwhoshallyethealherwoundsandputanendtotheravagingandplunderingofLombardy,totheswindlingandtaxingofthekingdomandofTuscany,andcleansethosesoresthatforlonghavefestered.ItisseenhowsheentreatsGodtosendsomeonewhoshalldeliverherfromthesewrongsandbarbarousinsolencies.Itisseenalsothatsheisreadyandwillingtofollowabannerifonlysomeonewillraiseit.

Noristheretobeseenatpresentoneinwhomshecanplacemorehopethaninyourillustrioushouse,(*)withitsvalourandfortune,favouredbyGodandbytheChurchofwhichitisnowthechief,andwhichcouldbemadetheheadofthisredemption.ThiswillnotbedifficultifyouwillrecalltoyourselftheactionsandlivesofthemenIhavenamed.Andalthoughtheyweregreatandwonderfulmen,yettheyweremen,andeachoneofthemhadnomoreopportunitythanthepresentoffers,fortheirenterpriseswereneithermorejustnoreasierthanthis,norwasGodmoretheirfriendthanHeisyours.

(*)GiulianodeMedici.HehadjustbeencreatedacardinalbyLeoX.In1523GiulianowaselectedPope,andtookthetitleofClementVII.

Withusthereisgreatjustice,becausethatwarisjustwhichisnecessary,and

armsarehallowedwhenthereisnootherhopebutinthem.Herethereisthegreatestwillingness,andwherethewillingnessisgreatthedifficultiescannotbegreatifyouwillonlyfollowthosementowhomIhavedirectedyourattention.Furtherthanthis,howextraordinarilythewaysofGodhavebeenmanifestedbeyondexample:theseaisdivided,acloudhasledtheway,therockhaspouredforthwater,ithasrainedmanna,everythinghascontributedtoyourgreatness;yououghttodotherest.Godisnotwillingtodoeverything,andthustakeawayourfreewillandthatshareofglorywhichbelongstous.

Anditisnottobewonderedatifnoneoftheabove-namedItalianshavebeenabletoaccomplishallthatisexpectedfromyourillustrioushouse;andifinsomanyrevolutionsinItaly,andinsomanycampaigns,ithasalwaysappearedasifmilitaryvirtuewereexhausted,thishashappenedbecausetheoldorderofthi

ngswasnotgood,andnoneofushaveknownhowtofindanewone.Andnothinghonoursamanmorethantoestablishnewlawsandnewordinanceswhenhehimselfwasnewlyrisen.Suchthingswhentheyarewellfoundedanddignifiedwillmakehimreveredandadmired,andinItalytherearenotwantingopportunitiestobringsuchintouseineveryform.

Herethereisgreatvalourinthelimbswhilstitfailsinthehead.Lookattentivelyattheduelsandthehand-to-handcombats,howsuperiortheItaliansareinstrength,dexterity,andsubtlety.Butwhenitcomestoarmiestheydonotbearcomparison,andthisspringsentirelyfromtheinsufficiencyoftheleaders,s

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incethosewhoarecapablearenotobedient,andeachoneseemstohimselftoknow,therehavingneverbeenanyonesodistinguishedabovetherest,eitherbyvalourorfortune,thatotherswouldyieldtohim.Henceitisthatforsolongatime,andduringsomuchfightinginthepasttwentyyears,whenevertherehasbeenanarmywhollyItalian,ithasalwaysgivenapooraccountofitself;thefirstwitnesstothisisIlTaro,afterwardsAllesandria,Capua,Genoa,Vaila,Bologna,Mestri.(*)

(*)ThebattlesofIlTaro,1495;Alessandria,1499;Capua,1501;Genoa,1507;Vaila,1509;Bologna,1511;Mestri,1513.

If,therefore,yourillustrioushousewishestofollowtheseremarkablemenwhohaveredeemedtheircountry,itisnecessarybeforeallthings,asatruefoundationforeveryenterprise,tobeprovidedwithyourownforces,becausetherecanbenomorefaithful,truer,orbettersoldiers.Andalthoughsinglytheyaregood,altogethertheywillbemuchbetterwhentheyfindthemselvescommandedbytheirprince,honouredbyhim,andmaintainedathisexpense.Thereforeitisnecessarytobepreparedwithsucharms,sothatyoucanbedefendedagainstforeignersbyItalianvalour.

AndalthoughSwissandSpanishinfantrymaybeconsideredveryformidable,neverthelessthereisadefectinboth,byreasonofwhichathirdorderwouldnotonlybeabletoopposethem,butmightbereliedupontooverthrowthem.FortheSpaniardscannotresistcavalry,andtheSwitzersareafraidofinfantrywhenever

theyencountertheminclosecombat.Owingtothis,ashasbeenandmayagainbeseen,theSpaniardsareunabletoresistFrenchcavalry,andtheSwitzersareoverthrownbySpanishinfantry.Andalthoughacompleteproofofthislattercannotbeshown,neverthelesstherewassomeevidenceofitatthebattleofRavenna,whentheSpanishinfantrywereconfrontedbyGermanbattalions,whofollowthesametacticsastheSwiss;whentheSpaniards,byagilityofbodyandwiththeaidoftheirshields,gotinunderthepikesoftheGermansandstoodoutofdanger,abletoattack,whiletheGermansstoodhelpless,and,ifthecavalryhadnotdashedup,allwouldhavebeenoverwiththem.Itispossible,therefore,knowingthedefectsofboththeseinfantries,toinventanewone,whichwillresistcavalryandnotbeafraidofinfantry;thisneednotcreateaneworderofarms,butavariationupontheold.Andthesearethekindofimprovementswhichconferreputationandpoweruponanewprince.

Thisopportunity,therefore,oughtnottobeallowedtopassforlettingItalyatlastseeherliberatorappear.Norcanoneexpressthelovewithwhichhewouldbereceivedinallthoseprovinceswhichhavesufferedsomuchfromtheseforeignscourings,withwhatthirstforrevenge,withwhatstubbornfaith,withwhatdevotion,withwhattears.Whatdoorwouldbeclosedtohim?Whowouldrefuseobediencetohim?Whatenvywouldhinderhim?WhatItalianwouldrefusehimhomage?Toallofusthisbarbarousdominionstinks.Let,therefore,yourillustrioushousetakeupthischargewiththatcourageandhopewithwhichalljustenterprisesareundertaken,sothatunderitsstandardournativecountrymaybeennobled,andunderitsauspicesmaybeverifiedthatsayingofPetrarch:

VirtucontroalFurorePrenderal'arme,efiailcombattercorto:

Chel'anticovaloreNegliitalicicuornoneancormorto.

Virtueagainstfuryshalladvancethefight,Anditi'th'combatsoonshallputtoflight:FortheoldRomanvalourisnotdead,Norinth'Italians'brestsextinguished.

EdwardDacre,1640.

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DESCRIPTIONOFTHEMETHODSADOPTEDBYTHEDUKEVALENTINOWHENMURDERINGVITELLOZZOVITELLI,OLIVEROTTODAFERMO,THESIGNORPAGOLO,ANDTHEDUKEDIGRAVINAORSINI

BY

NICOLOMACHIAVELLI

TheDukeValentinohadreturnedfromLombardy,wherehehadbeentoclearhimselfwiththeKingofFrancefromthecalumnieswhichhadbeenraisedagainsthimbytheFlorentinesconcerningtherebellionofArezzoandothertownsintheValdiChiana,andhadarrivedatImola,whenceheintendedwithhisarmytoenteruponthecampaignagainstGiovanniBentivogli,thetyrantofBologna:forheintendedtobringthatcityunderhisdomination,andtomakeittheheadofhisRomagnianduchy.

ThesematterscomingtotheknowledgeoftheVitelliandOrsiniandtheirfollowing,itappearedtothemthatthedukewouldbecometoopowerful,anditwasfearedthat,havingseizedBologna,hewouldseektodestroytheminorderthathemightbecomesupremeinItaly.UponthisameetingwascalledatMagioneinthedistrictofPerugia,towhichcamethecardinal,Pagolo,andtheDukediGravinaOrsini,VitellozzoVitelli,OliverottodaFermo,GianpagoloBaglioni,thetyrantofPerugia,andMesserAntoniodaVenafro,sentbyPandolfoPetrucci,thePrinceofSiena.Herewerediscussedthepowerandcourageofthedukeandtheneces

sityofcurbinghisambitions,whichmightotherwisebringdangertotherestofbeingruined.AndtheydecidednottoabandontheBentivogli,buttostrivetowinovertheFlorentines;andtheysendtheirmentooneplaceandanother,promisingtoonepartyassistanceandtoanotherencouragementtounitewiththemagainstthecommonenemy.ThismeetingwasatoncereportedthroughoutallItaly,andthosewhowerediscontentedundertheduke,amongwhomwerethepeopleofUrbino,tookhopeofeffectingarevolution.

Thusitarosethat,men'smindsbeingthusunsettled,itwasdecidedbycertainmenofUrbinotoseizethefortressofSanLeo,whichwasheldfortheduke,andwhichtheycapturedbythefollowingmeans.Thecastellanwasfortifyingtherockandcausingtimbertobetakenthere;sotheconspiratorswatched,andwhencertainbeamswhichwerebeingcarriedtotherockwereuponthebridge,sothat

itwaspreventedfrombeingdrawnupbythoseinside,theytooktheopportunityofleapinguponthebridgeandthenceintothefortress.Uponthiscapturebeingeffected,thewholestaterebelledandrecalledtheoldduke,beingencouragedinthis,notsomuchbythecaptureofthefort,asbytheDietatMagione,fromwhomtheyexpectedtogetassistance.

ThosewhoheardoftherebellionatUrbinothoughttheywouldnotlosetheopportunity,andatonceassembledtheirmensoastotakeanytown,shouldanyremaininthehandsofthedukeinthatstate;andtheysentagaintoFlorencetobegthatrepublictojoinwiththemindestroyingthecommonfirebrand,showingthattheriskwaslessenedandthattheyoughtnottowaitforanotheropportunity.

ButtheFlorentines,fromhatred,forsundryreasons,oftheVitelliandOrsini,

notonlywouldnotallythemselves,butsentNicoloMachiavelli,theirsecretary,tooffershelterandassistancetothedukeagainsthisenemies.ThedukewasfoundfulloffearatImola,because,againsteverybody'sexpectation,hissoldiershadatoncegoneovertotheenemyandhefoundhimselfdisarmedandwarathisdoor.ButrecoveringcouragefromtheoffersoftheFlorentines,hedecidedtotemporizebeforefightingwiththefewsoldiersthatremainedtohim,andtonegotiateforareconciliation,andalsotogetassistance.Thislatterheobtainedintwoways,bysendingtotheKingofFranceformenandbyenlistingmen-at-armsandotherswhomheturnedintocavalryofasort:toallhegavemoney.

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Notwithstandingthis,hisenemiesdrewneartohim,andapproachedFossombrone,wheretheyencounteredsomemenofthedukeand,withtheaidoftheOrsiniandVitelli,routedthem.Whenthishappened,thedukeresolvedatoncetoseeifhecouldnotclosethetroublewithoffersofreconciliation,andbeingamostperfectdissemblerhedidnotfailinanypracticestomaketheinsurgentsunderstandthathewishedeverymanwhohadacquiredanythingtokeepit,asitwasenoughforhimtohavethetitleofprince,whilstothersmighthavetheprincipality.

AndthedukesucceededsowellinthisthattheysentSignorPagolotohimtonegotiateforareconciliation,andtheybroughttheirarmytoastandstill.Butthedukedidnotstophispreparations,andtookeverycaretoprovidehimselfwithcavalryandinfantry,andthatsuchpreparationsmightnotbeapparenttotheothers,hesenthistroopsinseparatepartiestoeverypartoftheRomagna.InthemeanwhiletherecamealsotohimfivehundredFrenchlancers,andalthoughhefoundhimselfsufficientlystrongtotakevengeanceonhisenemiesinopenwar,heconsideredthatitwouldbesaferandmoreadvantageoustooutwitthem,andforthisreasonhedidnotstoptheworkofreconciliation.

Andthatthismightbeeffectedthedukeconcludedapeacewiththeminwhichheconfirmedtheirformercovenants;hegavethemfourthousandducatsatonce;hepromisednottoinjuretheBentivogli;andheformedanalliancewithGiovanni;andmoreoverhewouldnotforcethemtocomepersonallyintohispresenceunlessitpleasedthemtodoso.Ontheotherhand,theypromisedtorestoretohimt

heduchyofUrbinoandotherplacesseizedbythem,toservehiminallhisexpeditions,andnottomakewaragainstorallythemselveswithanyonewithouthispermission.

Thisreconciliationbeingcompleted,GuidoUbaldo,theDukeofUrbino,againfledtoVenice,havingfirstdestroyedallthefortressesinhisstate;because,trustinginthepeople,hedidnotwishthatthefortresses,whichhedidnotthinkhecoulddefend,shouldbeheldbytheenemy,sincebythesemeansacheckwouldbekeptuponhisfriends.ButtheDukeValentino,havingcompletedthisconvention,anddispersedhismenthroughouttheRomagna,setoutforImolaattheendofNovembertogetherwithhisFrenchmen-at-arms:thencehewenttoCesena,wherehestayedsometimetonegotiatewiththeenvoysoftheVitelliandOrsini,whohadassembledwiththeirmenintheduchyofUrbino,astotheenterprisein

whichtheyshouldnowtakepart;butnothingbeingconcluded,OliverottodaFermowassenttoproposethatifthedukewishedtoundertakeanexpeditionagainstTuscanytheywereready;ifhedidnotwishit,thentheywouldbesiegeSinigalia.TothisthedukerepliedthathedidnotwishtoenterintowarwithTuscany,andthusbecomehostiletotheFlorentines,butthathewasverywillingtoproceedagainstSinigalia.

Ithappenedthatnotlongafterwardsthetownsurrendered,butthefortresswouldnotyieldtothembecausethecastellanwouldnotgiveituptoanyonebutthedukeinperson;thereforetheyexhortedhimtocomethere.Thisappearedagoodopportunitytotheduke,as,beinginvitedbythem,andnotgoingofhisownwill,hewouldawakennosuspicions.Andthemoretoreassurethem,heallowedalltheFrenchmen-at-armswhowerewithhiminLombardytodepart,exceptthehun

dredlancersunderMons.diCandales,hisbrother-in-law.HeleftCesenaaboutthemiddleofDecember,andwenttoFano,andwiththeutmostcunningandclevernesshepersuadedtheVitelliandOrsinitowaitforhimatSinigalia,pointingouttothemthatanylackofcompliancewouldcastadoubtuponthesincerityandpermanencyofthereconciliation,andthathewasamanwhowishedtomakeuseofthearmsandcouncilsofhisfriends.ButVitellozzoremainedverystubborn,forthedeathofhisbrotherwarnedhimthatheshouldnotoffendaprinceandafterwardstrusthim;nevertheless,persuadedbyPagoloOrsini,whomthedukehadcorruptedwithgiftsandpromises,heagreedtowait.

8/2/2019 Prince Fxd


8/2/2019 Prince Fxd


headvisedhimtosendthematoncetotheirquartersandtocomehimselftomeettheduke.AndOliverotto,havingtakenthisadvice,camebeforetheduke,who,whenhesawhim,calledtohim;andOliverotto,havingmadehisobeisance,joinedtheothers.

SothewholepartyenteredSinigalia,dismountedattheduke'squarters,andwentwithhimintoasecretchamber,wherethedukemadethemprisoners;hethenmountedonhorseback,andissuedordersthatthemenofOliverottoandtheOrsinishouldbestrippedoftheirarms.ThoseofOliverotto,beingathand,werequicklysettled,butthoseoftheOrsiniandVitelli,beingatadistance,andhavingapresentimentofthedestructionoftheirmasters,hadtimetopreparethemselves,andbearinginmindthevalouranddisciplineoftheOrsinianandVitellianhouses,theystoodtogetheragainstthehostileforcesofthecountryandsavedthemselves.

Buttheduke'ssoldiers,notbeingcontentwithhavingpillagedthemenofOliverotto,begantosackSinigalia,andifthedukehadnotrepressedthisoutragebykillingsomeofthemtheywouldhavecompletelysackedit.Nighthavingcomeandthetumultbeingsilenced,thedukepreparedtokillVitellozzoandOliverotto;heledthemintoaroomandcausedthemtobestrangled.Neitherofthemusedwordsinkeepingwiththeirpastlives:Vitellozzoprayedthathemightaskofthepopefullpardonforhissins;OliverottocringedandlaidtheblameforallinjuriesagainstthedukeonVitellozzo.PagoloandtheDukediGravinaOrsiniwerekeptaliveuntilthedukeheardfromRomethatthepopehadtakentheCardi

nalOrsino,theArchbishopofFlorence,andMesserJacopodaSantaCroce.Afterwhichnews,on18thJanuary1502,inthecastleofPieve,theyalsowerestrangledinthesameway.

THELIFEOFCASTRUCCIOCASTRACANIOFLUCCA

WRITTENBYNICOLOMACHIAVELLI

AndsenttohisfriendsZANOBIBUONDELMONTIAndLUIGIALAMANNI

CASTRUCCIOCASTRACANI1284-1328

Itappears,dearestZanobiandLuigi,awonderfulthingtothosewhohaveconsideredthematter,thatallmen,orthelargernumberofthem,whohaveperformedgreatdeedsintheworld,andexcelledallothersintheirday,havehadtheirbirthandbeginninginbasenessandobscurity;orhavebeenaggrievedbyFortuneinsomeoutrageousway.Theyhaveeitherbeenexposedtothemercyofwildbeasts,ortheyhavehadsomeanaparentagethatinshametheyhavegiventhemselvesouttobesonsofJoveorofsomeotherdeity.Itwouldbewearisometorelatewhothesepersonsmayhavebeenbecausetheyarewellknowntoeverybody,and,assuchtaleswouldnotbeparticularlyedifyingtothosewhoreadthem,theyareomitted.IbelievethattheselowlybeginningsofgreatmenoccurbecauseFortu

neisdesirousofshowingtotheworldthatsuchmenowemuchtoherandlittletowisdom,becauseshebeginstoshowherhandwhenwisdomcanreallytakenopartintheircareer:thusallsuccessmustbeattributedtoher.CastruccioCastracaniofLuccawasoneofthosemenwhodidgreatdeeds,ifheismeasuredbythetimesinwhichhelivedandthecityinwhichhewasborn;but,likemanyothers,hewasneitherfortunatenordistinguishedinhisbirth,asthecourseofthishistorywillshow.Itappearedtobedesirabletorecallhismemory,becauseIhavediscernedinhimsuchindicationsofvalourandfortuneasshouldmakehimagreatexemplartomen.IthinkalsothatIoughttocallyourattentiontohisactions,becauseyouofallmenIknowdelightmostinnobledeeds.

8/2/2019 Prince Fxd


ThefamilyofCastracaniwasformerlynumberedamongthenoblefamiliesofLucca,butinthedaysofwhichIspeakithadsomewhatfalleninestate,assooftenhappensinthisworld.TothisfamilywasbornasonAntonio,whobecameapriestoftheorderofSanMicheleofLucca,andforthisreasonwashonouredwiththetitleofMesserAntonio.Hehadanonlysister,whohadbeenmarriedtoBuonaccorsoCenami,butBuonaccorsodyingshebecameawidow,andnotwishingtomarryagainwenttolivewithherbrother.MesserAntoniohadavineyardbehindthehousewhereheresided,andasitwasboundedonallsidesbygardens,anypersoncouldhaveaccesstoitwithoutdifficulty.Onemorning,shortlyaftersunrise,MadonnaDianora,asthesisterofMesserAntoniowascalled,hadoccasiontogointothevineyardasusualtogatherherbsforseasoningthedinner,andhearingaslightrustlingamongtheleavesofavinesheturnedhereyesinthatdirection,andheardsomethingresemblingthecryofaninfant.Whereuponshewenttowardsit,andsawthehandsandfaceofababywhowaslyingenvelopedintheleavesandwhoseemedtobecryingforitsmother.Partlywonderingandpartlyfearing,yetfullofcompassion,shelifteditupandcarriedittothehouse,whereshewasheditandclotheditwithcleanlinenasiscustomary,andshowedittoMesserAntoniowhenhereturnedhome.Whenheheardwhathadhappenedandsawthechildhewasnotlesssurprisedorcompassionatethanhissister.Theydiscussedbetweenthemselveswhatshouldbedone,andseeingthathewaspriestandthatshehadnochildren,theyfinallydeterminedtobringitup.Theyhadanurseforit,anditwasrearedandlovedasifitweretheirownchild.Theybaptizedit,andgaveitthenameofCastruccioaftertheirfather.Astheyearspass

edCastrucciogrewveryhandsome,andgaveevidenceofwitanddiscretion,andlearntwithaquicknessbeyondhisyearsthoselessonswhichMesserAntonioimpartedtohim.MesserAntoniointendedtomakeapriestofhim,andintimewouldhaveinductedhimintohiscanonryandotherbenefices,andallhisinstructionwasgivenwiththisobject;butAntoniodiscoveredthatthecharacterofCastrucciowasquiteunfittedforthepriesthood.AssoonasCastruccioreachedtheageoffourteenhebegantotakelessnoticeofthechidingofMesserAntonioandMadonnaDianoraandnolongertofearthem;heleftoffreadingecclesiasticalbooks,andturnedtoplayingwitharms,delightinginnothingsomuchasinlearningtheiruses,andinrunning,leaping,andwrestlingwithotherboys.Inallexerciseshefarexcelledhiscompanionsincourageandbodilystrength,andifatanytimehedidturntobooks,onlythosepleasedhimwhichtoldofwarsandthemightydeedsofmen.MesserAntoniobeheldallthiswithvexationandsorrow.

TherelivedinthecityofLuccaagentlemanoftheGuinigifamily,namedMesserFrancesco,whoseprofessionwasarmsandwhoinriches,bodilystrength,andvalourexcelledallothermeninLucca.HehadoftenfoughtunderthecommandoftheViscontiofMilan,andasaGhibellinewasthevaluedleaderofthatpartyinLucca.ThisgentlemanresidedinLuccaandwasaccustomedtoassemblewithothersmostmorningsandeveningsunderthebalconyofthePodesta,whichisatthetopofthesquareofSanMichele,thefinestsquareinLucca,andhehadoftenseenCastrucciotakingpartwithotherchildrenofthestreetinthosegamesofwhichIhavespoken.NoticingthatCastrucciofarexcelledtheotherboys,andthatheappearedtoexercisearoyalauthorityoverthem,andthattheylovedandobeyedhim,MesserFrancescobecamegreatlydesirousoflearningwhohewas.BeinginformedofthecircumstancesofthebringingupofCastrucciohefeltagrea

terdesiretohavehimneartohim.Thereforehecalledhimonedayandaskedhimwhetherhewouldmorewillinglyliveinthehouseofagentleman,wherehewouldlearntoridehorsesandusearms,orinthehouseofapriest,wherehewouldlearnnothingbutmassesandtheservicesoftheChurch.MesserFrancescocouldseethatitpleasedCastrucciogreatlytohearhorsesandarmsspokenof,eventhoughhestoodsilent,blushingmodestly;butbeingencouragedbyMesserFrancescotospeak,heansweredthat,ifhismasterwereagreeable,nothingwouldpleasehimmorethantogiveuphispriestlystudiesandtakeupthoseofasoldier.ThisreplydelightedMesserFrancesco,andinaveryshorttimeheobtainedtheconsentofMesserAntonio,whowasdriventoyieldbyhisknowledgeofthenat

8/2/2019 Prince Fxd


ureofthelad,andthefearthathewouldnotbeabletoholdhimmuchlonger.

ThusCastrucciopassedfromthehouseofMesserAntoniothepriesttothehouseofMesserFrancescoGuinigithesoldier,anditwasastonishingtofindthatinaveryshorttimehemanifestedallthatvirtueandbearingwhichweareaccustomedtoassociatewithatruegentleman.Inthefirstplacehebecameanaccomplishedhorseman,andcouldmanagewitheasethemostfierycharger,andinalljoustsandtournaments,althoughstillayouth,hewasobservedbeyondallothers,andheexcelledinallexercisesofstrengthanddexterity.Butwhatenhancedsomuchthecharmoftheseaccomplishments,wasthedelightfulmodestywhichenabledhimtoavoidoffenceineitheractorwordtoothers,forhewasdeferentialtothegreatmen,modestwithhisequals,andcourteoustohisinferiors.Thesegiftsmadehimbeloved,notonlybyalltheGuinigifamily,butbyallLucca.WhenCastrucciohadreachedhiseighteenthyear,theGhibellinesweredrivenfromPaviabytheGuelphs,andMesserFrancescowassentbytheViscontitoassisttheGhibellines,andwithhimwentCastruccio,inchargeofhisforces.Castrucciogaveampleproofofhisprudenceandcourageinthisexpedition,acquiringgreaterreputationthananyothercaptain,andhisnameandfamewereknown,notonlyinPavia,butthroughoutallLombardy.

Castruccio,havingreturnedtoLuccainfarhigherestimationthatheleftit,didnotomittouseallthemeansinhispowertogainasmanyfriendsashecould,neglectingnoneofthoseartswhicharenecessaryforthatpurpose.AboutthistimeMesserFrancescodied,leavingasonthirteenyearsofagenamedPagolo,

andhavingappointedCastrucciotobehisson'stutorandadministratorofhisestate.BeforehediedFrancescocalledCastrucciotohim,andprayedhimtoshowPagolothatgoodwillwhichhe(Francesco)hadalwaysshowntoHIM,andtorendertothesonthegratitudewhichhehadnotbeenabletorepaytothefather.UponthedeathofFrancesco,CastrucciobecamethegovernorandtutorofPagolo,whichincreasedenormouslyhispowerandposition,andcreatedacertainamountofenvyagainsthiminLuccainplaceoftheformeruniversalgoodwill,formanymensuspectedhimofharbouringtyrannicalintentions.AmongthesetheleadingmanwasGiorgiodegliOpizi,theheadoftheGuelphparty.ThismanhopedafterthedeathofMesserFrancescotobecomethechiefmaninLucca,butitseemedtohimthatCastruccio,withthegreatabilitieswhichhealreadyshowed,andholdingthepositionofgovernor,deprivedhimofhisopportunity;thereforehebegantosowthoseseedswhichshouldrobCastruccioofhiseminence.Castruccioatf

irsttreatedthiswithscorn,butafterwardshegrewalarmed,thinkingthatMesserGiorgiomightbeabletobringhimintodisgracewiththedeputyofKingRubertoofNaplesandhavehimdrivenoutofLucca.

TheLordofPisaatthattimewasUguccioneoftheFaggiuolaofArezzo,whobeinginthefirstplaceelectedtheircaptainafterwardsbecametheirlord.ThereresidedinParissomeexiledGhibellinesfromLucca,withwhomCastruccioheldcommunicationswiththeobjectofeffectingtheirrestorationbythehelpofUguccione.CastruccioalsobroughtintohisplansfriendsfromLuccawhowouldnotenduretheauthorityoftheOpizi.Havingfixeduponaplantobefollowed,CastrucciocautiouslyfortifiedthetoweroftheOnesti,fillingitwithsuppliesandmunitionsofwar,inorderthatitmightstandasiegeforafewdaysincaseofneed.WhenthenightcamewhichhadbeenagreeduponwithUguccione,whohadoc

cupiedtheplainbetweenthemountainsandPisawithmanymen,thesignalwasgiven,andwithoutbeingobservedUguccioneapproachedthegateofSanPieroandsetfiretotheportcullis.Castruccioraisedagreatuproarwithinthecity,callingthepeopletoarmsandforcingopenthegatefromhisside.Uguccioneenteredwithhismen,pouredthroughthetown,andkilledMesserGiorgiowithallhisfamilyandmanyofhisfriendsandsupporters.Thegovernorwasdrivenout,andthegovernmentreformedaccordingtothewishesofUguccione,tothedetrimentofthecity,becauseitwasfoundthatmorethanonehundredfamilieswereexiledatthattime.Ofthosewhofled,partwenttoFlorenceandparttoPistoia,whichcitywastheheadquartersoftheGuelphparty,andforthisreasonitbecame

8/2/2019 Prince Fxd


mosthostiletoUguccioneandtheLucchese.

AsitnowappearedtotheFlorentinesandothersoftheGuelphpartythattheGhibellinesabsorbedtoomuchpowerinTuscany,theydeterminedtorestoretheexiledGuelphstoLucca.TheyassembledalargearmyintheValdiNievole,andseizedMontecatini;fromthencetheymarchedtoMontecarlo,inordertosecurethefreepassageintoLucca.UponthisUguccioneassembledhisPisanandLuccheseforces,andwithanumberofGermancavalrywhichhedrewoutofLombardy,hemovedagainstthequartersoftheFlorentines,whoupontheappearanceoftheenemywithdrewfromMontecarlo,andpostedthemselvesbetweenMontecatiniandPescia.UguccionenowtookupapositionneartoMontecarlo,andwithinabouttwomilesoftheenemy,andslightskirmishesbetweenthehorseofbothpartieswereofdailyoccurrence.OwingtotheillnessofUguccione,thePisansandLucchesedelayedcomingtobattlewiththeenemy.Uguccione,findinghimselfgrowingworse,wenttoMontecarlotobecured,andleftthecommandofthearmyinthehandsofCastruccio.ThischangebroughtabouttheruinoftheGuelphs,who,thinkingthatthehostilearmyhavinglostitscaptainhadlostitshead,grewover-confident.Castruccioobservedthis,andallowedsomedaystopassinordertoencouragethisbelief;healsoshowedsignsoffear,anddidnotallowanyofthemunitionsofthecamptobeused.Ontheotherside,theGuelphsgrewmoreinsolentthemoretheysawtheseevidencesoffear,andeverydaytheydrewoutintheorderofbattleinfrontofthearmyofCastruccio.Presently,deemingthattheenemywassufficientlyemboldened,andhavingmasteredtheirtactics,hedecidedtojoinbattlewiththem.Firsthespokeafewwordsofencouragementtohissoldiers

,andpointedouttothemthecertaintyofvictoryiftheywouldbutobeyhiscommands.Castrucciohadnoticedhowtheenemyhadplacedallhisbesttroopsinthecentreofthelineofbattle,andhislessreliablemenonthewingsofthearmy;whereuponhedidexactlytheopposite,puttinghismostvaliantmenontheflanks,whilethoseonwhomhecouldnotsostronglyrelyhemovedtothecentre.Observingthisorderofbattle,hedrewoutofhislinesandquicklycameinsightofthehostilearmy,who,asusual,hadcomeintheirinsolencetodefyhim.Hethencommandedhiscentresquadronstomarchslowly,whilsthemovedrapidlyforwardthoseonthewings.Thus,whentheycameintocontactwiththeenemy,onlythewingsofthetwoarmiesbecameengaged,whilstthecenterbattalionsremainedoutofaction,forthesetwoportionsofthelineofbattlewereseparatedfromeachotherbyalongintervalandthusunabletoreacheachother.BythisexpedientthemorevaliantpartofCastruccio'smenwereopposedtotheweaker

partoftheenemy'stroops,andthemostefficientmenoftheenemyweredisengaged;andthustheFlorentineswereunabletofightwiththosewhowerearrayedoppositetothem,ortogiveanyassistancetotheirownflanks.So,withoutmuchdifficulty,Castruccioputtheenemytoflightonbothflanks,andthecentrebattalionstooktoflightwhentheyfoundthemselvesexposedtoattack,withouthavingachanceofdisplayingtheirvalour.Thedefeatwascomplete,andthelossinmenveryheavy,therebeingmorethantenthousandmenkilledwithmanyofficersandknightsoftheGuelphpartyinTuscany,andalsomanyprinceswhohadcometohelpthem,amongwhomwerePiero,thebrotherofKingRuberto,andCarlo,hisnephew,andFilippo,thelordofTaranto.OnthepartofCastrucciothelossdidnotamounttomorethanthreehundredmen,amongwhomwasFrancesco,thesonofUguccione,who,beingyoungandrash,waskilledinthefirstonset.

ThisvictorysogreatlyincreasedthereputationofCastrucciothatUguccioneconceivedsomejealousyandsuspicionofhim,becauseitappearedtoUguccionethatthisvictoryhadgivenhimnoincreaseofpower,butratherthandiminishedit.Beingofthismind,heonlywaitedforanopportunitytogiveeffecttoit.ThisoccurredonthedeathofPierAgnoloMicheli,amanofgreatreputeandabilitiesinLucca,themurdererofwhomfledtothehouseofCastruccioforrefuge.Onthesergeantsofthecaptaingoingtoarrestthemurderer,theyweredrivenoffbyCastruccio,andthemurdererescaped.ThisaffaircomingtotheknowledgeofUguccione,whowasthanatPisa,itappearedtohimaproperopportunitytopunishCastruccio.HethereforesentforhissonNeri,whowasthegovernorofLu

8/2/2019 Prince Fxd


cca,andcommissionedhimtotakeCastruccioprisoneratabanquetandputhimtodeath.Castruccio,fearingnoevil,wenttothegovernorinafriendlyway,wasentertainedatsupper,andthenthrownintoprison.ButNeri,fearingtoputhimtodeathlestthepeopleshouldbeincensed,kepthimalive,inordertohearfurtherfromhisfatherconcerninghisintentions.Ugucionnecursedthehesitationandcowardiceofhisson,andatoncesetoutfromPisatoLuccawithfourhundredhorsementofinishthebusinessinhisownway;buthehadnotyetreachedthebathswhenthePisansrebelledandputhisdeputytodeathandcreatedCountGaddodellaGherardescatheirlord.BeforeUguccionereachedLuccaheheardoftheoccurrencesatPisa,butitdidnotappearwisetohimtoturnback,lesttheLucchesewiththeexampleofPisabeforethemshouldclosetheirgatesagainsthim.ButtheLucchese,havingheardofwhathadhappenedatPisa,availedthemselvesofthisopportunitytodemandtheliberationofCastruccio,notwithstandingthatUguccionehadarrivedintheircity.Theyfirstbegantospeakofitinprivatecircles,afterwardsopenlyinthesquaresandstreets;thentheyraisedatumult,andwitharmsintheirhandswenttoUguccioneanddemandedthatCastruccioshouldbesetatliberty.Uguccione,fearingthatworsemighthappen,releasedhimfromprison.WhereuponCastrucciogatheredhisfriendsaroundhim,andwiththehelpofthepeopleattackedUguccione;who,findinghehadnoresourcebutinflight,rodeawaywithhisfriendstoLombardy,tothelordsofScale,wherehediedinpoverty.

ButCastrucciofrombeingaprisonerbecamealmostaprinceinLucca,andhecarriedhimselfsodiscreetlywithhisfriendsandthepeoplethattheyappointedh

imcaptainoftheirarmyforoneyear.Havingobtainedthis,andwishingtogainrenowninwar,heplannedtherecoveryofthemanytownswhichhadrebelledafterthedepartureofUguccione,andwiththehelpofthePisans,withwhomhehadconcludedatreaty,hemarchedtoSerezzana.Tocapturethisplaceheconstructedafortagainstit,whichiscalledto-dayZerezzanello;inthecourseoftwomonthsCastrucciocapturedthetown.Withthereputationgainedatthatsiege,herapidlyseizedMassa,Carrara,andLavenza,andinashorttimehadoverrunthewholeofLunigiana.InordertoclosethepasswhichleadsfromLombardytoLunigiana,hebesiegedPontremoliandwresteditfromthehandsofMesserAnastagioPalavicini,whowasthelordofit.AfterthisvictoryhereturnedtoLucca,andwaswelcomedbythewholepeople.AndnowCastruccio,deemingitimprudentanylongertodefermakinghimselfaprince,gothimselfcreatedthelordofLuccabythehelpofPazzinodelPoggio,PuccinellodalPortico,FrancescoBoccansacc

hi,andCeccoGuinigi,allofwhomhehadcorrupted;andhewasafterwardssolemnlyanddeliberatelyelectedprincebythepeople.AtthistimeFrederickofBavaria,theKingoftheRomans,cameintoItalytoassumetheImperialcrown,andCastruccio,inorderthathemightmakefriendswithhim,methimattheheadoffivehundredhorsemen.CastrucciohadleftashisdeputyinLucca,PagoloGuinigi,whowasheldinhighestimation,becauseofthepeople'sloveforthememoryofhisfather.CastrucciowasreceivedingreathonourbyFrederick,andmanyprivilegeswereconferreduponhim,andhewasappointedtheemperor'slieutenantinTuscany.AtthistimethePisanswereingreatfearofGaddodellaGherardesca,whomtheyhaddrivenoutofPisa,andtheyhadrecourseforassistancetoFrederick.FrederickcreatedCastrucciothelordofPisa,andthePisans,indreadoftheGuelphparty,andparticularlyoftheFlorentines,wereconstrainedtoaccepthimastheirlord.

Frederick,havingappointedagovernorinRometowatchhisItalianaffairs,returnedtoGermany.AlltheTuscanandLombardianGhibellines,whofollowedtheimperiallead,hadrecoursetoCastruccioforhelpandcounsel,andallpromisedhimthegovernorshipofhiscountry,ifenabledtorecoveritwithhisassistance.AmongtheseexileswereMatteoGuidi,NardoScolari,LapoUberti,GerozzoNardi,andPieroBuonaccorsi,allexiledFlorentinesandGhibellines.CastrucciohadthesecretintentionofbecomingthemasterofallTuscanybytheaidofthesemenandofhisownforces;andinordertogaingreaterweightinaffairs,heenteredintoaleaguewithMesserMatteoVisconti,thePrinceofMilan,andorgani

8/2/2019 Prince Fxd


zedforhimtheforcesofhiscityandthecountrydistricts.AsLuccahadfivegates,hedividedhisowncountrydistrictsintofiveparts,whichhesuppliedwitharms,andenrolledthemenundercaptainsandensigns,sothathecouldquicklybringintothefieldtwentythousandsoldiers,withoutthosewhomhecouldsummontohisassistancefromPisa.Whilehesurroundedhimselfwiththeseforcesandallies,ithappenedatMesserMatteoViscontiwasattackedbytheGuelphsofPiacenza,whohaddrivenouttheGhibellineswiththeassistanceofaFlorentinearmyandtheKingRuberto.MesserMatteocalleduponCastrucciotoinvadetheFlorentinesintheirownterritories,sothat,beingattackedathome,theyshouldbecompelledtodrawtheirarmyoutofLombardyinordertodefendthemselves.CastruccioinvadedtheValdarno,andseizedFucecchioandSanMiniato,inflictingimmensedamageuponthecountry.WhereupontheFlorentinesrecalledtheirarmy,whichhadscarcelyreachedTuscany,whenCastrucciowasforcedbyothernecessitiestoreturntoLucca.

ThereresidedinthecityofLuccathePoggiofamily,whoweresopowerfulthattheycouldnotonlyelevateCastruccio,butevenadvancehimtothedignityofprince;anditappearingtothemtheyhadnotreceivedsuchrewardsfortheirservicesastheydeserved,theyincitedotherfamiliestorebelandtodriveCastrucciooutofLucca.Theyfoundtheiropportunityonemorning,andarmingthemselves,theysetuponthelieutenantwhomCastrucciohadlefttomaintainorderandkilledhim.Theyendeavouredtoraisethepeopleinrevolt,butStefanodiPoggio,apeaceableoldmanwhohadtakennohandintherebellion,intervenedandcompelledthembyhisauthoritytolaydowntheirarms;andheofferedtobetheir

mediatorwithCastrucciotoobtainfromhimwhattheydesired.Thereforetheylaiddowntheirarmswithnogreaterintelligencethantheyhadtakenthemup.Castruccio,havingheardthenewsofwhathadhappenedatLucca,atonceputPagoloGuinigiincommandofthearmy,andwithatroopofcavalrysetoutforhome.Contrarytohisexpectations,hefoundtherebellionatanend,yethepostedhismeninthemostadvantageousplacesthroughoutthecity.AsitappearedtoStefanothatCastrucciooughttobeverymuchobligedtohim,hesoughthimout,andwithoutsayinganythingonhisownbehalf,forhedidnotrecognizeanyneedfordoingso,hebeggedCastrucciotopardontheothermembersofhisfamilybyreasonoftheiryouth,theirformerfriendships,andtheobligationswhichCastrucciowasundertotheirhouse.TothisCastrucciograciouslyresponded,andbeggedStefanotoreassurehimself,declaringthatitgavehimmorepleasuretofindthetumultatanendthanithadevercausedhimanxietytohearofitsincepti

on.HeencouragedStefanotobringhisfamilytohim,sayingthathethankedGodforhavinggivenhimtheopportunityofshowinghisclemencyandliberality.UponthewordofStefanoandCastrucciotheysurrendered,andwithStefanowereimmediatelythrownintoprisonandputtodeath.MeanwhiletheFlorentineshadrecoveredSanMiniato,whereuponitseemedadvisabletoCastrucciotomakepeace,asitdidnotappeartohimthathewassufficientlysecureatLuccatoleavehim.HeapproachedtheFlorentineswiththeproposalofatruce,whichtheyreadilyentertained,fortheywerewearyofthewar,anddesirousofgettingridoftheexpensesofit.Atreatywasconcludedwiththemfortwoyears,bywhichbothpartiesagreedtokeeptheconqueststheyhadmade.Castrucciothusreleasedfromthistrouble,turnedhisattentiontoaffairsinLucca,andinorderthatheshouldnotagainbesubjecttotheperilsfromwhichhehadjustescaped,he,undervariouspretencesandreasons,firstwipedoutallthosewhobytheirambition

mightaspiretotheprincipality;notsparingoneofthem,butdeprivingthemofcountryandproperty,andthosewhomhehadinhishandsoflifealso,statingthathehadfoundbyexperiencethatnoneofthemweretobetrusted.ThenforhisfurthersecurityheraisedafortressinLuccawiththestonesofthetowersofthosewhomhehadkilledorhuntedoutofthestate.

WhilstCastrucciomadepeacewiththeFlorentines,andstrengthenedhispositioninLucca,heneglectednoopportunity,shortofopenwar,ofincreasinghisimportanceelsewhere.ItappearedtohimthatifhecouldgetpossessionofPistoia,hewouldhaveonefootinFlorence,whichwashisgreatdesire.He,therefore,

8/2/2019 Prince Fxd


invariouswaysmadefriendswiththemountaineers,andworkedmatterssoinPistoiathatbothpartiesconfidedtheirsecretstohim.Pistoiawasdivided,asitalwayshadbeen,intotheBianchiandNeriparties;theheadoftheBianchiwasBastianodiPossente,andoftheNeri,JacopodaGia.EachofthesemenheldsecretcommunicationswithCastruccio,andeachdesiredtodrivetheotheroutofthecity;and,aftermanythreatenings,theycametoblows.JacopofortifiedhimselfattheFlorentinegate,BastianoatthatoftheLucchesesideofthecity;bothtrustedmoreinCastrucciothanintheFlorentines,becausetheybelievedthatCastrucciowasfarmorereadyandwillingtofightthantheFlorentines,andtheybothsenttohimforassistance.Hegavepromisestoboth,sayingtoBastianothathewouldcomeinperson,andtoJacopothathewouldsendhispupil,PagoloGuinigi.AttheappointedtimehesentforwardPagolobywayofPisa,andwenthimselfdirecttoPistoia;atmidnightbothofthemmetoutsidethecity,andbothwereadmittedasfriends.Thusthetwoleadersentered,andatasignalgivenbyCastruccio,onekilledJacopodaGia,andtheotherBastianodiPossente,andbothtookprisonersorkilledthepartisansofeitherfaction.WithoutfurtheroppositionPistoiapassedintothehandsofCastruccio,who,havingforcedtheSignoriatoleavethepalace,compelledthepeopletoyieldobediencetohim,makingthemmanypromisesandremittingtheirolddebts.Thecountrysideflockedtothecitytoseethenewprince,andallwerefilledwithhopeandquicklysettleddown,influencedinagreatmeasurebyhisgreatvalour.

AboutthistimegreatdisturbancesaroseinRome,owingtothedearnessoflivingwhichwascausedbytheabsenceofthepontiffatAvignon.TheGermangovernor

,Enrico,wasmuchblamedforwhathappened--murdersandtumultsfollowingeachotherdaily,withouthisbeingabletoputanendtothem.ThiscausedEnricomuchanxietylesttheRomansshouldcallinRuberto,theKingofNaples,whowoulddrivetheGermansoutofthecity,andbringbackthePope.HavingnonearerfriendtowhomhecouldapplyforhelpthanCastruccio,hesenttohim,begginghimnotonlytogivehimassistance,butalsotocomeinpersontoRome.Castruccioconsideredthatheoughtnottohesitatetorendertheemperorthisservice,becausehebelievedthathehimselfwouldnotbesafeifatanytimetheemperorceasedtoholdRome.LeavingPagoloGuinigiincommandatLucca,CastrucciosetoutforRomewithsixhundredhorsemen,wherehewasreceivedbyEnricowiththegreatestdistinction.InashorttimethepresenceofCastruccioobtainedsuchrespectfortheemperorthat,withoutbloodshedorviolence,goodorderwasrestored,chieflybyreasonofCastrucciohavingsentbyseafromthecountryround

Pisalargequantitiesofcorn,andthusremovedthesourceofthetrouble.WhenhehadchastisedsomeoftheRomanleaders,andadmonishedothers,voluntaryobediencewasrenderedtoEnrico.Castruccioreceivedmanyhonours,andwasmadeaRomansenator.Thisdignitywasassumedwiththegreatestpomp,Castrucciobeingclothedinabrocadedtoga,whichhadthefollowingwordsembroideredonitsfront:"IamwhatGodwills."Whilstonthebackwas:"WhatGoddesiresshallbe."

DuringthistimetheFlorentines,whoweremuchenragedthatCastruccioshouldhaveseizedPistoiaduringthetruce,consideredhowtheycouldtemptthecitytorebel,todowhichtheythoughtwouldnotbedifficultinhisabsence.AmongtheexiledPistoiansinFlorencewereBaldoCecchiandJacopoBaldini,bothmenofleadingandreadytofacedanger.ThesemenkeptupcommunicationswiththeirfriendsinPistoia,andwiththeaidoftheFlorentinesenteredthecitybynight

,andafterdrivingoutsomeofCastruccio'sofficialsandpartisans,andkillingothers,theyrestoredthecitytoitsfreedom.ThenewsofthisgreatlyangeredCastruccio,andtakingleaveofEnrico,hepressedoningreathastetoPistoia.WhentheFlorentinesheardofhisreturn,knowingthathewouldlosenotime,theydecidedtointercepthimwiththeirforcesintheValdiNievole,underthebeliefthatbydoingsotheywouldcutoffhisroadtoPistoia.AssemblingagreatarmyofthesupportersoftheGuelphcause,theFlorentinesenteredthePistoianterritories.Ontheotherhand,CastruccioreachedMontecarlowithhisarmy;andhavingheardwheretheFlorentines'lay,hedecidednottoencounteritintheplainsofPistoia,nortoawaititintheplainsofPescia,but,asfaras

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hepossiblycould,toattackitboldlyinthePassofSerravalle.Hebelievedthatifhesucceededinthisdesign,victorywasassured,althoughhewasinformedthattheFlorentineshadthirtythousandmen,whilsthehadonlytwelvethousand.Althoughhehadeveryconfidenceinhisownabilitiesandthevalourofhistroops,yethehesitatedtoattackhisenemyintheopenlestheshouldbeoverwhelmedbynumbers.SerravalleisacastlebetweenPesciaandPistoia,situatedonahillwhichblockstheValdiNievole,notintheexactpass,butaboutabowshotbeyond;thepassitselfisinplacesnarrowandsteep,whilstingeneralitascendsgently,butisstillnarrow,especiallyatthesummitwherethewatersdivide,sothattwentymensidebysidecouldholdit.ThelordofSerravallewasManfred,aGerman,who,beforeCastrucciobecamelordofPistoia,hadbeenallowedtoremaininpossessionofthecastle,itbeingcommontotheLuccheseandthePistoians,andunclaimedbyeither--neitherofthemwishingtodisplaceManfredaslongashekepthispromiseofneutrality,andcameunderobligationstonoone.Forthesereasons,andalsobecausethecastlewaswellfortified,hehadalwaysbeenabletomaintainhisposition.ItwasherethatCastrucciohaddeterminedtofalluponhisenemy,forherehisfewmenwouldhavetheadvantage,andtherewasnofearlest,seeingthelargemassesofthehostileforcebeforetheybecameengaged,theyshouldnotstand.AssoonasthistroublewithFlorencearose,Castrucciosawtheimmenseadvantagewhichpossessionofthiscastlewouldgivehim,andhavinganintimatefriendshipwitharesidentinthecastle,hemanagedmatterssowithhimthatfourhundredofhismenweretobeadmittedintothecastlethenightbeforetheattackontheFlorentines,andthecastellanputtodeath.

Castruccio,havingpreparedeverything,hadnowtoencouragetheFlorentinestopersistintheirdesiretocarrytheseatofwarawayfromPistoiaintotheValdiNievole,thereforehedidnotmovehisarmyfromMontecarlo.ThustheFlorentineshurriedonuntiltheyreachedtheirencampmentunderSerravalle,intendingtocrossthehillonthefollowingmorning.Inthemeantime,Castrucciohadseizedthecastleatnight,hadalsomovedhisarmyfromMontecarlo,andmarchingfromthenceatmidnightindeadsilence,hadreachedthefootofSerravalle:thusheandtheFlorentinescommencedtheascentofthehillatthesametimeinthemorning.Castrucciosentforwardhisinfantrybythemainroad,andatroopoffourhundredhorsemenbyapathonthelefttowardsthecastle.TheFlorentinessentforwardfourhundredcavalryaheadoftheirarmywhichwasfollowing,neverexpectingtofindCastruccioinpossessionofthehill,norweretheyawareofh

ishavingseizedthecastle.ThusithappenedthattheFlorentinehorsemenmountingthehillwerecompletelytakenbysurprisewhentheydiscoveredtheinfantryofCastruccio,andsocloseweretheyuponittheyhadscarcelytimetopulldowntheirvisors.Itwasacaseofunreadysoldiersbeingattackedbyready,andtheywereassailedwithsuchvigourthatwithdifficultytheycouldholdtheirown,althoughsomefewofthemgotthrough.WhenthenoiseofthefightingreachedtheFlorentinecampbelow,itwasfilledwithconfusion.Thecavalryandinfantrybecameinextricablymixed:thecaptainswereunabletogettheirmeneitherbackwardorforward,owingtothenarrownessofthepass,andamidallthistumultnooneknewwhatoughttobedoneorwhatcouldbedone.Inashorttimethecavalrywhowereengagedwiththeenemy'sinfantrywerescatteredorkilledwithouthavingmadeanyeffectivedefencebecauseoftheirunfortunateposition,althoughinsheerdesperationtheyhadofferedastoutresistance.Retreathadbeen

impossible,withthemountainsonbothflanks,whilstinfrontweretheirenemies,andinthereartheirfriends.WhenCastrucciosawthathismenwereunabletostrikeadecisiveblowattheenemyandputthemtoflight,hesentonethousandinfantrymenroundbythecastle,withorderstojointhefourhundredhorsemenhehadpreviouslydispatchedthere,andcommandedthewholeforcetofallupontheflankoftheenemy.TheseorderstheycarriedoutwithsuchfurythattheFlorentinescouldnotsustaintheattack,butgaveway,andweresooninfullretreat--conqueredmorebytheirunfortunatepositionthanbythevalouroftheirenemy.ThoseintherearturnedtowardsPistoia,andspreadthroughtheplains,eachmanseekingonlyhisownsafety.Thedefeatwascompleteandverysanguinar

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y.Manycaptainsweretakenprisoners,amongwhomwereBandinideiRossi,FrancescoBrunelleschi,andGiovannidellaTosa,allFlorentinenoblemen,withmanyTuscansandNeapolitanswhofoughtontheFlorentineside,havingbeensentbyKingRubertotoassisttheGuelphs.ImmediatelythePistoiansheardofthisdefeattheydroveoutthefriendsoftheGuelphs,andsurrenderedtoCastruccio.HewasnotcontentwithoccupyingPratoandallthecastlesontheplainsonbothsidesoftheArno,butmarchedhisarmyintotheplainofPeretola,abouttwomilesfromFlorence.Hereheremainedmanydays,dividingthespoils,andcelebratinghisvictorywithfeastsandgames,holdinghorseraces,andfootracesformenandwomen.HealsostruckmedalsincommemorationofthedefeatoftheFlorentines.HeendeavouredtocorruptsomeofthecitizensofFlorence,whoweretoopenthecitygatesatnight;buttheconspiracywasdiscovered,andtheparticipatorsinittakenandbeheaded,amongwhomwereTommasoLupacciandLambertuccioFrescobaldi.ThisdefeatcausedtheFlorentinesgreatanxiety,anddespairingofpreservingtheirliberty,theysentenvoystoKingRubertoofNaples,offeringhimthedominionoftheircity;andhe,knowingofwhatimmenseimportancethemaintenanceoftheGuelphcausewastohim,acceptedit.HeagreedwiththeFlorentinestoreceivefromthemayearlytributeoftwohundredthousandflorins,andhesendhissonCarlotoFlorencewithfourthousandhorsemen.

ShortlyafterthistheFlorentineswererelievedinsomedegreeofthepressureofCastruccio'sarmy,owingtohisbeingcompelledtoleavehispositionsbeforeFlorenceandmarchonPisa,inordertosuppressaconspiracythathadbeenraisedagainsthimbyBenedettoLanfranchi,oneofthefirstmeninPisa,whocould

notendurethathisfatherlandshouldbeunderthedominionoftheLucchese.Hehadformedthisconspiracy,intendingtoseizethecitadel,killthepartisansofCastruccio,anddriveoutthegarrison.As,however,inaconspiracypaucityofnumbersisessentialtosecrecy,soforitsexecutionafewarenotsufficient,andinseekingmoreadherentstohisconspiracyLanfranchiencounteredapersonwhorevealedthedesigntoCastruccio.ThisbetrayalcannotbepassedbywithoutseverereproachtoBonifacioCerchiandGiovanniGuidi,twoFlorentineexileswhoweresufferingtheirbanishmentinPisa.ThereuponCastruccioseizedBenedettoandputhimtodeath,andbeheadedmanyothernoblecitizens,anddrovetheirfamiliesintoexile.ItnowappearedtoCastrucciothatbothPisaandPistoiawerethoroughlydisaffected;heemployedmuchthoughtandenergyuponsecuringhispositionthere,andthisgavetheFlorentinestheiropportunitytoreorganizetheirarmy,andtoawaitthecomingofCarlo,thesonoftheKingofNaples.W

henCarloarrivedtheydecidedtolosenomoretime,andassembledagreatarmyofmorethanthirtythousandinfantryandtenthousandcavalry--havingcalledtotheiraideveryGuelphtherewasinItaly.TheyconsultedwhethertheyshouldattackPistoiaorPisafirst,anddecidedthatitwouldbebettertomarchonthelatter--acourse,owingtotherecentconspiracy,morelikelytosucceed,andofmoreadvantagetothem,becausetheybelievedthatthesurrenderofPistoiawouldfollowtheacquisitionofPisa.

IntheearlypartofMay1328,theFlorentinesputinmotionthisarmyandquicklyoccupiedLastra,Signa,Montelupo,andEmpoli,passingfromthenceontoSanMiniato.WhenCastruccioheardoftheenormousarmywhichtheFlorentinesweresendingagainsthim,hewasinnodegreealarmed,believingthatthetimehadnowarrivedwhenFortunewoulddelivertheempireofTuscanyintohishands,forhe

hadnoreasontothinkthathisenemywouldmakeabetterfight,orhadbetterprospectsofsuccess,thanatPisaorSerravalle.Heassembledtwentythousandfootsoldiersandfourthousandhorsemen,andwiththisarmywenttoFucecchio,whilsthesentPagoloGuinigitoPisawithfivethousandinfantry.FucecchiohasastrongerpositionthananyothertowninthePisandistrict,owingtoitssituationbetweentheriversArnoandGuscianaanditsslightelevationabovethesurroundingplain.Moreover,theenemycouldnothinderitsbeingvictualledunlesstheydividedtheirforces,norcouldtheyapproachiteitherfromthedirectionofLuccaorPisa,norcouldtheygetthroughtoPisa,orattackCastruccio'sforcesexceptatadisadvantage.Inonecasetheywouldfindthemselvesplacedbe

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tweenhistwoarmies,theoneunderhisowncommandandtheotherunderPagolo,andintheothercasetheywouldhavetocrosstheArnotogettoclosequarterswiththeenemy,anundertakingofgreathazard.InordertotempttheFlorentinestotakethislattercourse,CastrucciowithdrewhismenfromthebanksoftheriverandplacedthemunderthewallsofFucecchio,leavingawideexpanseoflandbetweenthemandtheriver.

TheFlorentines,havingoccupiedSanMiniato,heldacouncilofwartodecidewhethertheyshouldattackPisaorthearmyofCastruccio,and,havingweighedthedifficultiesofbothcourses,theydecideduponthelatter.TheriverArnowasatthattimelowenoughtobefordable,yetthewaterreachedtotheshouldersoftheinfantrymenandtothesaddlesofthehorsemen.Onthemorningof10June1328,theFlorentinescommencedthebattlebyorderingforwardanumberofcavalryandtenthousandinfantry.Castruccio,whoseplanofactionwasfixed,andwhowellknewwhattodo,atonceattackedtheFlorentineswithfivethousandinfantryandthreethousandhorsemen,notallowingthemtoissuefromtheriverbeforehechargedthem;healsosentonethousandlightinfantryuptheriverbank,andthesamenumberdowntheArno.TheinfantryoftheFlorentinesweresomuchimpededbytheirarmsandthewaterthattheywerenotabletomountthebanksoftheriver,whilstthecavalryhadmadethepassageoftherivermoredifficultfortheothers,byreasonofthefewwhohadcrossedhavingbrokenupthebedoftheriver,andthisbeingdeepwithmud,manyofthehorsesrolledoverwiththeirridersandmanyofthemhadstucksofastthattheycouldnotmove.WhentheFlorentinecaptainssawthedifficultiestheirmenweremeeting,theywithdrew

themandmovedhigheruptheriver,hopingtofindtheriverbedlesstreacherousandthebanksmoreadaptedforlanding.ThesemenweremetatthebankbytheforceswhichCastrucciohadalreadysentforward,who,beinglightarmedwithbucklersandjavelinsintheirhands,letflywithtremendousshoutsintothefacesandbodiesofthecavalry.Thehorses,alarmedbythenoiseandthewounds,wouldnotmoveforward,andtrampledeachotheringreatconfusion.ThefightbetweenthemenofCastruccioandthoseoftheenemywhosucceededincrossingwassharpandterrible;bothsidesfoughtwiththeutmostdesperationandneitherwouldyield.ThesoldiersofCastrucciofoughttodrivetheothersbackintotheriver,whilsttheFlorentinesstrovetogetafootingonlandinordertomakeroomfortheotherspressingforward,whoiftheycouldbutgetoutofthewaterwouldbeabletofight,andinthisobstinateconflicttheywereurgedonbytheircaptains.Castruccioshoutedtohismenthatthesewerethesameenemieswhom

theyhadbeforeconqueredatSerravalle,whilsttheFlorentinesreproachedeachotherthatthemanyshouldbeovercomebythefew.AtlengthCastruccio,seeinghowlongthebattlehadlasted,andthatbothhismenandtheenemywereutterlyexhausted,andthatbothsideshadmanykilledandwounded,pushedforwardanotherbodyofinfantrytotakeupapositionattherearofthosewhowerefighting;hethencommandedtheselattertoopentheirranksasiftheyintendedtoretreat,andonepartofthemtoturntotherightandanothertotheleft.ThisclearedaspaceofwhichtheFlorentinesatoncetookadvantage,andthusgainedpossessionofaportionofthebattlefield.ButwhenthesetiredsoldiersfoundthemselvesatclosequarterswithCastruccio'sreservestheycouldnotstandagainstthemandatoncefellbackintotheriver.Thecavalryofeithersidehadnotasyetgainedanydecisiveadvantageovertheother,becauseCastruccio,knowinghisinferiorityinthisarm,hadcommandedhisleadersonlytostandonthed

efensiveagainsttheattacksoftheiradversaries,ashehopedthatwhenhehadovercometheinfantryhewouldbeabletomakeshortworkofthecavalry.Thisfelloutashehadhoped,forwhenhesawtheFlorentinearmydrivenbackacrosstheriverheorderedtheremainderofhisinfantrytoattackthecavalryoftheenemy.Thistheydidwithlanceandjavelin,and,joinedbytheirowncavalry,fellupontheenemywiththegreatestfuryandsoonputhimtoflight.TheFlorentinecaptains,havingseenthedifficultytheircavalryhadmetwithincrossingtheriver,hadattemptedtomaketheirinfantrycrosslowerdowntheriver,inordertoattacktheflanksofCastruccio'sarmy.Buthere,also,thebanksweresteepandalreadylinedbythemenofCastruccio,andthismovementwasquiteus

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eless.ThustheFlorentinesweresocompletelydefeatedatallpointsthatscarcelyathirdofthemescaped,andCastrucciowasagaincoveredwithglory.Manycaptainsweretakenprisoners,andCarlo,thesonofKingRuberto,withMichelagnoloFalconiandTaddeodegliAlbizzi,theFlorentinecommissioners,fledtoEmpoli.Ifthespoilsweregreat,theslaughterwasinfinitelygreater,asmightbeexpectedinsuchabattle.OftheFlorentinestherefelltwentythousandtwohundredandthirty-onemen,whilstCastrucciolostonethousandfivehundredandseventymen.

ButFortunegrowingenviousofthegloryofCastrucciotookawayhislifejustatthetimewhensheshouldhavepreservedit,andthusruinedallthoseplanswhichforsolongatimehehadworkedtocarryintoeffect,andinthesuccessfulprosecutionofwhichnothingbutdeathcouldhavestoppedhim.Castrucciowasinthethickofthebattlethewholeoftheday;andwhentheendofitcame,althoughfatiguedandoverheated,hestoodatthegateofFucecchiotowelcomehismenontheirreturnfromvictoryandpersonallythankthem.Hewasalsoonthewatchforanyattemptoftheenemytoretrievethefortunesoftheday;hebeingoftheopinionthatitwasthedutyofagoodgeneraltobethefirstmaninthesaddleandthelastoutofit.HereCastrucciostoodexposedtoawindwhichoftenrisesatmiddayonthebanksoftheArno,andwhichisoftenveryunhealthy;fromthishetookachill,ofwhichhethoughtnothing,ashewasaccustomedtosuchtroubles;butitwasthecauseofhisdeath.Onthefollowingnighthewasattackedwithhighfever,whichincreasedsorapidlythatthedoctorssawitmustprovefatal.Castruccio,therefore,calledPagoloGuinigitohim,andaddress

edhimasfollows:

"IfIcouldhavebelievedthatFortunewouldhavecutmeoffinthemidstofthecareerwhichwasleadingtothatglorywhichallmysuccessespromised,Ishouldhavelabouredless,andIshouldhaveleftthee,ifasmallerstate,atleastwithfewerenemiesandperils,becauseIshouldhavebeencontentwiththegovernorshipsofLuccaandPisa.IshouldneitherhavesubjugatedthePistoians,noroutragedtheFlorentineswithsomanyinjuries.ButIwouldhavemadeboththesepeoplesmyfriends,andIshouldhavelived,ifnolonger,atleastmorepeacefully,andhaveleftyouastatewithoutadoubtsmaller,butonemoresecureandestablishedonasurerfoundation.ButFortune,whoinsistsuponhavingthearbitramentofhumanaffairs,didnotendowmewithsufficientjudgmenttorecognizethisfromthefirst,northetimetosurmountit.Thouhastheard,formanyha

vetoldthee,andIhaveneverconcealedit,howIenteredthehouseofthyfatherwhilstyetaboy--astrangertoallthoseambitionswhicheverygeneroussoulshouldfeel--andhowIwasbroughtupbyhim,andlovedasthoughIhadbeenbornofhisblood;howunderhisgovernanceIlearnedtobevaliantandcapableofavailingmyselfofallthatfortune,ofwhichthouhastbeenwitness.Whenthygoodfathercametodie,hecommittedtheeandallhispossessionstomycare,andIhavebroughttheeupwiththatlove,andincreasedthyestatewiththatcare,whichIwasboundtoshow.Andinorderthatthoushouldstnotonlypossesstheestatewhichthyfatherleft,butalsothatwhichmyfortuneandabilitieshavegained,Ihavenevermarried,sothattheloveofchildrenshouldneverdeflectmymindfromthatgratitudewhichIowedtothechildrenofthyfather.ThusIleavetheeavastestate,ofwhichIamwellcontent,butIamdeeplyconcerned,inasmuchasIleaveittheeunsettledandinsecure.ThouhastthecityofLuc

caonthyhands,whichwillneverrestcontentedundertheygovernment.ThouhastalsoPisa,wherethemenareofnaturechangeableandunreliable,who,althoughtheymaybesometimesheldinsubjection,yettheywilleverdisdaintoserveunderaLucchese.Pistoiaisalsodisloyaltothee,shebeingeatenupwithfactionsanddeeplyincensedagainstthyfamilybyreasonofthewrongsrecentlyinflicteduponthem.ThouhastforneighbourstheoffendedFlorentines,injuredbyusinathousandways,butnotutterlydestroyed,whowillhailthenewsofmydeathwithmoredelightthantheywouldtheacquisitionofallTuscany.IntheEmperorandintheprincesofMilanthoucanstplacenoreliance,fortheyarefardistant,slow,andtheirhelpisverylongincoming.Therefore,thouhastnoh

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opeinanythingbutinthineownabilities,andinthememoryofmyvalour,andintheprestigewhichthislatestvictoryhasbroughtthee;which,asthouknowesthowtouseitwithprudence,willassisttheetocometotermswiththeFlorentines,who,astheyaresufferingunderthisgreatdefeat,shouldbeinclinedtolistentothee.AndwhereasIhavesoughttomakethemmyenemies,becauseIbelievedthatwarwiththemwouldconducetomypowerandglory,thouhasteveryinducementtomakefriendsofthem,becausetheiralliancewillbringtheeadvantagesandsecurity.Itisofthegreatestimportantinthisworldthatamanshouldknowhimself,andthemeasureofhisownstrengthandmeans;andhewhoknowsthathehasnotageniusforfightingmustlearnhowtogovernbytheartsofpeace.Anditwillbewellfortheetoruletheyconductbymycounsel,andtolearninthiswaytoenjoywhatmylife-workanddangershavegained;andinthisthouwilteasilysucceedwhenthouhastlearnttobelievethatwhatIhavetoldtheeistrue.Andthouwiltbedoublyindebtedtome,inthatIhavelefttheethisrealmandhavetaughttheehowtokeepit."

AfterthistherecametoCastrucciothosecitizensofPisa,Pistoia,andLucca,whohadbeenfightingathisside,andwhilstrecommendingPagolotothem,andmakingthemswearobediencetohimashissuccessor,hedied.Heleftahappymemorytothosewhohadknownhim,andnoprinceofthosetimeswaseverlovedwithsuchdevotionashewas.Hisobsequieswerecelebratedwitheverysignofmourning,andhewasburiedinSanFrancescoatLucca.FortunewasnotsofriendlytoPagoloGuinigiasshehadbeentoCastruccio,forhehadnottheabilities.NotlongafterthedeathofCastruccio,PagololostPisa,andthenPistoia,andonl

ywithdifficultyheldontoLucca.ThislattercitycontinuedinthefamilyofGuinigiuntilthetimeofthegreat-grandsonofPagolo.

FromwhathasbeenrelatedhereitwillbeseenthatCastrucciowasamanofexceptionalabilities,notonlymeasuredbymenofhisowntime,butalsobythoseofanearlierdate.Instaturehewasabovetheordinaryheight,andperfectlyproportioned.Hewasofagraciouspresence,andhewelcomedmenwithsuchurbanitythatthosewhospokewithhimrarelylefthimdispleased.Hishairwasinclinedtobered,andheworeitcutshortabovetheears,and,whetheritrainedorsnowed,healwayswentwithoutahat.Hewasdelightfulamongfriends,butterribletohisenemies;justtohissubjects;readytoplayfalsewiththeunfaithful,andwillingtoovercomebyfraudthosewhomhedesiredtosubdue,becausehewaswonttosaythatitwasthevictorythatbroughttheglory,notthemethods

ofachievingit.Noonewasbolderinfacingdanger,nonemoreprudentinextricatinghimself.Hewasaccustomedtosaythatmenoughttoattempteverythingandfearnothing;thatGodisaloverofstrongmen,becauseonealwaysseesthattheweakarechastisedbythestrong.Hewasalsowonderfullysharporbitingthoughcourteousinhisanswers;andashedidnotlookforanyindulgenceinthiswayofspeakingfromothers,sohewasnotangeredwithothersdidnotshowittohim.Ithasoftenhappenedthathehaslistenedquietlywhenothershavespokensharplytohim,asonthefollowingoccasions.Hehadcausedaducattobegivenforapartridge,andwastakentotaskfordoingsobyafriend,towhomCastrucciohadsaid:"Youwouldnothavegivenmorethanapenny.""Thatistrue,"answeredthefriend.ThensaidCastrucciotohim:"Aducatismuchlesstome."Havingabouthimaflattereronwhomhehadspattoshowthathescornedhim,theflatterersaidtohim:"Fishermanarewillingtoletthewatersoftheseasat

uratetheminorderthattheymaketakeafewlittlefishes,andIallowmyselftobewettedbyspittlethatImaycatchawhale";andthiswasnotonlyheardbyCastrucciowithpatiencebutrewarded.Whentoldbyapriestthatitwaswickedforhimtolivesosumptuously,Castrucciosaid:"Ifthatbeavicethanyoushouldnotfaresosplendidlyatthefeastsofoursaints."PassingthroughastreethesawayoungmanashecameoutofahouseofillfameblushatbeingseenbyCastruccio,andsaidtohim:"Thoushouldstnotbeashamedwhenthoucomestout,butwhenthougoestintosuchplaces."Afriendgavehimaverycuriouslytiedknottoundoandwastold:"Fool,doyouthinkthatIwishtountieathingwhichgavesomuchtroubletofasten."Castrucciosaidtoonewhoprofessedtob

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eaphilosopher:"Youarelikethedogswhoalwaysrunafterthosewhowillgivethemthebesttoeat,"andwasanswered:"Weareratherlikethedoctorswhogotothehousesofthosewhohavethegreatestneedofthem."GoingbywaterfromPisatoLeghorn,Castrucciowasmuchdisturbedbyadangerousstormthatsprangup,andwasreproachedforcowardicebyoneofthosewithhim,whosaidthathedidnotfearanything.Castruccioansweredthathedidnotwonderatthat,sinceeverymanvaluedhissoulforwhatiswasworth.Beingaskedbyonewhatheoughttodotogainestimation,hesaid:"Whenthougoesttoabanquettakecarethatthoudostnotseatonepieceofwooduponanother."Toapersonwhowasboastingthathehadreadmanythings,Castrucciosaid:"Heknowsbetterthantoboastofrememberingmanythings."Someonebraggedthathecoulddrinkmuchwithoutbecomingintoxicated.Castruccioreplied:"Anoxdoesthesame."Castrucciowasacquaintedwithagirlwithwhomhehadintimaterelations,andbeingblamedbyafriendwhotoldhimthatitwasundignifiedforhimtobetakeninbyawoman,hesaid:"Shehasnottakenmein,Ihavetakenher."Beingalsoblamedforeatingverydaintyfoods,heanswered:"ThoudostnotspendasmuchasIdo?"andbeingtoldthatitwastrue,hecontinued:"ThenthouartmoreavariciousthanIamgluttonous."BeinginvitedbyTaddeoBernardi,averyrichandsplendidcitizenofLuca,tosupper,hewenttothehouseandwasshownbyTaddeointoachamberhungwithsilkandpavedwithfinestonesrepresentingflowersandfoliageofthemostbeautifulcolouring.CastrucciogatheredsomesalivainhismouthandspatitoutuponTaddeo,andseeinghimmuchdisturbedbythis,saidtohim:"Iknewnotwheretospitinordertooffendtheeless."BeingaskedhowCaesardiedhesaid:"GodwillingIwilldieashedid."Beingonenightinthehouseof

oneofhisgentlemenwheremanyladieswereassembled,hewasreprovedbyoneofhisfriendsfordancingandamusinghimselfwiththemmorethanwasusualinoneofhisstation,sohesaid:"Hewhoisconsideredwisebydaywillnotbeconsideredafoolatnight."ApersoncametodemandafavourofCastruccio,andthinkinghewasnotlisteningtohispleathrewhimselfonhiskneestotheground,andbeingsharplyreprovedbyCastruccio,said:"Thouartthereasonofmyactingthusforthouhastthyearsinthyfeet,"whereuponheobtaineddoublethefavourhehadasked.Castrucciousedtosaythatthewaytohellwasaneasyone,seeingthatitwasinadownwarddirectionandyoutravelledblindfolded.Beingaskedafavourbyonewhousedmanysuperfluouswords,hesaidtohim:"Whenyouhaveanotherrequesttomake,sendsomeoneelsetomakeit."Havingbeenweariedbyasimilarmanwithalongorationwhowoundupbysaying:"PerhapsIhavefatiguedyoubyspeakingsolong,"Castrucciosaid:"Youhavenot,becauseIhave

notlistenedtoawordyousaid."Heusedtosayofonewhohadbeenabeautifulchildandwhoafterwardsbecameafineman,thathewasdangerous,becausehefirsttookthehusbandsfromthewivesandnowhetookthewivesfromtheirhusbands.Toanenviousmanwholaughed,hesaid:"Doyoulaughbecauseyouaresuccessfulorbecauseanotherisunfortunate?"WhilsthewasstillinthechargeofMesserFrancescoGuinigi,oneofhiscompanionssaidtohim:"WhatshallIgiveyouifyouwillletmegiveyouablowonthenose?"Castruccioanswered:"Ahelmet."HavingputtodeathacitizenofLuccawhohadbeeninstrumentalinraisinghimtopower,andbeingtoldthathehaddonewrongtokilloneofhisoldfriends,heansweredthatpeopledeceivedthemselves;hehadonlykilledanewenemy.Castrucciopraisedgreatlythosemenwhointendedtotakeawifeandthendidnotdoso,sayingthattheywerelikemenwhosaidtheywouldgotosea,andthenrefusedwhenthetimecame.Hesaidthatitalwaysstruckhimwithsurpriset

hatwhilstmeninbuyinganearthenorglassvasewouldsounditfirsttolearnifitweregood,yetinchoosingawifetheywerecontentwithonlylookingather.Hewasonceaskedinwhatmannerhewouldwishtobeburiedwhenhedied,andanswered:"Withthefaceturneddownwards,forIknowwhenIamgonethiscountrywillbeturnedupsidedown."Onbeingaskedifithadeveroccurredtohimtobecomeafriarinordertosavehissoul,heansweredthatithadnot,becauseitappearedstrangetohimthatFraLazeroneshouldgotoParadiseandUguccionedellaFaggiuolatotheInferno.Hewasonceaskedwhenshouldamaneattopreservehishealth,andreplied:"Ifthemanberichlethimeatwhenheishungry;ifhebepoor,thenwhenhecan."Seeingonofhisgentlemenmakeamemberof

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hisfamilylacehimup,hesaidtohim:"IprayGodthatyouwilllethimfeedyoualso."SeeingthatsomeonehadwrittenuponhishouseinLatinthewords:"MayGodpreservethishousefromthewicked,"hesaid,"Theownermustnevergoin."Passingthroughoneofthestreetshesawasmallhousewithaverylargedoor,andremarked:"Thathousewillflythroughthedoor."HewashavingadiscussionwiththeambassadoroftheKingofNaplesconcerningthepropertyofsomebanishednobles,whenadisputearosebetweenthem,andtheambassadoraskedhimifhehadnofearoftheking."Isthiskingofyoursabadmanoragoodone?"askedCastruccio,andwastoldthathewasagoodone,whereuponhesaid,"WhyshouldyousuggestthatIshouldbeafraidofagoodman?"

Icouldrecountmanyotherstoriesofhissayingsbothwittyandweighty,butIthinkthattheabovewillbesufficienttestimonytohishighqualities.Helivedforty-fouryears,andwasineverywayaprince.Andashewassurroundedbymanyevidencesofhisgoodfortune,sohealsodesiredtohavenearhimsomememorialsofhisbadfortune;thereforethemanacleswithwhichhewaschainedinprisonaretobeseentothisdayfixedupinthetowerofhisresidence,wheretheywereplacedbyhimtotestifyforevertohisdaysofadversity.AsinhislifehewasinferiorneithertoPhilipofMacedon,thefatherofAlexander,nortoScipioofRome,sohediedinthesameyearofhisageastheydid,andhewoulddoubtlesshaveexcelledbothofthemhadFortunedecreedthatheshouldbeborn,notinLucca,butinMacedoniaorRome.

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