Devanagari Script

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INTRODUCTION TO THE

DI:VANAGARI SCRIPTFOR STUDENTS OF

SANSKRIT AND HINDI

BY

H. M. LAMBERT, M.A.Cantab.Senior Lecturer in .l[arathi (il1.aharaja Gaekwad's Lectureship)

in the School of Oriental and African Studies, Unioersity of London

WITH A FOREWORD BYPROFESSOR ]. R. FIRTH, O.B.E., M.A.

Professor of General Linguistics in the Un;f:ersity of London

GEOFFREY CUMBERLEGE

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS



Oxford [.~niversityPress, _471'JenHouse, London E.C. 4

CL.....sCOv.· NEVI, YORK TORO~"'TO !'wS:ELBOt.""R...."E "Wl3:LLINGTON

lB01'dBAY CALCt.-rTA MADRAS KARACHl: CAPE TOVIIN IBADA-"_"

Geoffrey CU7nberlege. Publisher to the University

First:published 1953

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN



FOREWORD

t T is a cO~"uPlace of linguistics to acknowledgethe debt we owe to the ancient Indian

grammarians and to couple with it the name of Sir William Jones. It was he who firstset a proper value on the Devanagari and Arabic scripts in his dissertation as President

of the Asiatic Society of Bengal on the Orthography ofAsiatic Words in RomanLetters.

His chart of suggested symbols for the transliteration of the Devanagari,with the addi-

tion of}etters for Arabic and Persian, is the first presentation of what may be called a

phonetic alphabet on such a scale. He finds the Arabic alphabet almost perfect for

Arabic itself:-'Not a letter could be added or taken away without manifest inconvenience, The same may

indubitably be said of the Devanagarl system, which, as it is more naturally arranged than any other.

shall here be the standard of my particular observations on Asiatic letters. Our English alphabet

and orthography are disgracefully and almost ridiculously imperfect.'

He aims at using diacritics com mon in E urope rather than new letters-and symbols from

'fluxions' ormathematics-so as to equal the Devanagari itself inprecisionand clearness.A system of writing and spelling is the foundation of a system of grammar. Meillet

went so far as to say that the foundations of the science of grammar were laid by the

Indians. For all languages employing forms ofthe Devanagari script, the writing system

and the spelling carry implications of phonological analysis and statement. They are at

once practice and theory and deserve the first attentions of all students. This is well

illustrated in Miss Lambert's work on the Devanagari script, and it will be agreed thatthe presentation of the phonological patterns, such as 'junctions' occurring in words or

arising out of 'sandhi' in Sanskrit, and other characteristic patterns in the modern

languages, is clear, systematic, and original, and particularly interesting in Bengali,

which, with Marathi and Gujarati, is included in the larger volume. The treatment of

conjunct characters in the third chapter of each section is new, and apart from its

intrinsic interest may be taken as an indication ofwhat is lost when the structure of theDevanagari system is superseded by the usual roman transliterations. In addition

to this,study of the writing system, attention is rightly given here to calligraphy, for

the practice of the hand is an obligation no less compelling than that of the tongue

and both are expressions not only of courteous relations but of disciplined knowledge.

Miss Lambert has consistently applied the All-India Roman Alphabet to these lan-

guages in order to make comparison possible whether the languages are known to the

student or not. This treatment could be extended to the Dravidian languages. By this



vr FORE\VORD

means it has been found possible to make a systematic statement of the various conven-

tions !,r0n:r-ning the use of the Sanskritic writing system for the modern languages.

The Sanskrit and Hindi sections are published separately in one volume since they.

employ one script and will presumably be more generally required, but t:Se appeal of

the entire work is to those whose interests range from India through Furttter India to the

Indonesian Islands following the Sanskritic system of writing.

I have been acquainted \x ith-Miss Lambert's work in Indian studies since 1937, first

in Western India and later as a colleague in London. It gave me great pleasure to be

asked to write this brief foreword to her work on a subject which I have always held to be

of high importance and the results of which are now offered to students of Sanslerit and

the four principal Sanskritic languages of India.

J. R. FIRTH



PREFACE

tiOOD writil1g, the understanding of the writing system and the formation of a good

hand, is as important a part of the study of the written language as good pronunciationis of the study of the spoken language. Yet too little time is usually given to the teaching of

writing to students of Sanskrit and of the modern Indian languages; writing is generally

left for the student to teach himself as best he can. The result is that many students

neither. have an adequate understanding of the writing system and the difference between

a syllabic and an alphabetic method of representation, nor know how the characters of

the script are written and what features are important for the formation of a culturedliterate hand. It is hoped that this book will provide not only a guide to students learn-

ing to write the scripts which are described in each section, but will also give them a

fuller understanding of the special nature of the scripts and the adjustments which are

made in the Sanskrit system in order to use it for writing the modern languages of

northern India.

The notation used for the transcription of the scripts in this work is the All-India

Roman Alphabet devised by Professor J . R. Firth of the School of Oriental and African

Stlldies, University of London, and used already in several publications-A.H. Harley,

C o llo q u ia l H i n du sta n i, T. Grahame Bailey, T eac h Y ou rse lf H in du stan i, and my own

M ar ath i L an gu age C ou rse . The use of this transcription necessitates the use of certain

conventions, particularly that of the representation of the 'inherent vowel', in final

characters when listing the contents of each section of the work. The transcription of

the Sanskrit terms in the Sanskrit section is entirely systematic; but owing to the vary-

ing realization of the characters of the script in certain positions in words in the modem

languages, it has been necessary to use in the Contents of the Hindi section certain

conventions which are discussed in the text. An example of such conventions occurs in

the writing of such Sanskrit terms, used by grammarians in the modern languages, as';mt;:)sth' and 'uugm', in which the realization of the 'inherent vowel' of the final character

varies from a short glide-vowel to a full syllable. As it is beyond the scope of this work

to IIfake a fine analysis of the varying realization of such final characters, it is necessary

to establish certain conventions with regard to the transcription of them. These con-

ventions are of necessity anticipated in the Contents.

Some degree of repetition has been inevitable in order to preserve the basic unity ofthe description of the Devanagari system of writing while allowing for specialization in .



Vlll PREFACE

each of the languages. While this repetition may at times seem irksome to the reader, it

has the advantage of facilitating comparison of one section with another.

The words given in each section to illustrate the writing and reading of the various.

scripts have been selected in order to provide examples of every character or combine-

tion of characters which occurs in the language under consideration. SOme characters

occur only in colloquial forms or inloanwords from other languages, including English.

In order to illustrate the use of all the characters, examples are drawn, therefore, from

the whole range of vocabulary, from colloquial forms occurring in modern speech to

learned Sanskrit loanwords occurring only in literary texts. Any word which occurs in

a standard dictionary is a word which the student may have to read and illustrates -the

use of the characters of the script.

This study of the Devanagari script owes its inspiration to the suggestion and en-

couragement of Professor Firth, to whom my thanks are first due. But a work of this

nature could not have been accomplished without reference to experts in the languages

discussed, and I am greatly indebted to my colleagues of both the Department of India,

Pakistan and Ceylon, and the Department of Phonetics and Linguistics, of the School,

for their co-operation and guidance. The two scribes who have written the script

portions of the book, Miss W. Westover and Mr. P. Pritchard, must also be given •recognition for their careful and accurate work.

Finally I wish to express my appreciation of the great generosity of the School-of

Oriental and African Studies for their subvention towards the publication of this book;

and of the help and advice given by the Oxford University Press on all matters concern-

ing its production.H.M. L.



CONTENTS

F'tlrewordPreface

pagev

vii

Introduction:The Devanagari ScriptNotationCalligraphy

12

5

S ANS KR IT SE CTI ON

Chapte~ 1. Arrangement of the Syllabary 11

Sanskrit syllabary in roman notation 12Sanskrit phonetic terms 13

Chapter 2. Characters of the Syllabary 15

1. Consonant Characters 15i. Characters of the vargiiye group 16

ii. Characters of the ~ntahstha group 18iii. Characters of the uu~man group, and Vedic le 19

2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs 21i. Vowel characters 21

i1. Vowel signs 233. Modifiers 26

i. enusvarah 26i1. visargeh 30

4 . The Complete Syllabary 315. Numerals 32

6. Punctuation 32

Chapter 3. Conjunct Characters 33

1. Construction of Copjunct Characters 332. Co nt ext s o f Co nju nc t Ch ar act er s 353. Classification of Conjunct Characters 37

Class·1. Two similar characters joined 38·Class2. TWo vargiiye characters joined 39Class 3. Characte~s joined with entehsthe characters43

·i.wi tn following s» 43ii. with following va 44

iii. with preceding or following ra 45iv. with preceding or following Ie and la 47

Class 4 . vergiiye characters joined with precedingor following uu~men characters 48i. with fe ,~g and sa 48

i1. with he 50

Transcription of reading examples 51 .



x CONTENTS

HINDI SEOTION

Chapter 1. Arrangement of the SyllabaryH indi syllabary in roman notation

Chapter 2. Oharacters of the Syllabary

1. Consonant CharactersRealisation of ekar consonant charactersi. Characters of the vargiiy group

ii. Characters of the entasth groupiii. Characters of the uu~m group

2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs1. Vowel Oharactersii. Vowel SignsRealisation of characters in special contexts

3 . Modifiersi. enusvar and cendr- bindu

i1. viserg4 . The Oomplete Syllabary5 . Numerals6. Punctuation

Chapter 3 . Conjunct Characters

1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Hindi2. Realisation of Conjunct Characters in Hindi3 . Classes of Oonjunct Characters

Class 1. Two similar characters joinedClasB 2. Two vergiiy characters joinedClass 3. Characters joined with entesth characters

i. with following y9

ii. with following veiii. with preceding or following reiv. with preceding or following Ie

Olsss 4 . vergiiy characters joined with precedingor following uu~m charactersi. with fa ,~e and S9

ii. with he

Hindi prose passage

Transcription of reading examples

pa,ie5 7

59

61

61626364656767676970707 3

7 3

7474.

7 5

7 5

76767 7

78797 9

808081

82828 3

84

85



INTRODUCTION

The Devanagari Script

The script traditionally referred to as the Devanagari Script

is used in writing Sanskrit and, of the modern languages of northern

India, Hindi, Marathi and Nepali. The script used in writing GUjarati

is a slightly modified form of the Devanagari script, and the scripts

used in writing Bengali and Panjabi are related to the Devanagari

script, though this relation is apparent in only some of the Charact-

ers. The writing system, based on the char-acter- representing the syll-

able, is the same for all these languages. However, in order to use

this system for writing the modern languages, which have each develop-•

ed in their own particular way from the original Sanskrit, a number

of conventions have become necessary in reading from the script, con-

ventions Which vary with the special features of each language. The

realisation of the characters as they are used for writing Hindi,

Bengali, Marathi and GUjarati, and the conventions which have become

established in each language, are described in an enlarged volume

of this workl. Though the Bengali script differs considerably from

the Devanagari script in the form of most of the characters, the

••study of it is included in that work because the writing system is

the same as the Sanskrit writing system, and the conventions by which

1. In~duction to the Devanagari Script, for students of Sanskrit,Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali, Oxford University Press.

1 3



I::\TRO D 1 .: CT lOX

t?".is s::;-st-:::::is s:is:;:te:i ~or'....i~ir.g 3engsli heve much in common with

t:::~ cenventtcr,s".;.seir..the ott:.ercder-n languages. An examination

of t~ese conventior.s ~akes :;:ossibleaL inte~esting comparison both

betwee!1 tl:ewritir..gof these four languages and that of'Sanskrit,

sr.:!etween the writing o~ the modern. languages therr:slves.

The origir..of'the name 'Devanagari' is obscure. The shcrter

form of the name is 'Nagari'(nagarii), which has been variously inter-

preted. It is thought by some to be the name given to the writing of

'the people of the city'(nagaram, 'a city'); by others it is said to

derive its name from the Nagar Brahmans of'Gujarat.

Xotation

The system of roman notation used in this text for transcribing

the Devanagari characters is the All-India Roman Notationl• Three

minor rr.odificationshave been introduced in this text in order to

adapt the notation for transcribing both Sanskrit and the modern

languages.

These modifications are :-

i. The use of the vowels i ('short' i) and ii ('long' ii) instead

of the vowels y and i ; and of the vowels u (,she,rt'u )

and uu ('long' uu ) for the vowels wand u

ii. The use of the letter ~ instead of ~ for representing the

mark of nasalisation known as the anusvar.

iii.The placing of a micron above the letter y in the diphthong ay ,

and above the letter v in the diphthong av, thus: ~y , ~V

1. See Pref'ace.



I?-;"TROD"CCTION

This mark distinguishes the transcription of the diphthongs from

th~ transcription of ccmbinaticnB o~ characters which are real-

ised in ~rtain contexts as g-y and g-V, not distinguishable

in ordinary speech, in the nodern languages, from the diphthongs.

Besides these modifications, it is necessary to make certain

additions to the notation in order to represent characters used in

writing the modern languages but not used in Sanskrit, and certain

modified characters used in Hindi and Bengali. The complete notation

used in the Sanskrit syllabary is this:

Vowels: 9 a i 11 u uu e ey- 0 ev

and r rr 1 11 , for the syllabic consonants.

Modifiersl: 1 1 ) (reIlresenting the enusvare) and

h (representing the vf s ar-g a)

Consonants: k kh g gh IJ

c ch j jh P .

t th q qh ll,

t th d dh n

p ph b bh m

y r 1 v ; J ~ s h

1 used in transcribing Vedic Sanskrit

The additional letters used in the syllabaries of the modern

languages are these:

rand rh for transcribing the modified forms of the characters

representing q and qh , in Hindi and Ber.gaLt , and for

1. For the use of this term, see Sanskrit section, Chapter 1.



4 IXTRODCCTIOX

injicat1ng the intervocallic realisation, in certain words, of

the G~ja~ati character representing qr

q , X , ¥ ,z and f , for transcribing certain modifie~ Devanagari

characters used in Hindi in writing Persian and Arabic loanwords.

~ ,z and zh, for transcribing characters of the 'palatal' class

in Marathl, when they are realised with alveolar articulation.

In modern spoken Gujarati and modern spoken Bengali, certa1n

vowel sounds occur which are not separately represented in the script.

For indicating the contexts in which such vowel so~nds occur, the

three symbols c ,0 and e are used.

The sign of nasalisation,~, is used in transcribing the modifier

representing nasa1isationl when it is realised, in the modern 1ang-

uages, as the nasaliaation of a vowel and not as a nasal consonant.

This roman notation is used for writing all the Sanskrit grammat-

ical terms referring to the syllabaries of Sanskrit and of the modern

languages, the classification of the characters and the phonetic de-

scription of their rea1isation~ The names of the languages, the

scripts, and grammatical terms, such as 'sandhi'(sandhi), which are

in regular use in English, are written in their cQnventional English

form.

The Sanskrit syllabary, as arranged by the Sanskrit grammarians,is given in the ro~an notation in the Sanskrit section2, and serves

as a standard with which the syllabaries of the modern languages can

be compared.

1. See Sanskrit Section, Chapter 2,3.i.a. anusvara.2. ibid., Chapter 1.



I~TRODCCTIO~ 5

Calligraphy

The writing of the Devanagari characters should be practised at£irst with a reed or bamboo pen. Such pens sre still in use in many

•parts of India, and in many schools Indian children are taught first

to write on a large scale with a broadly cut bamboo pen. Writing in

this way will train the eye to recognise easily details of difference

anQ wi~l train the hand to write a standard form of the characters

with the broad and thin strokes in the right place and proportion.

These pens are cut in the same way as a quill pen, except that the

point is cut to slant in the opposite direction frcm that of the

quill used for English writing with the tilted axis. The English pen,

when cut for the tilted axis, looks like this from the back:

writing thus: ~S(~_~O_-_-~Th~ pen cut for the Devanagari script looks like this from the back:

writing thus: - ~ - v - - o - - - , . - ; /'---~-------- -.-~

The pen should be held in such a way that the thin line, made by the

cut edge, falls from left to right at an angle of 45 degrees from a

line drawn horizontally across the page. The broad stroke then forms

a right-angle with the thin stroke and crosses the horizontal line of

the page at an angle of 45 degrees. Care must be taken not to change

the angle of the pen during the writing of curved or rounded strokes,

as ~his will change the sha~e and balance of the character.

Some of the typical strokes of the script should be practised

until good control of the pen, held at the right angle, is establ~sh-

ed.before the characters themselves are written. For example:

-Y-::-4----7'\.-- ----..-.----1-------,- ----~---.-.----- ""------e----~---__~ "- ~ , J-.. ~------.., y ~ ~~__



6 I~TRODUCTIOK

Th~ use of the broad pe~ should be continued until a good style

of hand,.ritir- gis formed; the introduction of writing with an

orjir- ary pen, ar.dwithout sufficient attention to the details of line

and form, often ir-terferes with the formation of a good hand.

In the illustrations given below, which may be used as writing

exercises, the characters are grcuped so as to show different combin-

ations of strokes, and to draw attention to ,similarities and to.sm~ll

but important differences. It will be seen that some of the ch~racters

have an upright stroke, others are curved or rounded, without an up-

right stroke; but all have the head-stroke, though it is not always

written right across the top of the character. The alignment of the

characters is made by this head-stroke, that is, by the top of the

character, though there is an invisible alignment also by the bottom

of the character. For this reason, it is well to practice writing at

first between two lines; if one line is used, the characters should

be written from the line downwards, not on the line.

The general method of writing the characters is this: first,

the characteristic part of the character, usually on the left side of

the upright stroke; then the upright stroke, if there is one; and

finally the head- stroke. The head~Etrcke binds the whole character

together, as will be seen when vowel signs and other marks are added.

The general airection of making the strokes is from the top downwards,

and from left to right. But the order of the strokes in some charact-

ers, and their direction, differ from this general rule, and where

this is so, the calligraphy of particular characters is illustrated

when these are introduced in the chapters which follow.



INTROD'L'CTIOX 7

Examples of Devanagari characters, showing the crder in which the

strokes are written:

Examples of similarity and difference between characters:

" ' f . : ' J ' - - ;;n---aT"-~ ~-~- --~





S..A._~S:K:R.I-r SECTIC>l:'1





C HAP T E R 1

ARRANGEMENT OF TH E SYLLAB ARY

When the characters of the Devanagari Script, &q;rr~ , are

arranged in the traditional order, they constitute a series of syll-

abIes which may be regarded as the basis of the Sanskrit phonological

system. Each character represents a syllable, and is called~~~i1,

(akparam). The series of characters in the syllabary is called

~11Tc: r r (var!(amala), and consists of:-

Fourteer. vowel characters,

Two modifiers and

Thi rtythree consonant characters.

The syllabary used in writing Vedic Sanskrit includes one more con-

sonant character.

In reading aloud from the script, a vowel character is realised

as a syllable conSisting of a vowel, ~~: (svereh), and a consonant

character is realised as a syllable conSisting of an initial conson-

ant, (vyapjanam) followed by the vowel a • This vowel,

when realised with a consonant, is generally referred to in English

textbooks as the 'inherent' vowel. The term 'modifier' is used here

to refer to the two signs which indicate some modification in the

realisation of the character with which they are written. These two

signs are usually referred to individually, as the 'enusvarah' and

the ~visargah', as there is no Sanskrit term which is used to refer

to them .tegether.



:.i1. Tte manriez-of':;:rod.ucticnf'the scuada by which the characters

of' ;loaive ccnacr.ar.tsthe

are realised is ~esc~ibed in the following te~s, and in each class

voiceless, unas;irated

characters are arranged in th~s order:

?;f~ (af'"ho~8) r "iIII}i'~VTlU' ( alpapral1a2)

~~ (egho~a),oiceless, aspirated

voiced, unaspirated (gh0@l9vet4),

(gho!i>evet)oiced, aspirated

= s : r ~ ; ; r f ~ r C f 5 (enunas1ke 5),asal

(mahapral1e3)

(elpepral1e)

(meh~prait.e)

1. 'without sound', or 'voiceless'.2. 'with little breath', or 'unaspirated'.3! 'with big breath', or 'aspirated'.4. 'with sound' or 'voiced'.

5. 'nasal'.



C HAP T E R 2

CH ARACTERS OF TH E SYLLABARY

The characters of the script are described in this chapter in the

same order as that in which the syllables are placed in the roman

syllabary: Consonant Characters, Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs,

and Modifiers.

The general style of the characters varies ~rom period to period

and from region to region. In the older editions of Sanskrit works

some characters are found that are now supplanted by newer and more

widely used forms; and there is sometimes a marked difference in the

style used in printing books in B ombay, Calcutta and other parts of

India. The most commonly used of the alternative forms of some of

the characters are given below, among the characters of each group.

The calligraphy of any cheracters which are not written according to

the general order of strokes given in the Introduction is illustrat-

ed when the characters are introduced.

1. Consonant Characters.

The consonant characters of the syllabary represent syllables

cons~ting of an initial consonant followed by the vowel ~ Conson-

ant characters realised with the vowel e are described as ~~

(ekare) If a character is to be realised as the consonant element

only of the syllable, this is shown by writing the mark known as

fci~~: (viramgh) at the foot of the character. The writing of this

mark with a character is illustrated below, after the first table.



SA:-'SKRIT SECTIO~

Characters written with the vf.r-amahare described as ~C:;;~ (h..ant..).

'ending in a consonant'.

1. Characters of the vargiiye group ( a r r l t : t : r ) .

The twentyfiYs characters of this group are arranged, as in the

roman table given above, in five cJ.asses~cr~,\ (vergah), representing

the five positions of 'contact',~~:(sperfah), used in the articul-

ation of the plosive consonants. Each class consists of five charact-

ers, arranged in order according to the manner of production of the

consonant of the syllable which they represent.

ke khe ge ghs

oe che je jhe

c = r - c p f :te-vergeh

te the de dhe ne

-q-(!f~:

pe-vergehpe phe be bhe me

The Bombay form of the character for jhe is ~ ~ and ~he forms•

~ and ~ are found in older books printed in Calcutta. The Bombay



CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY

f'ormof the character for Ita is ur . The Bombay forms of'these

characters are use~ in Hindi writing, but the Hindi f'ormsare not

used i~ Marathi writing, or in Sanskrit books printed in Bombay.

Calligraphy.

All the characters in the above table are written in the way

following three characters:

described in the introductory notes on calligraphy, except the

~ Ija

jha ta I

The writing of the viramah to indicate the realisation of a con-

sonant character as a consonant without the vowel a is illustrated

by these characters:

~k-

~"-

c-

~,t-

"q",p-

When writing words, which may be of one or more characters, each

character is written and completed with the head-stroke before the

next character is written. In the reading examples which are givenbelow, words which are usually written with the modifier known as

~~Ti: (visargah)2 are written in the form in which they occur in

various contexts without this modifier. The visargah is written with

reading examples af'terthe modifiers have been discussed. Verbal

rootB~ in the form in which they are given in grammars and diction-

aries, are included in the examples in order to illustrate the writing

of'characters with the viramah.

1. The f'irst stroke in these characters is written from right to left.2. See below, under 3. Modifiers, ii.

c



IS

Readir.g examples1

SA~SKRIT SECTIO~

1. One character words

2. Two character words

3. Three character words

4 . Four and five character words

Qf; ~;:rJ1\ ~;::r , 'Jf~

~' llT~1l:! '1;f", ~'O"f~,

ii. Characters of the antehsthe2 group ( ~~:~ )

Bombay form

ya

Calligraphy

Ie : Hindi form e 3 ~ ~ ~

ra Ie va la

Bombay form ~ 3 {"J ~ C ;S

These four characters are associated with four of the vergah, as

indicated in the roman syllabary, and with four of the vowels, thus:if , ya, associated with the ca-vargah, and the vowels i and- ii

, ra, associated with the ta-vargah, and the syllabic

, la, associated with the ta-vargah, and the syllabic

r and.rr4

and 114

, va, associated with the pa-vargah, and the vowels u and ..u

1. Transcription of examples is given on ~.5l.2. 'standing between.' 3. This stroke is written from right €o left.4. See below, under 2. Vowel Characters.



CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 19

These characters are all described as alpe~ra~e and gho~evet.

~ ,V8, though associated with the labial class, is.realised with

la""Oio-dentalarticulation, and described as cp=ffr~ (dante'lflthye).

Reading examplesl



~ ~ ~ ~, ~"{" ~ ~ ';(t{!" Cio ,

('1~ If!!f ~:H ~ qt~ ~, ~ 'tfi~ 'Hr\,


('f~C;; 'M'Sfl!! ~~~ ~ O f C " 5 vro~ ~U( ~1:f~\,

'9'~ ~~ ~ ~ ;:;tp; Cf~ C;;C~\,

4. Words o t : t:ouror more characters

~:p:rq(; ~~l:f n~~;:r, 1: f~ tf i1:f<"f q;;qcCi4€1.-.t{\, , ,

iii. Characters o t : the uu~men2 group

~ 1 S f ~and

~fe f3e sa he

Callifgraphy

fa : Hindi t:orm ~ ~l ~ Bombay t : o l " m ~ ~I ~l If

he •i. ~ @ fi or ii. ~ ~ ~

An older t:orm a t : ~ is ~ , a t:ormstill used in joining this

character to cel"tainother characters.

later-under Conjunct Characters3•

This t : o r m is illustrated

1. Transcriptio~ o t : examples is given on p.5l.2. 'heat' 3. See Chapter 3.



20 SA~SKRIT SECTION

Tr.efirst three characters o~ this group represent syllables

consisting o~ a ~ricative consonant with the vowel a, and are

desc~ibed as egho~e and rnehapra~e. The fourth character is realis~d. .as an ss~irate ~ollowed by the vowel e , and is described as gho~evet

and mehapra~e. The uu~man characters are assOCiated with the classes

thus: ~ , f a , with the ce-vargeh; ~ , pa , with the te-vargah;

~ ,sa, with the ta-vergeh; and fI , he , with the ke-vifrgeh.

The character ~ is the last consonant character in the syllab-

ary used in writing classical Sanskrit. In writing Vedic Sanskrit

one more character is used, 00 ,1e, realised as a retro~lex lateral

consonant ~ollowed by the vowel e.

Calligraphy o~C X 5 :

Reading examples1


00


~ ~ ~" q~ ~, ~ " 1 S f n1 C i f " E 1 ~"~, ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~


B~<? f q:;~'U ~, ~, ~~ "Bl:f~ ~~ ~c.;l~

~~ ~~ B't f i"C?~ ~ 'R~

~l1~

.~-

4. Four, :f"ive and six character words

1. Transcription o~ examples is given on p.51.




2. Vowel Characters, with corresponding Vowel Signs.

A vowel which coriatItutes a syllable is written '1':1 th a vowel.

c~racter; a vowel which is part of a syllable with an initial con-

sonant is written with a vowel sign added to a consonant character.

i. Vowel Characters.

There are fourteen vowel characters in the var~emal.a:

~ ~ & t~ ~

a a i 11 u uu

~1f( ~ ~

Sy-llabic r rr 1 11

1 1 ~ = J ; ( f ~e ey- 0 av

The character = s ; r , and the other characters based on the same

form, : ; r ; r r • 1 ! O i T and ~ , and the characters 'if! ~ • c;r and

C ' ( , have these

~~

alternative forms:

~~a o r rr 1 11

Both forms of these vowel characters are used in Hindi writing;

only the BoIl1'bay'ormsare used in Marathi writing. AIl. older form of

~ •0 • is s- 1. The order of'writing the strokes in vowel

charactlitrsis illustrated by these examples:• •a ? ~ ?A ';J;f a ~ -s - '3-i 'a1a ? ~ ~I :;;n 11 ~ ~ ~

r ?

' * " * L ~ 1 ~ ~ < : i c;(

ay

4~

it0 ~ ~I

~l;;it

1. See below, under 3.Modif'iers,i.note c.



SAXSKRIT SECTION

The vowel characters are referred to as ~bH r~ • e- kara,~~ ,

a-kare, ~0hT~ i- kare, and so on. They are related to the rive posit-

ions or articulation as shown in the table of the roman syllabary. '

The vowel 11 does not occur in Sanskrit words, but the character is

traditionally included in the syllabary ror the sake or symmetry.

The rirst ten vowel characters repreeent rive pairs of 'simple'

vowels, each pair consisting or a character realised as a ts~rtt

vowel, ~'f<ir, (hr- aeva) and a character realised as a 'long' vowel,

~~ ,(diirghe). The remaining rour characters represent vowels

Which are described as 'compound' or 'conjunct', ~~~ , (se~yuktel).

In the system of modification and combination of vowels known as

'sandhi', 'B"~: , (sendhih), as in the formation of compound words,

derived words, and the joining of final and initial vowels in con-

secutive words in a phrase or sentence, the vowels are grouped thus:

Simple v owels a a i ii u uu r rr 1

W ! f : (gllI],eh)a a e 0 er al

~: (vrddhih) a ey ev ar al

Examples2: "ilRt:r, negerem ; : : n n f t o n nagerike

~1 ! f dive ~ deve ~&f deme

~ bhuuti ~ bhav>tiJca

~ kr Of)~ ker 0fiT~ karye"

~'q""kIp Ofi~ kelp:;ma ~f.1OF; kalpanike

1. See above, Ch.l., and below,3.i. for the modifier represented by~.2. See below, ii, for the vowel signs used in these examples,




Reading examples of words r.lthvowel characters:l

l. One character words

1 J ~ - : s ?;I' " J t i t ~ m it ~ '3;lT ~ ~

2. Words of more than one char9cter

;;r~ ~, 3'(;', ' q ' ' C f ) ~;:; :;r;fto ~ : q - ; U~~,

"¢;~, "q"~ t - u " 3 " U " ~l:f ? f r O T '3)0 ~e; :3"~

"~ - 3 1 T ~ " 3~~~ ?fPl !" l=f ,~" -src;, ~~ 1 T O T\

" "t~~, ~~;:Pi, ~~ ~'Cl:q ' i t " ' 4 1 4 + t '311Cf)~~l:f'

. . . ."

,

ii. Vowel Signs

Each of the vowel characters, except ~ a has a corres~ond-

ing vowel sign which may be added to a consonant character to re-

present a syllable consisting of an initial consonant followed by one

or the vowels a - a'll. As the vowel a is realised with every con-

sonant character unless it is either marked with the viramah or has

one of the vowel signs added to it, there is no sign for this vowel.

The vowel signs, added to the consonant character Qh, are:

~ 0fiT ft6 ~ ~ ~(ka) ka kj kii ku kuu

~ W ~ ~kr krr kl kl12

~ ~ ~ ~ke kay ko kay

1. Tra~scription of examples is given on po5l.2. See note on the vowel 11 under Vowel Characters, above.



SAXSKR[T SECTIOX

::,-=.ll!.gra?!:y

':he order o~ 7iriti:'lghe strokes when a vowel sign is added to a

C C l : s c ! ' : . s . Y l t character is illustrated in the following examples:

c n r G hr

1" ' " ~ chi ku~ ~~

ki l e t > ~ ~ kii oh chi ~ c f r r

c.hi I l~ ~ - R t bhi 1 \ . 1 f i : I P 4 "ke c t > ~ S F i ko e n chi o h l ~

~nen the vowel signs are added to consonant characters which

have an upright stroke, the superscribed signs are placed above the

upright stroke, ar.dthe subscribed signs are written at the foot of

that stroke. Vfuen vowel signs are subscribed to rounded characters,

they are "\~'riten below the mid-point of the lowest curve, thus:

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~chu tuu q_u q_huu du huu

Special f'orms~ ~ ~ ~ ~

ru ruu dr fr hr

An older f'ormof' ~ is ~1 and of :f is ~

The vowel sign of'?If is not written with ~, The character

representing ~, with ''It[ is written with the superscribed stroke

used to represent ~, when it is to be realised bef'ore another con-

sonant character without an intervening vowel. This stroke is pla~ed

over the vowel character ::iii, as in f . 1 ? J i f c t , nirrti2.

Mark of''separation'.

When an initial ~ or ;J;ff occurs Flf'tercertain f'inal vowels 1n~

the preceding word, the mark S , known as "R"Qf~: (evegreheh)3 is~

1. See Ch.2,1.ii1. 2. See Ch.3.3.Clas6 3.i1i.a. 3. 'separation'.




wri tt-en after the vowel in wr.ich the final and initial vowels are co-

alesced,to indicate the presence of two words in the piece. The mark

~ written once when the initial vowel of' the second word is ~. and

•twice when the initial vowel is ? J ; I T • as in these examples:

yo - elyem yo-yem te - epi te-pi

~ ~~ ~GTSS~,

selda - atmen seda--tmen1

Reading examples2

l. One character words

; : f T ~ ~ ~ C I T fir m ~ ir ~

~ fa" ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~


~~ ~ U1:f ~~ T R S : ~ ~ ~(= f ~

1 R 'l5~, ~ ~'q, ~'G ~~ i n l ! ! : .n~ ?{i~

~ -it~ ~ ~ & f t t ~ ~~ ~ ~~

~ ~ - q f f i - ~ ~ ~~ ~ 1 F ! f t t:~


~~ ~ ~~(if f t tct ."

~ ~~

~M

4. Four, five and six character words

~Offi~." ~~ ~~~ ~~B~ " f e 1 ~ O f f i ~ ~ I T V I O f )

'%l~"9'rf~{~ $p:rm~ '3qJ1P o l C f 5 T ~ ~ ~ P li Of)

~q-=!I~ c f f i s T i t ~f fSf t r ~S't:£~

1. '?i • , tme , the characters 0, and 1 :t combined. See Chapter 3,Class 2. iii. 2. Transcription of examples is given on p.5l.

SA:;";SKRIT SECTIO:;";



z o

3. l'lodi:'i ers

The two rr:od.ifiers, known as ~~~~: (enusvareh) and ~~:

(vis~rg&h), are signs w~ich may be added to a character to indicate

a ~odificatic~ i~ the realisation of the character. They are placed

ir. the syllabary after the vowel characters, and, as they cannot be

written alone, they are written with the character ~

r.owever, be written with any character.

They may,

i, enusvareh. ""Ii~~I(: 1

This modifier is written as a dot above the character of which

it modifies the realisation, thus:

. . . ! . .~ it ~ ~';!;IT ~ ~ ~ 1:[

ellJ 8 I I J i!!J iillJ UllJ uUllJ el1J. eYn.i oIIJ eVnj

. .f t . f i c f 5 t

. •~ ~ < it o m -Cf)f'

~ ~kaIIJ kaIIJ killJ kiiIIJ kUIIJ kUUIIJ keIIJ keYIIJ kOIIJ k9Vnj

Calligraphy

The enusvarah is generally added to the character after the vowel

sign has been written and before the headstroke is written to complete

the character. It is placed above the middle of the character, or

o,ver the last upright stroke :if there is one, and to the right side of

any superscribed 'lowel Sign, for example;

.cf;

. . . .kellJ o n ch deIIJ q ~ ~ hellJ ~ ~ ~.

7 f t ~ ffl .it ~ itarg ~Il ~II gillJ I~ gellJ

dhillJ I~ ~ ~ bhillJ l~ f i : i i1t rOIlJ ~I ~ " U

1- t after-sound'.

CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 2'



The enusvareh is written with a character in various contexts,

and is realised in various ways according to the context.

a. When a word of which the final character represents the form-

•ative particle I1 occurs in any position except at the end of a line

"of verse or a sentence, the character I1 is omitted before an initial,consonant character of a following word and the formative particle is

repres~nted by the anusvareh. This formative particle is usually writ·

ten as 1 1 , only at the end of a line or a sentence. For example:

i ; t ( ' f f " L 1

"yetarn

ft{ t t_~"r{ ,vibhuutimet~ vibhuuti~ yoge~ ce •••

b. The anusvareh may be written with an initial or medial

character followed by a vergiiya character. In this context it is

realised as ~he nasal consonant of the class to which the following

character belongs. Examples:

~ ~~ ~"lTl1J- IJ

al1Jka(eIJke) pU!1Jkha(puIJkha) lil1Jga(liIJga)

" q ' ' ' e f 6f'TU ~l1J- Jl " "pel1Jce(paJlce) val1JCh(vejich) sil1Jj(Sipj)

~c ~ fflsl1J- 11.

kUllJthe(kU11.the) al1Jclaa11.Qa) pirr.lctaPill.cta)

~ t~ ~~11J- n

f 8 1 1 Jti (Santi) il1Jdu(indu) ba11Jdhu(bandhu)

Q f ) " q " ~~ ~~l1J- m

ka~pa (kampa) aRJbu (ambu) lrutrjbhakumbha)

Another, more usual, method of representing a homorganic nasal

1s that of combining the appropriate nasal consonant character with

SANSKRIT SECTION



~e vargiiya character that follows it, that is, ~ with characters

of the ke-vergeh, ~~ with characters of the ca-vergeh, and so on.

This method is used also when the formative pRrticle ~ occurs before.,•

an initial vergiiye character in a sentence, where consecutive words

are joined in sandhi. The calligraphy of such combined characters is

illustrated laterl• Formative particles, such as ~ , -enti, and

~~ ,-ante, are usually written by this method and not witu the

enusvarah.

The anusvareh is sometimes written to represent -n or -m , in

compounds formed from the prefix ~~" sam-, and words beginning

with "1 or 1 : ( ' sennate, and ' i r l : Jm semmat t,

c. When the enusvareh is written with a character preceding acharacter of the entehsthe or the uu~men group, the realisation of it

varies according to the position of articulation of the character

which follows it, and also with the custom of speakers in different

parts of India. The enusvareh preceding an entahsthe character is

realised as follows:

Before < : r , ya ,as ! . J , m , n or y ; e.g.

~ < : i T . , . se1Jyoge, SemYOge' senyoga or seyyoge

Before ~ , ra ,aa IJ , m , n or v ; e.g.

~ salJrage, semrage, senrage or sevrage

Before ~, Ie ,as IJ , m , n or i ; e.g.

~ selJ1eye, semleye, sanleye or selleye

Before cr, ve ,as lJ , m , or v ; e.g.

~~ selJvade, semvada or seVvada

1. See Chapter 3. Conjunct Characters, Class 2.b.




The cmusvarah preceding an uu~man character is realised thus:

Before IT, Ia , as IJ

~"U•

Before 1>(", ~a , as IJ

~

Before ~, se , as IJ

~~

, m , n , or V; e.g.

a!Jia, emIe, ~nfe or eVfe

, m , nasalisation of the vowel, or V; e.g.

, m , n , or V; e.g.

saIJssra, samsare, sensare or savsare,

or as nasslisstion of'the vowel, as in

~m hi!Jsa, himsa, hivea or hrsa

1ffr pUl:Jsi,pumat, pilsi

Bef'ore ~, he , as IJ ,m ,n , or V; e.g.

fm!siIJha, simhe, sinha or sivha

or as nasalis ation of the vowel in ~~ , sey-he

The Sign ~ is sometimes written above a character preceding an

antahsthe or an uu~man character to indicate realisation by nasal-

ising the vowel of the syllable instead of by a nasal consonant

f'ollowing the vowel. This sign is called ~~~~~ (enunasikal),

and it is usually written, in preference to the anusvarah, in the

'sacred syllable' ~ , (0~)2

Reading eX~les3

a. fcf;

b. ~if

' * l t S i l l l J i

c h f d Z lC. U'TTTT:::r- -6= ~

~ .... .,~ ~""I\I, ., I~

(Il~ ~ ~ffi14A~

• ~ cP lS~p :H rTii ('11? l~

1. '~s~l'. 2. See above, under 2.i.

?For transcription of

examples, see p.52. • The lines a, band c correspond to the notgiven above under 3.1. 4. G~tagovindakavyam, sarga 3,v.6o

30 S:\:\SKRIT SECTIO~



ii. visergeh • ~. r : 1

The visergeh is written as two dots, placed vertically, after a

character.

~:

e-

; r ; J t! ?;IT: ~: \3': ~: ?ft: "if: t: m :eh ah ih iih uh uuh rrh eh 3yh oh evh

q;): ( 3 f m ~! c f i r :~ ~ ~ ~ ~ cit: ~:

keh kah kih kiih kuh kuuh krh keh keyh koh bvh

Calligraphy

The visergeh is usually added to a character af'terevery other

stroke has been made, including the head-stroke.

e.g. c : h

The realisation of'the visergeh varies in different parts of India

a. It may be realised as strong aspiration following the realisation

of the character with which it is written, for example

deveh malah kevih

~(5:

guruh keveh gul1.eYh bhanoh

It is realised in this way when it occurs medially, as in

~:~, , duhkhem; or as the doubling of the following consonant,

as in (i'q":tJ • te:pehsu,tepessu.

b. It may be reali,sed in final position as h following the vowel of

the character with which it is written, and a very short repetition

or the same vowel after h, as illustrated by this transcription of

the examples given above:

devehe

1. 'emission of breath'




Reading examplesl

l1;:r~~

~J:f~:~~:

Gficn~~~m:

' :3 f~&ort r fgCicn~:

't~~~~ ~

~W ~ : t < : r ~S~

~ C G f i t fct~?\~~ ~M ~

6'I~~~-q

it:ifT~: m :

~fit:~ ~fit:~:m~ ~nTf&nT:

~11l1Tm~l:fT¥ : ir1JTa t7T~~mC f5~~cr~

~m;fr ~~s-q~m ~ ~: I

ii ~ir c r - c r : I2

~ ~ ~ ~ , , 3~;:f ~ W * e!c=t~Rt~Rl~Gldt(lj ; :rr~,

Vf~ ': if1 l~ ~ 114

' I : IT~Qff i1 f f i~<>r f~(1 ' ";{cfl:ffi::rR1~~~ I

! !~t j ...~11:Jftr ~~ -wr df>lUt&lI~:ctlir~ II 5

~:

4. The Complete Syllabary

The complete syllabary, arranged in the traditional order, is

given on the following page. The characters are further arranged ina .table in which the vowel characters, and the two modifiers added tc

the character ~ , are placed in order at the head of a series of

columns consisting of every consonant character in the ekare fo~,

each consonant character with each of the vowel signs and each or the

modifiers.6 These two tables together show the order in which the

characters are placed as initial characters of words in dictionaries.

Characters with the enusvareh are, however, placed before characters

without the enusvarah but followed by another consonant character.

1.·For transcription, se~ p.52. 2. Bhagavadg!ta,ch.lO,v.loa.

3. ibid., ch.10,v.4.b. 4. Grtagovindakavyam, sarga l,v.8.5. ib~~., sarga l.3,v.7. 6. Cf. the series of characters withvowel signs given above under 2.i1.

32 S.\XSKRIT SECTIO'X



?if ; ; ; r r & t ~ ~

~ ~ ~ ~" ' ~ ~1 'Q '.;;r ; r ; £ :

e n ~ T f ~ ~

~ ~ '3 f ~ \5 f

C (5 E; G t lJ

(f ~ ~ ~ ; : r

q 'tfi G f tr : q -

~ ~ ~ q~ ~ ~ ~

00

5. The Devanagari Numerals

Hindi f'O:""IIlS: ~ ~ a ~ ~ S t \. 9 'C : e . ~l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO

Bombay f'orms: , ~ a ~ ~ '& \3 c : ; ~ ~o

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO

6. Punctuation

.In ~rose writing, the end of'a sentence is marked with a vert-

ical stroke of'the same height as the characters. In verse, the f'irst

line of'a stanza or cou~let is closed with one vertical stroke, and

the com~lete stanza or cou~let is closed with two vertical strokes.

and numbered as illustrated in the verse example~ given at thl!~nd of

the next cha~ter.

C HAP T E R 3



CONJUNCT CHARACTERS

Consonant characters may be combined to represent two or more

consonants realised without any intervening vowel. A character

forme&by combining other characters is called a conjunct character,

ti~ihl'~W:((sa!lJY1lktak~aram).

1. Construction of Conjunct Characters.

Characters may be combined in various ways, according to the

form of the characters to be jOined.

i. The second character may be subscribed to the first:

c r , C fd- ve

~dva

ii. If the first character has an upright stroke, this stroke may be

omitted, and the first part of the first character is joined to the

second character by the head- stroke, thus:

gge

~"tft- pe

?1tpa

~qn- de nde

~, 'ifg- ga n- me nma

The characters ' C i f i " ~

cha~acters in the forms

and ~ are usually joined with following,

q: , $f and " ' C f .

Some conjunct characters may be formed by either of these two

methods, for example:~,~c- ce

~or:;;;;rcce

' 3 f ' \ 3 fj-'ja

~or \Nfjje

D

SANSKRIT SECTION



Some conjunct characters are formed by a combination of methods

i. and ii.; for example: q _ ~d-bhe ~dbhe

iii. I~ the first character is a rounded character, with no upright

stroke, it is usually written in full, and the second character is

joined with it in a modified form, for example:

? i t [d- ye

'i,~h- ye

~hye

~'If,h- me

.~bme

iv. Some characters are written in a special form when joined with

other characters, for example:

Jva

~\ ~r-the rtha

' T f , ~

g- re J- ra Jre

The characters ~ (H indi form) and ~ (B ombay form), represent-

ing k- ~a , and the character ~ , representing j- pe, have been in-

cluded in the syllabic series from a very early date, though no con-

junct characters are included in the syllabary. Calligraphically

these three characters are not formed by jOining two distinct charact-

ers, but they are considered in this work under the appropriate

classes of conjunct characters because they represent syllables con-

sisting of two consonants and the vowel a

If any characters are not modifiable, and therefore cannot b~

combined, by any of these methods, the realisation of them without an

intervening vowel is indicated by writing the first character with

the virameh, thus

~q<l- da

q ~,d- bra <1bre

COXJUXCT CHARACTERS 3S



Characters combined ~ith other characters in this way do not ~orrn

conjunct c~aracters in calligraphy, but they are included in this

. . .chapter beca~se they complete certain series in the classes of con-

junct characters.

Three, four or ~ive characters may be combined to form a conjunct

character, for example:

ct 11' 'tf ? = < = r,t - m - ye tmye

~ ~ qb - dh - ve

s~qbdhve

~\ 'q, ~ ~

r - ~- t - ye

The general rules already given ~or the order of strokes in writ-

ing a character apply also to the conjunct characters. The vowel

Examples: ktyu q.signs are added to the character before the headstroke is written.

stvi

q.., ~<.j

It- I~("cf

'-1''1I \;'~'

2. Contexts o~ Conjunct Characters.

i. In words, such as

Conjunct characters occur in the following contexts:

~~ ;;ITq: ~: ~ ~ ; r , _ ~: ~iccha agnih k@ipreh brehmen Jlokeh strii

. .ii. In junctions arising from grammatical processes:

a. In words formed by the addition of su~fixes to verbal roots,

such as

~-ct ~=tt) 'lllt-'tf l'f~ c::1~-(qT ~&~qr ,, \

bhej-te bhekte gem-ye gemy? lebh-tva lebdhv8

SA::-<SKRIT SECTIO~



b. In derivatives of various kinds, such as

diva

~Juura

~n4B"avryarn

c. In words formed by the addition of prefixes or suffixes to

other words, as in

: :3f f-( i11 ~ \3'f(-1'fl1: ~'lf: :;;rfiT-~: ';Ij:f~:,"ut-tama uttama ut-gameh udgamah abhi-asah abhyasah

~-~ rll lf ~-~: ~: ~-~ cna·'tftf, -,

dur-SUI1.e durgtllle vi-adhih vyadhih vac-maye valJmeya

iii. In compound words, in which the final character of one part of

the compound word, if it is a halan~a character, is joined with the

initial character of the following part, as in

~~ - l1Tff: l i l' Q " ' f I t ' i : ~-~: ?1i~:,

~at - masah ~aI'(lllasah rc - vedah rgvedeh

~~" m a r ~l1 .$PTcr1fTmJri!mat - giita Jriimadbhagevadgiita

iv. In pieces consisting of two or more words, in which a conjunct

character is written joining the final character of one word, if it is

a helanta character, with the in!tia1 character of the following word'.

For example:

~tfT ft ~"1:f rt:tT fil Gtf I., I~&'Q 0 1 f4~IIA:4~Jreyo hi jpanamabhyasajjpanaddhyanem viJi~yete,

"~1i11(Cfi'.t~?=fT'1T~('ql'all-e.alF-ft~;;~ 11 ~~ II

dhyanatkerma~heletyagastyagaCChantiranenter~m.12.1

•1. Bhagavadgita, Ch.12.v.12.

CO~JU~CT CHARACTERS 37



The process o~ joining characters illustrated in ii. to v. above

is known as 'sandhi' or consonantsl• The examples in ii.a. and ii.b.

~lluBtrate the process o~ 'internal' sandhi, and those in i1.c., i11.

and iv. illustrate that or 'external' sandhi.

3. Classi~ication o~ Conjunct Characters.

Tqe conjunct characters are arranged in this work in classes

according to the combination or consonants which occurs when the con-

junct character is realised in reading. The conjunct characters,

when arranged in this way, fall into ~our classes.

Class 1. Two similar characters joined.

Class 2. Two vergiiye characters joined.

Class 3. Characters joined with entehsthe characters in various

combinations:

1. Characters joined with '[

ii. Characters joined with o r

iii. Characters joined with

a. preceding ~,; or b. following "'

iv. Oharacters joined with

a. preceding ~ 2; or b. following ~

Class 4. vergiiye characters joined with uu~men characters:

i. Characters joined with

a. preceding ~,1Sf or ~" ,

i1. Oharacters joined with

a. preceding ~; or b. following ~,

or b. following ~, ' l iT or~

1. Co~;re reference to 'sandhi' of vowels, in Chapter 2, 2.i.2. The Vedic character 00, 1.e, is included in this class.

38 SA~SKRIT SECTION

l



Glass 1. Two similar characters joined •

-kka

-tta

-ppa

-kkhe -gga

'CCf) ~

-:pphe -bbe

Alternative forms

-yye

-cce: c : : - a ; " S f ~l:f)

-cche -jje· jjhe

~,G 1ij"

- tq ha -T.l'1.e

(=~ ~

-tt~ -dde

; s J if

-ddhe -nnette

-bbhe -mIne

-sse

-cce -j je -lIejjhe

The characters \51, T and '& do not occur in this series. The

second and fourth characters in each vergeh are formed by combining

the alpapraTJ.echaracters with the corresponding mehapraTJ.echaracters.

Reading examples4•

oCf~:

~

\3:r;q

?;I'&~!

f 4 ' S fOU(

~_ ~~;V~ ~

~fu: ~!

[~:Wc:rJ " '1 HH1"*

1. Conjunct characters which do not occur-initially are indicated byprefixing a hyphen in the roman transcription.

2. This character occurs only in the grammatical term given in the

reading examples.3. This character occurs only in combination with preceding4. Transcription of examples is given .on p.52.

CO~JeNCT CHARACTERS

l

39



Class 2. Two vargiiya characters j01ned.

vargeh

i. eghot'leand gho~evet characters, excluding enunasike char-ac t.er-e s

gho!?evet

C f5 - , C ! "

ke - te

'6fS-nke - te

~-1:f

ka - pe

~--e;ce - te

ce - pe

c-Ffte - te

-kce -kche

C fC C;~ CfO C~

-kte -tke -kthe -tkhe

-kte -tke -kthe -tkhe

-kpe -pke -kphe -pkhe

-tche

-pche

c~ (=C

-tthe -tthe

-tphe -pthe

-gje

-gde

-gjhe

W 7G ~

-~ge -g~he -qghe

-dge -gdhe -dghe

-gbe -bge -gbhe -bghe

-dbe

-bje -bjhe

~

-tee

-pee

zy ~2

-tte -tta

-tpe -pte

&({ ~ 'i~

-bde -dbhe -bdhe

1. M~y~of these conjunct characters occur only in external sandhi.2. This combination occurs in the character combining~, ([ and ~

. . . . . .

SAXSKRIT SECTIO~

ii. Ohsracters of each v~rg9h joined with a preceding or following



a. enunasika character preceding.

enunasike character of the same vargah.

i ii W f-lJk~ -IJkha -1Jge -IJghe

~ ~ 'llS "{fG

-rlte -rLtha -llqa -rLqhe

~ P:f) " J : i S f l = . l : f

-rnp s - mphe - mbe -mbha

Alternative forms~ " C T G

-pjhe -llte

- = r r-nta

~

-pche

r~

-ntha -ndhe

~

-pjhe

~

-nda

These characters, representing a preceding homorganiC nasal

consonant, are usually written in preference to the enusvareh placed

on the preceding character, of which examples have been given abovel•

The following examples illustrate the contexts in which the anusvareh

may be written, and in which it is not written:

vin9~tih or vinentlh~

b. enunasike character following.

-c)1e -tne

aI !J teo r e nt e3

-thne -pme

):l:f

-bhme

The character if is not calligraphically a conjunct character,

and is found, from an early date, included in the syllabic series of

characters5• In realisation, however, it belongs to this class of

1. See above, Ch.2,3.i.b. 2. Verba1 forms. 3. Non- verbal forms.4. T he c om bi nat io n c r - ;:r more usually becomes 'iK in sandhi. •5. See above, Ch.2.l.'iii.

CO~JUNCT CHARACTERS

conjunct char~cters. In the order o~ words in dictionaries, words



beginning with ~ are placed between words beginning with ~ and

th'osebeginning with ~ •

iii. Characters joined with a preceding or ~o11owing enunasike

character of a di~~erent vergeh:

a. enunasike character preceding.

~ ;S'lf - : : r , =cf) ~ ; : : c r ~ ;:q:; ; : "lJ- -, n--IJbhe -nke -nge -ncel -nje1 -nphe -nbhe

lEostcharacters may occur joined.with preceding ';f, , on account

o~ the ~requent occurrence of formative particles ending in ~.,

~, IJe, also may occur with many characters in external sandhi•. . . .

b. enunas~ke character following.

-~ ~ 1t! f ~-Ite

-kl1e -~e -bhI"Le

-;;~ W - r , : r V ~ W ;r

-ne

kne -khne gne ghne -pne -bne -bhne

-~ cp:r ~ n : r e;r ~ ~ ~-me ,

-kIne -khme -groe -ghme =cme -jme -qme

'?1 G J ~'1:f

-tme -dIne -dhme

iv. ~o enunasike characters o~ different vergeh.

-rune mna

Alternative ~orms of the conjunct characters in iii. and iv. are

formed with -or. e.g. ' lOT

"1. It 1s more usual to wr1 te \5[ before characters of'the ce-vergeh.

"

SA~8KRIT SECTIO~

n _ - 1



xea aarig examp.i es"

oCf~B, ~~ff &~rr ~~~ ~7~ \3"~: qrCf"q"~

errq: ." t f i~, -Clfi~C~c,,~- "t[~p~: q)~~~: ~~~"U "'fC~:

~ ~ ~ : ~ : - ~ S , = = n - fu f f f - ;;jC'e!~: Cf)~~fct: ~G \1 f -Cf)~&lf)~~-

~$,~crr: "qg,E ff ~~ ~cnr ~~~1J!" - q s : ~ ~~ "CC~ :

~l:.xr "q"S,~ Cfi~~~ \3(q"- i f " "R(tO~: W ¢ ' W E : l o r ; 3.JCI':

~: c;rGe;f l17fQWffi ~ :m ~~ff ~m ~~m +i-.:..a~:

i:l..a.~: lll~ fc;rW ·1 l",~~: ~: Cf f~ ?IjJ~: t n \ " > t f i J "

w : r e ; : Cf)UC: "tf~: ~: ~: -q-~ ~ ~~:

~ ~R t ~q: ~li: " t T f t : ~

iii.a. ~C\;gfi?r : rr~ fc r: ~ : ~;:'{=

b. ~ ";7llf "2!~ ~R t ~ : ~ : ~ ~

~'S,"l IR\ ? l l t I W R t ~tr: f i F c f J : l U f l CU~ , crti4: ;;r~! ~i~

; J ; I T ( l = R " , " t f G l T t . " " J : f f i f ~ ~ ~ , ~ ~

1. For transcription of examples, see p.52. Examples illustratingcharacters which could occur in sandhi arising from the sequence of

words in a sentence are placed between hyphens.2. The first character represents dvi. See Class 3.1i.

CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 43

Class 3. Characters joined with entehsthe characters.



i. Characters joined with following ~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~."t["-,

kye khye .gye ghye -l]ye

o:r c s : r ~ ~ ~

-tye-thye -qye -qhye we

" tZf ~ &f ~ ~

pye -phye bye bhye mye

~ ~ ~ ~

(yye)l -rye2

lye vye

cye -chye jye -jhye

tye thye dye <frye nye

sye hye

Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. and 2. with 3.i.

~ ~ ~ " C ? 1 l~ &~ ~. . . .

-nnye -ttye -tmye -ptye -gdhye -dbhye -bjye

Reading examples. 3

Cl"fCft:p:;.... '(0:(4 Ict ~~;::r, ~4 \3'~.<:r~: ~ C fT~ ~~-,

o;;: :~ Ofilqe:~:P:r, ~ i lO " i lJ,\ GlI'5ifl:f, '3;[qr~ ~<t:tP::;, ("41\l'Li

' t { t .<::(" ~ Q . < = r r ~ Ofi~ ~ ~a- ~f.t: ;.;r~~-,

.~~~ a~~~(?:1 ~ ~~ ~: ~l?{ ~, ~~,fivtjl~: ~~: ~-cA ~ r t w 4 1 f c : t ~ ( ~~~, 11TiT~l1,

"4Cf("41 csht&\l"44, ~~p:;r: ~",o4Rh: -- ~n~~SS("~--

--~~""'l:(Tf'lfifltcl"l~- I ~ ~~11"m~<{: ti\CH'Htf11l"~ fc i~ t ' i f&j: ,5

1. See under Class 1. 2. The superscribed stroke in this character'represents r preceding another consonant. 3. For transcriptionsee p.'3. 4. The first character represents Jla. See belowund~ iv.b. 5. Nrtisatakam, verse 3.a.

SA:-.;'SKRIT SECTIOX

1i. Characters w ith following C f



Q 1 ~ T c f ~ ~ "!'.va khva gve ghva -IJva

~ ~ ~ ~qq

-tva - thva -q_ve -qhve -n=

12f & C f Pf 'Pf

-pv:;) -bye - bhve - mve

< : E f c t ~1 2

yva -rva Ive (- VV'e)

~ V- cva - chva

tva - thva

jva jhva

dva dhva nve

eva hve

\S f and 'tf) do not occur in this series. - q - preced ing another

character occurs in ~ , - vrte, ~ , - vna , S f , vra4 and ~,vla5 •

Examples o~ conjunct characters of Classes 1. and 2. with 3.i. and ii.

- ttve - rvva - cchve

Reading examples.6

- ktve - dvye

~; ~~ \3-.;.!rI~:

'l~" ~ ~~:cfr

~:

-bdhva -gdhya

~~~: ~ ~liM fif~: ~: (f~,

r~~~crr ~~ C{T'M ' r<1<t~CJT ~;n~ w 0 1 J ! i 7 ma~~:7

?fCRCITSS~~~~ I ---'!i44<timfitq:;l~rq("q1 ;m~: ~11l: 18

1. POl' the superscribed stroke in this character, see below, in iii.a.2. See - vve in Class 1. 3. For this f,orm of fe see Ch.2,1.iii.4. See below, under iii.b. 5. See below, under iv.b. •6. For transcription of examples, see p.53. 7. The initial characters

in these words represen~ gre ana pre.8. Prom B hagav adglta, Ch.6.v .4 1.a.


11 i. Characters joined wi th preceding ~ or following ~ •,



a. 1: preceding another character.-,

To represent ~,preceding another character a stroke is super-

scribed on the character before which l' is to be realised. This

stroke is called ~:, r-ephah , the name given to the character " t

repheh in this form may be written with any character, but it does

1

not occu.r with ~ or ~ .c f i ~ ~ ff . q ~ ~ ~

- rka - rca -rte -rta -rpa -rye -rJa -rh9

Some of t he c ha ra ct er s, particularly 7 1 " . ~ , "V i , 'ff , q.

q ~ 1:(", ~ and G f, aLoe frequently doubled when written with

rephah. This practice is found in H indi writing. but is not usual

in Marathi writing. Examples:

nf ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ oi-rgge -rjja - rtta - rddhe -rmma - ryy9 - rvve

Characters written with vowel signs and repheh:

-rka -rki -rkii$

-rku -rke -rkay - rko - rkev

and with rephah and e.nusvarah:

0 F i T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

-rkBlIJ - rkiIIJ - rkiiIIJ - rkUIlJ - rkeIIJ - rkaYn.J - rkeVIIJ

•The rephah is placed above the upright stroke of a character, or

above the mid- point. It is always written to the right side of any

other superscribed stroke, as shown in the examples given below. It is

written also with the vowel character ~. as in the word ~~~:.

1. re~a, 'rough'; rephah, 'a rough sound'.

46 S:\XSKRIT SECTIOX

Charac"':ersw1th repnel: are written as shown in these examples:



rki I t : h f ; . h R t fc t rkii ch i t : h ) e h f c f i rrke < = h ~ ;t ~ rko chi ~ q - . I c : n TrkiIlJc + , r e b I e h % rkevr!Jch) c t ; 1 ' c h I W

In Bo:nbaywriting the cha~acter representing -rhe is sometimes

written as ~~, though the use of this stroke for repheh 1s more rare-

ly used in writing Sanskrit than in writing Marathi.

following another character.

To represent ~ f'ollowing another character, a diagonal stroke

is placed against the upright stroke of'those characters that have

one, or beneath the mid-point of the lower part of a rounded

character.

if) V 'W \S . W ~. . . .kre gre -ghre -IJre -chre2 jre

~ ~ ;r ~ ~ W " ~

-tre3 -q_re tre thre dre dhre -nre

> r ir ~ ;r 9 f ~ -q ~or~

pre bre bhre mre vre Jre4 sre hre

Examples of'conjunct characters of'Classes l. to 3.ii. with 3. iii.op;f ~ ?f ~ ~~ ~ 9 " ? t f ~~.

-ktre -tpre -rtye -drye -rdhve -rdre -ntrye ·-rdhnye

1. See above, Oh.2,2.ii. Vowel signs.

2. This combination occurs in the character joining ~and ~3. c: and ~ are combined in the character representing ' 1 S f ,·candr4 . Fo~ this form of' lrr , see Oh.2,1.ii1. ' "


Re ading examplesl



a.~: ~ C f l T : ~ ~ ~ .

~ ~ , C f l # : ~ &j~ ~, ; q q l i ' 1 ~ l + 1

~f iT: ChJ:~, ~ li~ ~ ~: ~11

~~ ~, ~ ~gf.t:tl:q,~, q~ ~ 1l~:;:~1S1IZ1k"1rt:

~~~~~ I' ~~~.ffi I i!4&:q~1~'l14~4 ~ ~ u_

b.~: ~: ~ ~~ ~~ ~, ~~ ~:

~ ~ : 1 P : o n ~ t .m I ;m ~:

~~ ~ ~ ~

~:

~qqli, ~

;r~

Lv, Characters combined with preceding C W f , or following ~ •2

a. ,~, preceding another character.3

c ;oF) ?T c = t f ~ c;Gf C;~ ~

-lke -lge -lpe - lphe - lbe -lbhe -lme

~ ~ ~ Vedic C O ' !-lIe -ls9 -lhe -l.,he

b. c;r following another character.

ii ~ ~ ~c;r ~,

~kle gle - chle -<tIe ple ble bhle

~ ~ ~or ~ ~mle vle Ile hle•

• Most of these characters may be written either by method i. or

by method ii., described earlier in this chapter.4

1. For transcription, see p.53.2. Fcfr c ; : r joined with entehsthe characters, see 1. to i ii . abov e.

30 Vedic ~ is included in this class.4. See abeve , 1. Construction of Conjunct Characters,.

SA~SKRIT SEC"TIOX

Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. to 3.iii. with 3.iv.



~ r w ~ ~(")

-tpla - tkla - cch1a -lbhya

Reading exanrples.1

~P6T -q;~ ~ ; ; r < : , , 4 1 0 1 1 t t l ~f? :mr \3"~ ~4fC;:~'.

~~~ lf~: q~ ~7f~1.~ ;:;;003 ~ir" "- ~

~"U~ ~

W i"~: $I ( ' Q ; % J I

~~1:f: ~~:fl"ilkl

~: m: ~: ~ a - ~ - , ; .a~G f ~~: ~:')

" t i m ~ff irn ~q f P 4HJ ~<1 ~ m

~H1T~ ~ ~ ~mff '(({~ W~ICh~~"

~~ (=q~~: ~~~~;oaIJO i f f l !~~

~tri: 11t(iX{: ~ ~ O f a "'~1I2

Class 4. vargiiya characters joined with preceding or following

uu~man characters.

i. Oharacters joined with l r r 1 S f or 'B .

a. ~" 1 0 f or " B ' preceding another character.-,

"The following characters occur in this series, some occurring

only in external sandhi.

~3~ -!q m - \T . C f q ' ~

S~-Jka -Sea - Scha Jna -fpa Sma

~ ~ -g -g ~ ~ ~ 1:tf~~

-~ks - ~ta ~tha -~Ila -~pa -@phe -s=

~, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ B ~ ~ ttl's-

ske skhe - sje ste stha sne epa sphe ema

1. For transcription, see p.54. 2. Vairagyasa~akamL- v.62.3. These characters may be written with either ~ or ~

" ,

CONJV;:';:CT CHARACTERS 49

b. ~ , ~ or ~ f'ollowing ar.other character.



The following characters occur ir. this series, some occurring

only in external sandhi.

"U ~ 6·~ ~ C~ ~ qrI<il -, -,

-kIe -:!JIe -pI<il -tie -nIe - pI a

~ ~ ~1 g. lS[ 2 c l S f ~ ~r

~<il " "k~a -IJ~e -t~9 -n~e - P @ l 9

'B CH1 ~l=f ~ R = f =s 1:;ffS<il

-kS<il -tse -Ilse -tse -nse - ps a

The character ~ has been included in the syllabic series f'rom

an early date, and is not calligraphically a conjunct character.3 In

the order of' words in dictionaries, words beginning with ~ are

placed after words beginning wi th ~ .

Conjunct characters of Classes 1. - 3. with Class 4.

'R ~~

~ & - 1 1 ~ ~ t=R. . . . .stra -~tra -g-tV9 k~Ile -kg-me -stva -tsthe -tsna

~ ("'fl:~ ~ ( ' " ~ - 4strye -tsmye -rg-tya -rtsnye

Calligraphy: ki;ia, Bombay f'OJ"'IIJ ~ ~ ~ \1Reading exam:ples4

a. - ; ;w~ 'R-'lT:

"~~ ~(>f t6q')l4, ~: ~

(5)CUj9'j ~ ~" H6(G !~ 's;{~ ~!f,,"'~ "

~ "fIl!~: ~ i)g{q1f, ~ q:r ~ cn~

~ f 4 1 S q : ; ( , {

~~ fflpq

b. SOII~IH'1 , ~~ftrn:r, ctl~'W 'h1 [m~) " E f c _ : m ~ l.~ ~'\ -91~ , \

~~ ~c,t:llra; ~ ~l:f ~ G,~ ?;fffi: ,!';]Vl~ (~ ~IOG \ f{ '{ ra ] ~

1. BoIll'Oayf'orm. 2. This combination usually becomes 6-~ •3. Cf'.note on ~ ,Cl.2.1i.b. 4. For transcription, see p.54. 'E

50 SA~SKRIT SECTION

~~ ::3~~ ,;r~ ~: B~~~ "G;a(f ~ttrr Cfik&4Xi,



'fcr;rn:~ q;-.:t'tf)F')~ C~~'l": ;;l1:~l:f, ~, ~~,

ii. anunasika characters joined with preceding ~ or following ~,

a. ~ preceding ~ , ;:;and 11 •~ i ~

-hI).a hne -hrna

b. ~ following G " 'and ., :g.~ ~,

" -,

-IJha -nhe

Readi ng examples.l

1l~ ~: ~~ ~~ ~~~: C ~ l f 1 = O : J ~w-:~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ J t r R t \3 i : l : 1 , I ~ (M~tr, II~II2

~ : - r { i h 1 1 ~ ~ 1 l € > ~ ~~~('1 I ~ ~ ~ ~~ lI.:tll3

'ff'it'Ttf~~:r~~ffi;:qr~: ~~ ftfffil1{r-i, I

ii;f1'6fI:ql~ttQ i " ' l I . . ;rr~~;:qhll"'8 f ? c i t " f O ~ l I o te r l ! 4

~ : ( ) f ;4Ul l f 6 1 ( 1 H I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I

~4tl ~[i BitnStrmi14~~<'fiCfi~~, "~~,, 5

~ fc i : i ~ c q : ) " ( l i : fT fu ~ l1~ff ('1~q fcfR , I

q~"~ltT<5f-~' l .uf.=~r~:r~~~~;:~;r "c1l6,

-31lttlct1rff: ~ § t1~O llo;j- ~ ~ f t rm~ :q I

~ ;:m ~ ~ ~ : c : f f i~ :R t t i f i ~ ~ n g . : : n7

l. For transcription, see p.54.4 . B hagavadgfta, ch.l,v.26.6. ibid., ch.5,v.8.

2. Rigveda, l. 3. ibid~, ~.5. i bi d., ch.3,v.25.7 . Nrtisatakam, v . 4 8 .

TRA~SCRIPTIOX



Transcriptior.,o~ Readi~g Examples

Chapter 2.

1.t, da dha ta pha ma pe ne ce qa gaka bh8 ja be ghe cha the khe jhe Jl8

bhate pede dhena kaqe matha pharLa ghane khac dadh damechad jhaga jeqa phete patha bata chage pe<th ghata gal1e

gamaka

dhatake

chadanamgamanam

1.11. va

jegat

kapste

cal1.aka

bhajaka

patheka

khejake

damatha

padeka

methane

gSl1eke

ghetake

ketharn

netenern kethenem bhal1enem jenepedadha,narnada jhal1.ejhal1am jhel1.ejhel1.ern

ya re 1e ba the khe te

jhere bela vare 1'61119 vathjhere ret ral1a pha1 rethe

dhavale jathara ceral1e qernerabhevet neyena vecara latabha

lava jelalabh yeve

khara veddhara leye

tarala l.aval1enekhare lage<te

bheyamcepala

yernavat vayanern garalarn pedakarnala kapatavac~mam

1.iii. ~a he sa fa pa <ta re kha

fare sahe t>at vaJa has jhet>a resa ve~ Javasat fatha kafa ka~a fas haya hare jhe~9 bhe~a

serele ka1eIa jahet 'Veyes Jepatha samaya bahela Jalabhayafes Iereta saphela sarase hereka parefe rebhese h8teka

deferath8jelaceres

2.i. e

atheuuh •ed1i~9t

2.11.

.duurageYra

pitrotu

IeketernnevedeIakam

seveyes ke1.aharn fasanernsahagemenarn kemelavedene

JetaJesdeJeIetam

i u 8 I' 11

i~ ut ekaedha iife uehElal eiim okhuuhanam r~abha

av 1'1'u a

ad ayIeuuqha iheudal) rl1am8~~amas upakere118m

ine oteVIn ruarc eYll8

av~edham

rdhut>

nii bhuu gay ar da ji gav pey me duukr chi Ilev hey bhii Jrr fii dr hi hI'

bhiita r-ama cora tiIJ do~e frta dhrta ruuq_ha~f pavIa k1.p

driha pure phel1e' mevIe krrt

meru dUU~i bhiiti hri guru vrtha JiJu setuuti eta rtu iti uuru r~i el111 ute

52 SAXSKRIT SECTIO~

bh1.:.uEliteku.'narii

vi~ese upaye veybheve pitrrn peVru~e rucirejhetiti thalinii ruu~ite ev~edhi keykeyii

bhaVmikajhirika



vid.hatru eyhike qhalin surebhi kheqika helate

ekakin hr~ikeJe itihase kevJeleyadevenagerii enunasike aVpeni~edeupenivefike eVpenayike ko-pi

vi~uucika FaVra~ikeupejiivika eVpadeJike

rte-pi yefo-peyeje

tamehe~ hrdi se~getameniJe~ bhrJa~

ki~ vene-nuserami tamihe ki~ vrtha

remeyami

vilepami3.ii. keh cheh theh jheh eYh oh uuh rh nevh ~eh~ah dhrtih bahuh niteh nrpeyh viduh Jr~ih puruElehmenehsu hivih~u dhenubhih viJefeteh e~Jeteh e~tehkere~emsemeduhkhesukheh JunehJepeh jegetohitah meto-dhikeb tejo~-Jehbehevo~-buvegah yogemayasemavrteh ge~gatere~gehimeJiikereJiitelanijeyedevepe~qitekeveh pe~qitan~ semaje-pe~qita meVne~ bhejeyuh

bhuye eve mehabaho fr~u me pereme~ v&ceh

sukhe~ duhkhe~ bhevo-bhavo bheye~ cabheyemeve ce

vehesi vepu~i viJede vesene~ jeledabhe~ helehetibhiitimiliteyemunabhemkeJeve dhrteheledhereruupe Jeye jegediiJe here

madhevikaperimelelelite nevemaletijatisuge~dhevmunimenesamepi mohenekari~ii ter~iikari~ebe~dhev

Chapter 3.

Class1.

thekkureh kekkhete drggocereh vagghi ti~~eti~ ucceyh iccharejjuh ujjheti pettika letthe uqqine Eleqqha vi~e~~e vi~e~~eutteme utthite uddeJeh buddhih bhinne pippeleh phupphuuseh ebbuhabbhogeh semrnetlh sa~oheh Jeyya ullekheh tecchr~u senneddhedUJJiile (duhJiile) JetaYU~fu (JetayuhJu) jesserajeh Jubh~llokan

Class 2.

i. vakce1e vakchelem prthegjeneh vagjhetiti vaktiika ~etko~e

~etkhetekem vagqembereh kheqgeh vagqhevkete dviqghora bhektih utketeukthem utkhate hrdgete sedgu~e degdhe udghateke vakp~tu

vakphelem kekupkhalu prthegbhaveh kekubguruh kekubghora ~etcereIJ.eQ,

~etchevih ~eqjeh ~eqjhetiti epcereh kekupchevih kubje kekubjhetiti

~eqdevah ~eqdha ~etpeti tuptiika ~etpheIJ.e ~eqbahu kekupthekkureh

ebqimbhe ~eqbhage kekubqhevkete utpenne setpheleh gupte udbodhekeudbneveh

Jebdeh lebdhe bhegevedgiita se~yukte edbhute medbhekte buddhi-yukte ~ecchebdeh

TRANSCRIPTION 5 : . t

ii.a. e~keh fe~kheh 2i~gem se~gheh se~ceyeh va~cha epjiireh jhe~jhagh~teh ke~theh pe~~iteh ~h~~hih enteh pentheke Bundere 1ndhehkempene gumphet1 sembendheh arembheh pe~ktih erunddha



b. yac~a j~anem heth~ati heqh~ati ratnem rnethnabudhnati papmentej~eye se~j~a sa~j~a v1!ep9j~s jij~asu

11i.a. udalJbhih mshankevih drunphuh drunbhuh

b. rkrJ.erug:qs grbhrLati jaknoti cak.hnutuh agnih vighnemrqnati apnoti sbnabheh rukmi~ii vagmin vecmih sjrneh kuqrne2eatrnan padma dhmate drbhmss dadhmav

1v. d1lJnageh v8lJmaya dvi:qna2ah ~e~masah jerJmsn re~ati mnatsC2ass 3.

i. vekyam khyate veYragyem Jlaghya udalJya!eh cyute va~chys jyotis

ujjhyati kapstyem jathyam ja~yem evaqhye p~em tyajyepethye vidya dhyanem kenya apye rlphyete ebyonih sbhyaseh

sSVmyem dheyryem emuu2ye vyuuqhs drfye msnupyeh rehesye hyesseynyesys

ssnnyaseh se~nyaseh cintye buddhya tejjyotis veydegdhysm mahatmyembhsktya kevbjyem sshrdbhyah bhsgavenvyektih evemetedyetha--tthe

guhyemadhyatmsss~j~item ej~ah sukhemaradhyeh sukhstsremaradhyetevife~sj~sh

11. kvsc1t pskkvannem akhvoh rgvedeh leghv11 ucchvassh ujjve2s ujjhva

2stveh yaanatva ~eqv1dhe drqhvsm Jr~vsn tvsrite prthvii udvignadhvenih

envits apva ebvahsnem ribhvsn cemvoh yvagu2ii serve servve nelveh

iifvereh viIve ~vekkete enuBvareh hve vihve2e vidhve~ssh dvsndveh

tsttvsmdugdhva labdhva uktv8 davna eteddhva vlinati gra~a pr8lJvefeh

tysktva--tmsIuddhye p~ekrt~2lokanu~itva jajvstiih semah

•h9r~ah arhat kiirtih ehsrnifam uurdhvsm verjye

i1i.a. terkeh muurkhe vergeb vergiiye aiirghe farlJgecar~a muurchitearjuneh nil'jhsreh

dar~hysm ver~eh kertr vysrths durdaYvsm ardhs menurnams erpe~em dur-bele gsrbhite

uurmih ksrmmsn dharmiks perysnta perye~ts suuryah dur2sbhs puurvs

sarvvs derjensmmuurdhni muurdhnya-dhayatmsnsh neyrrtii '

vedeyej~adhyayan9yrnadansyrne cs

b. vikrsmsh agrsheh jiighrs pr8lJratrii krcchre vsjrsm pa~qrehJstruh drsvysm I

bruve bhratr nsmrs vrsjsh fuIruu~a srsjvahrssva hresvs

ardrs ardre daridryem daridryem ss~hrii~aetecchrutva

durbuddhsYryuddha IvetsYrhaysyryukte

.dhruvs prsystnsh pre~a

u •hray )ti~srs fraddhs

digvretsm ~ettri~fs yatprsma~sm jsmbvamrsle

54 SAXSKRIT SECTIO~

1v. u2ka ph&lgu svelpa elpapra~e gulphite ulbe pregalbhe

he2Jebdeh helsendhih valh pragelbhyem jelhu milhu~e



kleJeh glav pleva pipluh ebli~ge kekubhlabheh mleccheh vlinati

Slokeh Sle~ah sihlah hladete ucchlekha utkleSeh utplave

presenne

cet~s1 prat1divasamaradhya bahu ha

prasade~ ki~ net~ viSasi hrdayatvayyentah svayemuditacintama~i~e

vimukteh se~kalpeh kimabhile~ite~

kleSakalilam

pu~yati na te

Class 4.

i.a. afcaryam prefnah jmojr-u pu~kela ble~kem sr~tih kr~~a

jye~the ~thyuutapu~pem ni~phale uUpIDan Sle~ma se~skrta skhalita bhrasj stabdha

I sthitih striiantehsthe snigdhe spr~ta sphuurtih bhesma fre~thatvam Scyuta drptva

da~~tra var~~eye nemoste-stu

b. prakSires pretye~Iiras tapSuka tanIuka ~etSastra repSate ek~aramtirya~pu ~8t~apt1h k~etrajpe diksama litsu vatsah suga~sareti

suga~tsareti k~maSlak~~e utk~ipte bhak~ye metsyeh tetsthela k~vete epkrtsna kartsnyam

vibhre~taSchenna kerIDepheleprepsurlebdhah nabhahsprSam dhar~tyeIDetetktletram

11. grh~at1 vehnih hnute brahm8~8 pr~hesteh pra~ghasteh itltanbhanhi

agn1miile puroh1ta~ yajpesya devamrtv1ja~Ihotare~ ratnedhatamamagn1h puurvobherr~ibh1rii~Yo nuutenayruta Isa dev~ eha vek~ati

tetrapaSyetsthitanparthehpitrrnethe pitamahanacaryanmatulanbhrantrrputranpevtransekhi~statha

sektah kerme~ev1dv~so yetha kurventi bharetekuryadv1dv~stetha-saktaSciki1rtlurlokesa~grehem

neyva ki~e~tkeromiiti yukto menyete tettvevitpeSyenJr~vensprSanjighrenneSnangacc~ansvep8nSvesan

ajpaki1rt1h palene~ brahma~~ dane~ bhogo mitr8SQ~rak~a~em eeyetlamete~a~~a ne pravrttah korthgste~~ parthivopaSreye~a





C HAP T E R 1

A RRA NG EM ENT O F TH E SYLLA B A RY



The Devanagari Script is used in writing Hindi (~~ ) and the

arrangement of the characters in the syllabary is the same as the

Sanskrit arrangement. 1 Some of the characters are used only in writing

Sanskrit loanwords, but most of them may be found in literary texts.

Some of the characters are modified for representing sounds occurring

in Persian and Arabic loanwords.

The script is usually referred to as ~~~ (bal~bodh), 'that

can be understood by a child'. Each character is called ~~l

(ek~~r), and the syllabic series is called ~~ (verl'l.emala,

'character-series'). The terms used by Hindi grammarians to refer to

the script are similar to those used in Sanskrit, but as the realisat-

ion of the characters in Hindi differs somewhat from the Sanskrit

system in respect of consonant characters realised with the vowel e

these terms are used in thls section in the Hindi form, and are tran-

scribed in accordance with the realisation of the characters in Hindi.

The following examples illustrate the difference between the terms

used in the Sanskrit section and the corresponding terms used in this

section: Sanskrit ~:q;~I1, (ek~arem), Rindi ~"{ (ek~er)

~~P::r: (virameh), ~~fl:r (viram)

~r:n:W (ent~hsthe), ; ;r; :m;q" (ent~sth)

, The table given below in this chapter shows the arrangement of

the Rindt syllabary in roman notation. The sounds occurring in Arabic

1. See Sanskrit, Ch.l.

58 HINDI SECTION

and Persian loanwords, and the intervocalic realisation of the

cnaracters realised initially as q~ and qh~ , are represented in



the roman notation as follows:

q , for the voiceless uvular plosive, 9 f5

x , for the voiceless velar fricative, W

r ,for the vOiced v elar fri cativ e, rrz , for the voiced dental fricative, ~

t: , f'or the voiceless labial f'ricative, 't;fi

r , rh , f'or the retrof'lex f'lapped consonants 9 and ~

Nasalisation of'vowels is shown by the superscript

As the Devanagari system of writing is syllabic, and the charact-

ers in the syllabary represent syllables consisting either of a vowel

or of a consonant f'ollowed by the vowel a, the roman table shows

each consonant with this vowel. This vowel, when realised with a

consonant character, is usually referred to in English texts as the

'inherent' vowell.

The series of vowels includes 'short' i and 'long' ii , 'short'

u and 'IQng' uu. These pairs of vowels occur in H indi words, some

words being always written with the 'short' vowel and others with the

'long' vowel. There are certain pairs of words which are distinguish-

ed in meaning by the writing of the 'short' or the 'long' vowel, and

other words in which the 'short~ or the 'long' vowel is written, put

no distinction is made in speech. In transcribing examples, these

vowels are written as 'short' or 'long' in accordance with Hindi

orthography, and not in relation to 'length' of s~oken vowel sound~.

•

1. See Sanskrit, Ch.l.

ARRA:-l"GE:\IENT OF THE SYLLABARY 59

H indi Syllabary in Roman Notation



1 2 3 4 5CONSONANTS with e Velar Palatal Retro- Der.tal Labial

flex

mka 1Unaspirated ca te te pe

m II)

r-III) ([)

C)

Aspirated'" khe che tha the phe

~'"mq,e2

0 rdUnaspirated ge je de be

Q)

.-I C)

.,..{

qha2.. 0 Aspirated ghe jhe dha bhe: : : -

Nasal (lJa)3 (Jl:;' l) 3 :na4 na meL

Semivowels. ye re la va5

Voiceless xa6 fe ~a4 se ra6

Fricatives

Voiced - ra6 ze6

Aspirate hfl

VOWELS a a i i i t u uu e ey- 0 ev r7

MODIFIERS Nasal - l l J and -

JAspirated - h .

.Notes on the syllables marked I - 7 in the above table:

1. ~e character represen~ing the syllable ka is modified to repre-.sent the uvular plosive, qe.

2. ~e characters representing these two syllables are modiried to

repre~ent the medial and final realisat"ion of these characters

60 HI~DI SECTIO~

as flapped souLds, written as rand rh in the transcription.

3. The characters representing ~e and pe are not written as



single characters in Hindi, but only in combination with other

characters, illustrated below in Chapter 3.

4. The two characters represent1ng ~e and ~e occur only in

Sanskrit loanwords, and do not occur initially.

5. The character represented by ve is usually realised with'labio-

dental articulation; or, initially, as a bilabial plosive.6. These syllables are written by modifying other characters which

represent sounds somewhat similar in articulation:

xe with the character for khe; fe with the character ror phe;

¥e with the character for ge; ze with the character for je

7. This vowel, syllabic r. occurs only in a few Sanskrit loanwords.

CH APTER 2

C HA RA C TER S O F TH E SYLLA BA RY



The characters of the Devanagari Script used in writing H indi

are those given in the Sanskrit section, with the terms which are used

by Hindi grammarians in referring to them and to the sOl~ds which theyrepresent. The method of writing the characters is that described ln

the Introduction, and in the notes on the calligraphy of special

characters as they are given in the tables.

The characters, and the realisation of them in reading H indi, are

discussed in this chapter under the same headings as in the Sanskrit

section: Consonant Characters, Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs,

and Modi:fiersl•

1. Consonant Characters.

The consonant characters are arranged in three groups: 'vergiiy'

characters, 'entesth' characters, and 'uu~m' characters~ The conson-

ant characters, as they are given in the syllabary, are realised as

syllables consisting of an initial consonant, or semi- vowel, followed

. . . .by the vowel e. Characters realised in this way are described as

~~ (ekar). The realisation of a consonant character without this

vowel, that is, as the consonant element of the syllable only, is

indicated in the script by writing a diagonal stroke, known as the

1. See Sahskrit, Ch.l. :for the use o:f this term.2. See Sanskrit, Ch.2. References are given throughout this chapter

to the divisions and sub- divisions with the corresponding numbersin Chapter 2. of the Sanskrit section.

HI~DI SECTION

~l:f (viram)l at the f'ooto=-the character thus, l 5 f J ' k- • C;" t-

The realisation of'ekar consonant characters in reading Hindi



diff'ers in some respects f'romthe realisation of'these characters inSanskrit. The f'ollowing notes may be regarded as genel'al guiding

principles to which ref'erencemay be made later, when the characters

are discussed in detsil.

a. A final ekar consonant character i6 usually realised with zero-

vowel~ except in a f'ewSanskrit loanwords.2

b. A final ekar character f'ormedby combining two or more consonant

characters3, or a f'inalekar consonant character preceded by a

character written with the enusvar representing a nasal conson-

ant4, is usually realised with an a-glide.

c. A medial ekar consonant character is realised with zero-vowel, or

with an e-glide, in certain contexts, as, for instance, when such

a character occurs as the second character of'a word of'three or

more characters and the following character is written with one of'

the vowel signs5. Other contexts are given later, when the

characters are discussed in detail.

d. When an akar consonant character is the final character of'a

verbal base, it 1s usually realised with zero-vowel, or with an

a-glide, before the addition of'f'ormative particles conSisting of'

a consonant character with a vowel sign.

In the transcription of examples-of' Hindi words, final akar

consonant characters realised with zero-vowel, or with an e-glide,

1. See Sanskrjt, Ch.2~1. 2. ekar consonant characters realised withzero-vowel, as deecribed below in notes a. - d., are, how~ver, notwritten with the viram, Which is used mainly in writing cert~n

Sanskrit loanwords. 3. See below, Ch.3.4. See below, 3.i.enusvar. 5. See below, 2.1i.


are transcribed without a, and medial akar characters realised in

this way are written thua, k' , t' , p' , for guidance in reading.



Characters which do not occur in an initial position are indicated by

a hyphen prefixed to the syllable in the roman transcription.

i. Characters of the vargiiy group.

The first group of consonant characters consists of twentyfive

characters realised as syllables with an initial plosive consonantfollowed by the vowel e. These characters are placed in five class-

es, or ~ (verg), according to the position of articulation of the

consonant in the syllable they represent. The characters are given in

the Sanskrit section.1 Of these characters, S· ,~a and ~ , pe ,

do not occur in Hindi words, and occur in Sanskrit loanwords only in

combination with other characters.2 The character ~ ,~e, occurs

only in Sanskrit loanwords in literary Hindi. The characters given as

'Bombay' forms are also used in Hindi writing, but less frequently

than those given in the tables. Some of the characters are modified

to represent certain sounds in Persian and Arabic loanwords and the

intervocalic realisation of s and G

~ ~ 'IT \I f 1fi ~ ~•qa xa 1 1 " 9 za fa -r= -rhe

The characters g and G occur only initia11.y; ~ and ~ are

neve~ initial, but may be medial or fina]

Rea~ng examp1es.3

1. One character words, realised as a consonant with the vowel a

1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2~1.i. 2. See below, Ch.3.3. For transcription, see page 85.

6.. HI~DI SECTION

2. Two character words, the final character realised with zero- vowel.

'Sfiif -q-., ~e; ~q; '$ ~~ U'ff ~ ~C " C : f c



'to'lt!' ~;; \31'~ ~ 'if~ !1tr ~~ ~~ ~ ;:rc


l : f7T=r t :Fi~ i:fi6Ff ~ ffl~ C C T + : f c n TI'R"~ ~

~'iFf ~ ~ " f C : f C C F i Cf )~ ; ; U'1Cfi ~(fz:t' ~~q

4. Four character words, second characters realised with zero-vowel

or with an <I-glide, final characters with zero- vowel.

~ ~;:'f tfOtfi~ ~~C 1 : f \ " C ; q : : ; o : [ l:Ficqc

ii. Characters of the <lntasth group.

There are four characters in this group, representing syllables

consisting of an initial semi- vowel with the vowel a. The charact-

ers are given in the Sanskrit sectionl•

When the characters tf , ya and ~ , ve , occur ini tia·lly, or

with one of the vowel signs, they are realised as consonants followed

by a vowel. When they occur medially in a position in which they are

realised with a following vowel, they are realised as consonants. When

they occur medially in positions in which an akar consonant character

is realised with zero- vowel, or finally, they are realised as semi-•vowels, forming a diphthong with the vowel of the preceding syllable.

Examples:

yaman vak bhey lav

The character 6(' is often realised ini tially or medially as - be

1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,l.ii.


Reading examples.1

1. One character word.2 C f



2. Two character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel.

~ ~ c : r r ' tfii5r ~ ~ q;:r ~ ~ ~

~ 0;0; \3R ~ c r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

3. Three character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel.

~ c ; : : r ~ l "RGr ~~ cr~ ~~ ~ ~

TI~ t = m : fi ~ ~;; ~;:r ~ ~ ~c;r

4. Four and five character words; second characters in four character

words and third character in five character wor-ds, realised with

zero-vowel or with an ~-glide, final characters with zero-vowel.

iii. Characters of the uu~m group.

This group consists of three characters which are realised as

fricative consonants followed by the vowel ~, and one which is

realised as an aspirate followed by ~. These characters are given

in the Sanskrit section3. The character ~ • ~~ • occurs only in

some Sanskrit loanwords used in literary Hindi. It is often realised

in ordinary speech as J~ . The last character in the Hindi syllabary

is ~ , he

1. For transcription, see p.85.2. T.his1s the only ent~sth character which occurs as a word.3. See Sanskrit. Ch.2.l.iii.

F

66 HINDI SECTION

In words consisting of akar consonan~ characters only, the real-

isation of ~ , h9 , varies acccrding to its position in the word.



a. When ~ occurs medially preceded by an akar character, and is

followed by another consonant character, it is often realised in

combination with the vowel a of the preceding character as

aspiration accompanying the vowel (~), as 1n

~~;:;

lahasan(lehsan)

b. When ~ occurs as a final character following an akar consonant

character it is generally realised in combination with the vowel

of the preceding character as (a). Examples:

~'{~

tarah(tara)

Reading examples.l

Exceptions:

jagah(jaga),

l. None of the uU€lmcharacters occurs as a word.

2. Two character words. the final character realised with zero-vowel.

~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c o : U ~ ~ ~

~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ 1ifC ~ TI~ m

3. Three character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel.

~ ~ ml!J ~ ~ ~~ ~

~ ~ ~ ~ c : n : n ~ ~ ~

4. Four character words, final characters realised with zero-vowe,,1.,second characters with zero-vowel or with an 9-g11de.

fI~Cfi : tr

;:HH9i

1. For transcription .•see p.85.


2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs.

i. Vowel Characters.



The vowel characters used in writing Hindi are the same as those

given in the Sanskrit section1, omitting the characters representing

syllabic 1'1' and syllabic 1 and 11. The character ? f a occurs in

Sanskrit loanwords used in literary Hindi. The vowel characters ~re

usually placed first in the syllabary, and they are referred to as

ekar, akaI',ikar and so on. The Bombay forms of the characters are

sometimes written in Hindi, but the forms given in the table are more

usual.

The general rules concerning the realisation of ekar consonant

characters should be applied in reading all examples given below,

unless special notes are added.

Reading examp1es.2

1. Words consisting of vowel characters only.

~ ~ ~ "m1r -3lf,*

2. Words consisting of'vowel characters and ekar consonant characters.

~ 1 fCh 3)0' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

~ ~ ~ ~ tG ~"U ~ ~ 1'f'q' ~

~~ ~ ~ ~1il~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Ii. Vowel Signs.

The vowel signs used in writing Hindi, corresponding with the

vowel characters and wri tten with the ekar form of the character ' < S f ) p

are·given in the Sanskrit section.3 Each character represents a

1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,2.i.3. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,2.ii.

2. For transcription, see p.85.

68 HI~DI SECTION

syllable consisting of a consonant followed by one of the vowels a

to ~V The vowel signs are referred to as l:fT~ (matra), as in



tr ~ l : f T -: : r r ( e kii matra , Ithe sign of e I).

Reading examples.l

1. One character words.

2. Two character words.

3. Three character words.

4 . Words of four or more characters. Numbers in brackets indicate the

realisation of ~kar consonant characters with zero-vowel, or with

an a-glide, if the words are not to be read according to the rules

given above. Most words of more than four characters are compounds

in which the final character of the first part, if akar, is realis-

ed with zero-vowel.

~'\~ Q f ; 1 : { V t l ' t " ~Cf) ~ l l T < > r'kIfll ~ C i ~ c r r : n rit"~;;T.qr ~~fc;:r"q ~t!"U~ ~~ m?irrr~ ~1l't~

iI....CleJ C) J ~ ft(31 :q 1 " ' 1 (,J ~WH&I~ (51 ru c f ! 4 ('!'1lR [2/"']

1. For transcription of examples, see p.S5.2. A Sanskrit loanword, with final ~h9 •


The fcllcwing rules ccr.cerning the realisation of ekar consonant

characters in words which have vowel characters and signs provide



some guidance for reading from the script, though the only reliable

guide is a knowledge of the spoken language.

a. When a medial ~kar consonant character, in a three character word,

is followed by a final character with a vowel sign, it is usually

realised with zero-vowel, o~ with an e-glide, e.g.

reI'mii ap'na par'da sed'rii

b. i. When a verbal base ends in an akar consonant character, this

character is realised with zero-vowel. or with an a-glide, before

formative particles which consist of a consonant character with

a vowel Sign e.g.

G I l < " ' l ( 1 1

bol-taak- sak-na sak-tii bol bol-te

ii. When a verbal base consists of three or more characters, the

final and pre-final characters being ekar consonant characters,

the realisation of these characters varies according to the form

of the formative particles which are added. This variation is

illustrated in the following examples:

Bli~ ~J:f~ ~:q1fim ~~Cif)~ ~1ltfi1;;r

semajh sam' jha samajh-ta samajh-ker semI jhana•

c. ..Medial ~ ,he ,~ , hi and! , hu are realised as follows:

. . .Medial ~ ~receded by a consonant character with a vowel sign.. ,

is realised as as~iration of the vowel of the preceding syllable.

e.g.= c t ltiiff

cahna

i i = r ~ r r f fmihnet

~1:{('f

tulunet behter sohbet

70 HINDI SECTION

ii. Medial ~ , preceded by an ekar character, may be realised in

coalescence with the vowel of a preceding ekar character as aYh.

e.g.



pehila or payhla bahin or beyhnah ira or beyhra

iii. Medial ~ , preceded by an ekar character, may be realised in

coalescence with the vowel of a preceding ekar character as evh.

e.g.~

behut or bavht pehur-na or pavhr-na

Reading examples, illustrating the above notes, and notes a. and b.

under l.iii (uu~m characters).l

a.

b.

c.

~ ;;j1&4l q)"q"9T ~~

~OT 'q"(ifi9!CiT "' !1&f 'U'ff t

~~ ~~ 7T~"u" ~~;;

GlI~ffi

" q " a n~;:;r

3. Modifiers.

The modifiers, :;r;r~~ (anusvar) and ~~ (visarg) are both

used in writing Hindi.

i. anusvar.

These are given in the Sanskrit section.2

Both forms of this modifier are used in Hindi, the first form,

as in ~ , being called the enusvar, and the ae.cond form, as in ~ ,

the cendrebindu3• The enusvar is usually written, in preference to

the cendrebindu, with characters that have any superscribed stroke_

e I I J o I I J

1. For transcription of examples, see p.86.2. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,3.i. and ii. 3. 'moon and dot'.


The ~nusvar and c~ndr3bindu are realised in H indi as follows:

a. As the nasalisation of the vowel of the character with which it is

wri tten. The candr.~bindu is preferred for representing a nasalised



vowel, except when the character has a superscribed stroke; e.g.

hi!

Reading examples.l

miih thii m e

b. As the nasal consonant of one of the verg. The enusvar written on

a character preceding a vergiiy character is realised as the nasal

consonant of the same class as the following character, or as n

when the following character is of the ce- verg. The candrabindu

is not usually written to represent a nasal consonant. When the

anusvar is realised as a nasal consonant before a final akar

character, the final character is realised with an a- glide2

~Qparantu

~~-hindU.

*~~sambandh

.Of i ~~

kenjuus

In writing Sanskrit loanwords~ there is an alternative and more

~requently used method of representing nasal consonants in this

context, by combining characters2• When the enusvar is r.ealised

as a nasal consonant before a final ekar character, the final

character is realised with an e- glide3•

1.For tuanscription, see p.86.3. See above, 1. note be. .

2. See Sanskrit, Ch~3,3.ClasB 2.i1.

HINDI SECTION

In some words, this modifier may be realised as in a. or as in b.

The realisation as in b. is more usual when the character with the

anusvar is ekar. e.g.



aadLng Examples.1

-q~ ~~ 1:1 l fCf ' 5 6 ' ~ -q-~~ 1 f E ' F f ~"C1C

Qfi-q;:rr ~ ~ W ft.m ~ ~~ ~~

~ ~W - q ~ " 4 T ~~ ~ ~~ -q;fl~

When the anusvar is written on a character preceding one of the

entasth or uu~m characters, as in Sanskrit loanwords and learn-

ed words used in the literary language, it is realised in various

ways. Among the several ways of realising the anusvar in this con-

text used by speakers in different parts of India2, the usual

Hindi practice is illustrated by the following examples:

anusvar before ~ , ~ , ~ ,~ ,~ and ~, realised as n, or

as the nasalisation of the vowel of the syllable, e.g.

gerag

sanyog

or s~yog

sanrag sanJey

sGJey

ahinsa sinha

ahisa sihe

enusvar before q • realised as m, the character

crbeing.

usually realised as b in this context, e.g.

~~

samvad. (sembad) Y8remvar (barembar) but kiivarii

• For transcription, see p.86. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.2.3.i.note c.The last character in this word represents ~ combined with .,.~,

CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY73

ii. vis erg.

This modifier is rarely used in writing H indi. It occurs in some

Sanskrit loanworos used mainly in the literary language, and in a few



H indi words. When written with a medial character, it is usually

realised either as strong aspiration after the syllable represented

by the character with which it is written, as in reading learned

words from a literary text; or, in less formal reading, as the

doubling of the consonant of the following character; for example:

~:~, duhkhe or dukkh ~:Cf)\~, entehkererl or entekkerel1.

When the viserg is written with a final character, it is realised as

strong aspiration following the final syllable, for instance, in

learned words such as ~';f:, punoh , fcrmFr: , vife~'tah; or it

may be disregarded, as in ~: ,che.

4. The Complete Syllabary.

The arrangement of the characters of the H indi syllabary in the

traditional order is similar to that given in the Sanskrit section,

omi tting the vowel characters ~, a and (>[.1 The table in which

all the vowel characters, except " . i I i I and the modifiers added to the

character ~ are placed at the head of a series of columns consist-

ing of every consonant in the ekar form, with each of the vowel signs

and each of the modifiers, is called in H indi the ~~~ , bareh-

khefii, the 'twelve characters'. This table is often recited in

sc~ools by children learning to read.

1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,4.

74 HINDI SECTION

These two tables ehow the order in which the characters are

placed as the initial characters of words in dictionaries, which is

the same as the order in Sanskrit. Words beginning with the modified



characters are placed in the series of words beginning with the

corresponding unmodified characters.

5 . Numerals.

The numerals used in Hindi are given in the Sanskrit section.l

Both the 'Hindi' forms and the 'Bombay' forms are used in modern

Hindi printing.

6. Punctuation.

In prose writing, the end of a sentence is marked with an up-

right stroke of the same height as the upright stroke of a characte~

Other punctuation marks are used as in English. This system is

illustrated in the Hindi prose passage at the end of th~s section2•

The system of punctuation used in verse is the same as that used

in Sanskr it3 •

1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,5. 2. See end of Ch-'3.3. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,3.ii. Reading examples.

CHAPTER 3

CONJUNCT CH ARACTERS



Two or more consonant characters may be combined in writing ~indi

to represent consonants which are realised without an intervening

vowel. Characters formed by combining other characters are called

~R'ffiI·ttH (senyuktak~H :;)rl)y H indi grammarians. The construction and

calligraphy of conjunct characters are described in the Sanskrit sect-

ion2. The conjunct characters used in writing Hindi are classified

in this chapter in the same way as the Sanskrit conjunct characters3.

1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Hindi.

Conjunct characters oCcur in H indi in these contexts:

i. In Hindi words, that is, words not borrowed from Sanskrit or from

other languages; e.g.

~becca C f ~ f e bkyoki liCf~41makkhii

ii. In Sanskrit loanWords, either words commonly used in H indi, or

learned loanwords used in the literary language; e.g.

~f(1Cfl ~ ~

pustek strii febd

iiiyI~ loanwords from other languages; e.g.

~ 'Wc i ~ ~;;darext hefta stefan

1. 'jOined character'. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,1. 3. ibid. Ch.3,3.

;6 HI~DI SECTION

2. Reelisaticn c~ cc~junct characters in Hindi.

Conjunct cr.aracters are realised in reading as syllables consist-

ing o~ t~c or more consonants ~ollowed by a vowel. When an akar con-

junct character occurs as the ~ina1 character o~ a word, it is usually



realised with an a-glide, as in ~~ • guIlt',~ , fastr'.l

The realisation in modern Hindi o~ ekar characters with zero-

vowel in certain positions in words2 gives rise to a problem o~ spe1l-

ir.g. For instance, when a ~ormative particle beginning with a conson-

ant character is added to a verbal base ending in a ~inal akar conson-

ant character, the ~inal character o~ the base is usually realised

with zer-o=voweL, This realisation of the consecutive characters is

similar to the realisation o~ a conjunct character. Similar problems

arise in other instances, where an ekar consonant character is realis-

ed with zero-vowel before a following consonant character, and in com-

pound words in which the first part ends in an ekar consonant charac-

ter, and the second part begins with a consonant character.3

3. Classes o~ Conjunct Oharacters in Hindi.4

All the classes or conjunct characters given in the Sanskritsection occur in Hindi, but in some o~ the classes only a few o~

the characters are used. Those used in writing Hindi are illustrated

by the examples given in each class, which include some Sanskrit loan-

words which are commonly used in Hindi. More rarely used loanwor~,

some o~ which may occur in literary Hindi, are included among theexamples given with each class in the Sanskrit section.

1. In the transcription o~ examples,words to which this rule applies.a. to d. 3. ~amples of suchclass of conjunct ch~racters.

this glide is not indicated tn2. See above, Ch.2,l. notes

words are given below, w~th each4. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,3.


Class 1. Two similar characters joined.

The series of characters in this class occurring in Sanskrit is

given in that section

l

• Most of the consonant characters of the Hindi



syllabary occur in this class, but some occur only in Sanskrit loan-

words used in the literary language. The character representing -rra

is'wr itten as ~ , the superscribed stroke representing ~,when pre-

ceding another consonant2• The modified characters.

~ and ~ do not

occur in this class, but ~, qqa , 1P:fi , ffa ,and '!"iI. zza are

written in Persian and Arabic loanwords.

A character representing an aspirated consonant is not written

in Sanskrit as the first part of a conjunct character in this class,

but in writing Hindi the characters ~,khkha and

are sometimes used. The combination -mme may be alternatively re-

presented by writing an anuavar with the character preceding ~,as

or ~C! \ , ummid •

The following examples illustrate Hindi words in which two con-

secutive consonant characters, the first being ekar, are realised in

ordinary speech in the same way as conjunct characters:

senn

Reading examples5 •

¥usse

' t f f J l ~ "ICf(6I'"c;;nfT

~ ~ ~:aw~ ~~ ~\j~ ~ ~ ~ ~,m ~•q('~ ~. ~ ~ ~'OR ~~ ~

~~ f S F ) X : L f ( l ~~ W f c f 5W ~ TtHil

1. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,C1ass.1.

3. Verbal form.5. For transcription, see p.86.

2. See below, Class 3.ii1.a.

4. Pronoun w1th suffix.

HI~DI SECTIO:N

Class 2. Two vergiiy characters joined.

The ccnju~ct cr-aracters in this class which occur in Sanskrit are

given in the Sanskrit section1• Some of the more common conjunct

characters of this class occurring in Hindi, mostly in Sanskrit loan-



words, are given below, with the addition of some conj~ct characters

occurring in Persian and Arabic loanwords. Some of'the examples gi.ven

in the Sanskrit section may be found in Hindi texts, in learned loan-

words in the literary language.i.2 :m ~ ~ S f 11 c:q $C\ ~

-kta -tke -gde -dga -pte -tpe -bda -dbe

~ & \ 31 & ' ! f ~ ~ ~ ~ ~-xta -bje -bza -gta -qba -gf'e -f'ta -bte

ii. Most of'the characters given under iLa. in the Sanskrit section

are written in literary Hindi, this method of representing a

homorganic nasal consonant preceding one of'the vergiiy charact-

ers being generally pref'erred to the use of the enusvar, in

writing Sanskrit loanwords3. Among the characters given in the

Sanskrit section under ii.b., only l[, jpe and

occur in Hindi. The character ~ is not calligraphically a

conjunct character, and it is often included in the syllabic

series. It is usually realised as gya, with nasalisation of'the

following vowe14.In Hindi dictionaries, words beginning with this

character are placed af'terwords beginning with ~

iii. These characters occur in Sanskrit loanwords:

C i f l 1-kroe

T . i f-gna

ytf

-ghna?:r

-tme

. c q-dme -pne

t. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,Class 2. 2. The numbers i. - iv. correspopd

to the arrangement of'these characters in the Sanskrit section.5. See above, Ch.2,i.b. 4. or, gy'<l, in Class 3.i. below.

CONJU~CT CHARACTERS 79

iv. Of the characters in this group, only ~.11, - ~ma and ~ , -nme,occur in H indi, in Sanskrit loanwords.

The following examples illustrate H indi words in which consecut-



ive consonant characters~ the first being akar, are realised in


Jekti rebt deb-tal pedma

Readi ng examples.2

~1\Qf ~~

~f(ifJ:t 4 J l J~

\ 3 1 " ; : ; ; cr r~~

Class 3. Characters joined with entasth characters.

i. Characters joined with following ~


given in that section.3 Most of the consonant characters of the H indi

syllabary can be combined with following ~ , though some of these

conjunct characters occur only in Sanskrit loanwords in the literary

language. Some of the examples given in the Sanskrit section may occur

in a .H indi Ii terary text. Of the modified characters, ~ and ~

occ~r combined with following ~ .in Persian and Arabic loanwords •

•

1. Verbal form. 2. For transcription, see p.86.3. See Sanskrit, Ch.3.3.Class 3.iii.b.

S o HI~DI SECTION

Reading Examples.l

~ ~c: ; r ~ ~ ~ e = J J ~ ~

'Qt<:[ ' 3 m - : r "t : fUf ~ ~ ~GT ~~-q



~~ o:Lj I( 041 " i 7jf01~ ~ ~ O<:f~

il. Characters joined with following c r


given in that section.2 Only a few of the characters of the H indi

syllabary occur combined with following q , and those that occur are

mainly in Sanskrit loanwords.

is combined with q

Readi ng examples.3

Of the modified characters, only ~

iii. Characters joined with preceding ~,or with following ~

a. ~ preceding.,Oharacters realised with preceding r , represented by the stroke

called ~ (ref), are illustrated, with notes on calligraphy, in the

Sanskrit section.4 These characters occur in H indi words, in Sanskrit

loanwords, and in loanwords from other languages. The examples given

below illustrate the characters of this class which occur in H indi.

The characters ~, \if, (i, ~ ~ d:::r are o....te.." . . . . , a : n . . . . , .L

doubled when written wi th ref

1. For transcription, see p.86. 2. See Sanskrit, Oh.3,Class 3.11.3. Fo~ transcription, see p.86. 4. See Sanskrit, Oh.3.Class 3.ii1.a.

CONJUNCT CHARACTERS Sr

The following examples illustrate Hindi words in which consecut-

ive consonant characters, the first being ~kar, are realised in


( f ; m CfR"(if ~~ ~ c . r r ~ ~ ~1 : {T&J



k~rta ksr-tal sarv der'vaza dh~rm der'mahaA few words may be written either with ~ followed by a consonant

character or with a character with superscribed ref; e.g.

~ ~ C iv ifd~r'bar derbar p~r'da p~rda d~r'jii d~rji1b. ~ follow~ng.

Characters realised With r following, represented by a short

stroke placed either against the upright stroke of the character or

beneath the character, are given in the Sanskrit section.2 The

examples given below illustrate the characters of this class which

occur in Hindi. The majority of such words are loanwords from

Sanskrit and English.

Reading examples.3

~Ci1~ ~~ ~ li!~ qnf ~ ~ ~

~ ~ ~t .m - ~ Jij"tl&ll ~ 3,;l~

'*~ ' 3 > : f ;

~ ~ 4T~ ~ ~ ~ a :~ ~ ~ ~fi"~ Sfil1 m"tf ~ ~ mt ~ 1U~ ~

fW : : r ~ ;:r;r~ ~J1 ~ ~

iv. ·Characters joined with preceding ~,or with following c ; : ra. ~, preced~ng.

The oharacters of this olass which occur in Sanskrit are given in

that sec~on.4 The characters occurring in Hindi are illustrated by

I ~erbal form 2. Bee Sanskrit, Ch.3,3.0l.3.iii.b.3: For transcription, see p.86.

4.See Sanskrit, Ch.3~3.CI.3.iv.a_

G

HINDI SECTION

the examples given below. Some words may be written either with ~

followed by a consonant character, or with a conjunct character of

this class; e.g. iif~~~ or ~c:=r , bHkul.

b. M following.



The characters of'this class which occur in Sanskrit are given in

that section.~ The examples given below illustrate the characters

which occur in Hindi, in Sanskrit and English loanwords.

Reading examples. 2

Class 4 . vargiiy characters joined with preceding or following u~m

characters.

1. ~,1Sf or 'fr preceding or following vergiiy characters.

a. ~" 1if, or ~ preceding.

The conjunct characters in this class which occur in Sanskrit

are given in the Sanskrit section.3 Those which are written in Hindi,

including those occurring in Sanskrit and other loanwords, are indic-

ated by the examples given below. The following conjunct characters

which are not included in the Sanskrit section occur in Hindi, in

loanwords from other languages:

-Jqe -Ita - s t a -sba

Hindi words in which consecutive consonant characters, the first

character being akar~ are realised in ordinary speech in the same.way

1. See Sanskrit, Ch.4.3,CI.3.iv.b. 2. For transcription, see p.81.2. See Sanskrit, Ch.4.3,Cl.4.i.a.

CO~J17::-;CT CHARACTERS

as conjunct characters are illustrated by these examples:

restabes-ta 1

qisn:et

' : ' ; : : t i f

us-me 2b. 'U, 1S { or ~ f'ollowing.



The conjunct characters of this class which occur in Sanskrit

a, given in the Sanskrit section 3. Onl~,ra few of these characters

occur in Hindi. The characters which occur are illustrated by th~

reading examples given below. Some additional characters of this

class,' not included in the Sanskrit series, occur in loanwords from

other languages: ~, XS9 ,~ ,xfe ,~, fsa.

Reading examples.4

~~c_;;r qS£rrffr-

a. ~~ : : : o ; j ( l i= & t t! ~ ~c;r

<f~"~ ~~ C f T ' R r ~ ~ - m = m f§:~"f~;; ~

~-g ~fff f"q ff:d ~~~ \3'~i9l 0 \ -m~ "Cf~"

~W ~~ f.f~ ~~ f"1J6i ~~;; .qr~

b. ~~ >S1~~

-qU '~ ~~~ ~r,?~ :;;j~HI~

ii. ~ preceding or following an enunasik character5•

Only three characters of'this class occur in Hindi, illustrated

by these examples:-

a, ~,preCeding 11 , as in ~ , br-ahmaq •

b. "& following 9' ,or 11 , as in ~, nhan ,~~, unh€! ," ,

~ unharii ;~, mharii ,~~~, kumhara •g~ , tumh€! •

1. Verbal form. 2. Pronoun with suffix.

3. See Sanskrit, Ch.3.3.Cl.4.i.b. 4. For transcription, see p.87.5. See S~nskrit, Ch.3.3.Cl~4.ii.a. and b.

HI~DI SECTIO:S-

EihCi pr~se passage1

f c 6 m ~ ~ ~ it 13B~ a m ~~m ~ Cf i l - 3 1 ? t 1 ~ -



~ "fm;r ~ I ~~q;ffi C l~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ C f i T

~ ~ ~ C ftrr ~ , C 1 " a : q ~ ~ ~ if - q W r k - r ~ffi ~ ~ I

~ ~ m ' l 1 W ~ -&~ ~~;; ~~ WU fchm ~~ ~~

m ~ ~ C f ) T ~ f d ~ H 'f ~ fcn~ ~ ~ctr ~ I & t 1 T '*~ 1 : R "

~ ~ C hT ~ : : c f H c t J O i e : f i : r ~ ~ f c f l ' l I T 1T~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~T~m

~q ~ 'iff m ~ :~ ~" l1& s:Rt~I~ ~ f c n ~ VTIm ~ I rn

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ w:r~ if - 3 1 T ~ ~ 1 % ~ ~ ~ ~ c n r

~ f c h " # t l 1&~ q;r t I \ i f f(fr~ m f & ? 1 c @ W O - ~ (itrr ~B~ ~

c : i ' r ~ s m 11~ ~~ ~ ~m ~ f c t t I T ~ c f r r t1M4i1f f i ' l 1 T ~G({-

~ C f iT ~ ~ ~ \ T r i I T ~ fil r t ? 1 q;r -31~ ~ q r c _ ; f f (.f)f tfif ~

~ ~~q:) tfr ~ {I~~ ~ JfT \'iIT -~ ~ fctqti 'r~ E 5 ~ ~ if

- n r C I i T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ l1if m<U ~ ~-~ f i 5 n m ~~ ~ ~ c f u ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ t n ~sn q:;r tfif ~ 5f~ f . ! r -

~ i f f i r l- I

1. H indi Shabdasagar, p.l, ed. Shamsundard~s, pub. 1916, by K§shi-Nagari-Sabha. •

TRANSCRIPTION 85

Transcription of Reading Examples

Chapter 2.



1.i. che 'the ta the ne

k~ dhen bhat carh ghen 'theb chet cekh :jhat ghatphell then j"f xam gez ¥em q"d 'tag kef' mat-h

magen jhagaf phaban khafak qadam dhamak ¥ezab :parhatbhajen cerLek peker ghatek "keth"n chemak xetem zaxem

•dham'kat bec':pan pat'jhet' jam'ghat phat'kan jhat'J?at

1. i1. va

kar jal verdhar nay jar

badal calan garej¥araz terat' yama1

mat'labcem'rax

lam'charkhar'vat

pha1 lar ghar van tar khal chaychal vay bel lav jay yam bhar

ca:pa1 vazen qabar layen Yarer.vecan yeven xabar- yemek yezel

cerh'kar kar'vet da1'kan kat'phelperaj'vat :paker'ker mecel'pan

har fathdhas yef

farallsamay

1.iii. desheq

fepathsemajh

hazam segarh

mas'nad kas'rathet'kan har'ket

2.1. a ai

ab ek uuthojh I'll rllioha" uupar eyzan

2.d.. bhii sav• ke pii

duudhhoylie •

bhatnayfuruu

•meydan huzuurprt~?vii ru:peyYe

ha:r'rathel'cal

ao

avr unis iid

avt'ladh ager

ka dedho ja

ciizdinpeysa

baythgaycihobii

qitabkeuur

besras

aobyaS

hethser

halhar

kef1'at

hamhed

hasadhalef'safartares

sarasfakel fallarkalaf

sar'kafmas 'ret'

xes'letsar'de1

ae ai aeo

in orh uukh agayf or ga~~ gee

ojhar avret ayPen

iikhseii

pay jii le ya jo kha ve

nev cio juu hey se so thii

khul mavj ched drq_h jhiil.jhuut u~a rtu huii dhoexana bhiiti kr:pa barii jae

karaI1. f'eqiir teyYar diijiesuaI' dekhao sunaii bahudha

56 HINDI SECTION

,az'duurleinareii

lanav't11

kam'zorisiiljye

musel'man

e~'soB mez'dik der'vazaceturaii beyl'gaqii sevdagerxeber'dar xid'met'gar

ghetiyalroz'garii

).13.khir'kii duus'ra it'ns ad'mii

iekh-na beyth-tii likh-ta pek'rana~ereh cevdah subeh ba¥erah geh1ra

kep'ra lom'tii bav'lii phay'da

gheb'ratii pekar-na qhalek-napehecan theher-na keceharii



~.i.a. mey jo hu meh nahii gae uut pgc g§.v gaii

is i i t Jauu kue done veh§. akhe ghuus bheys;dh bhek bhevk-na deSe d3vrii poch-na bhaiie equalUUg~ ~aege soh lehaga mehega has-na pahuc-na

b. pe~qit arambh se~get the~q enjiir pesend bendhen sa~ghet

:emp-na penjab je~gel berLqii si~g qimb ender a~gul'a~kh Ba~gh penc'mii khembha ent kutumb menoranj~k

Chapter 3.

)lass1.

lekka.e;]jalettherlhabbhar

hugqa mekkhen leggli ghugghuu beccii iccha

izzet jhejjher petta citthii eqqa buqqha pettabeddel Juddh enn chepper phupphuus qibbiikimmat reyyet harra killii navve hissa

nass 2.

bhekti vegt setkar darext sedgu~ veqf ekbiiskubj sebz gupt utpenn herta Sebd le~z letr

t t, li~g selJgh paJlcemii meJljha ghenta theIlq Janti lampetarembh perantu uperant jpan (gyan) jijpasu ratn sambendh

lii.rukmi~i1 hugm atma xatm legn umdalv. jenm valJmey

nass 3.i.

cy5t;y6

caryy

mukhypethyemuuly

xyal gyareh jy5udyog medhy nyayvyakhyan eveJy

zyadapyarii

menu1?Y

qyevqhii pu~byetha sebhy

syal vyetha

JIass3. i1.

Jakvannsvamf L

xvabaery

gvarsarvv

jvar tatty11Sver kvara

dvarakvacit

dhvani

Ivas

vtjv-.

svepn,"

Jlass 3.iii.

a. terk ~erg muurkh surx vergg diirgh mur¥iierz erj kort garq varrlema1a kiirti erth urduuerpe~ erb gerbh dhermm aryy sarvv derIen var~

xercerddhkuraii

muurchituur-r',

arhit

o , krem krem grampriy rrak nemr

elJgre~ tram ratriiebru Srem tiivr

patrmantr

chidr samudr

TRANSCRIPTION

Class 3.iv.

balki mulk

8ql (eqel)

Class 4.

phal~~ iltiza il~ii kulhara

fesl I: f'esal) LxLas vasl jukl

ilza"TI ultha

k I ae ulmukh

i.a.

raetr

:nujkil

pustak

preS!].

vastepeIeat aleary cerma pUpkel krp~

vestr strii rasta ~in~usthan snan



speetkj-,{ti

sphuurti

iStiha

svesti

nisbet

svesth ustad Sastr pe;cim

iSq skuul ste;an ~ost

b.

box j'akg;ar ak~er

Iaxs afsas

pariikg;a lakpmii V8ts

Hindi prose passage

kisii jati ke jiv8n me us'ke dvara preyukt febdc ka atyent

mahattvapuur~ sthan hay. avaSyak'ta tetha sthiti ke anusar in prayukt

Jabdo ka agem eth'va lop tetha vacy, lekpy evem dyoty bhavQ me peri-

vartan hota reh-ta hey. et'eve evr samegril ke ebhev ma in Jebdo ke

dvara kisii jati ke jilven kii bhlnn bhinn sthitiyo ka itlhas upeethlt

kiya ja sek-ta hey. isii adhar par ary jati ka praeiin'tem itihas pre-

etut kiya gaya hey avr jyo jyo samegrii upelebdh hotii ja rehii hey,

tyo tyo yah itihas thiik klya ja reha hey. is evestha me yeh bat epeg;t

eamejh me a sek-tii hay ki jatiiy jiiven me Iebdo ka sthan kit'ne

mehettv ka hey. jatiiy sahity ko rek~it ker-ne tetha us-ke bhevig;y ko

sucaru evr semujval benane ke atirikt yah kisii bhapa kii aampanr,"ta

ya fabd'bahul'ta ka suueak avr us bhapa ke sahlty ka adhyeyan kar-ne-

vale ka sab se bara sehayak bhii hata hay. viJe~'teh any bhapa-

bhapiyo evr vldeIiyo ke liye to us-ka avr bhii edhik upayog hota hey.

in sab drptiYo se Iebd-koI kisii bhapa ke sahity kii muulyavan

saIDP.attlevr us bhapa ke bha~qar ka sab se bara nlderJak hota hay.

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