Peter W. WARD et Patricia C. WARD (Vancouver, Canada)

A 29

THE STANDARD OF LIVING IN MONTREAL, CANADA, 1850-1900

The effects of i ndus t r i a l i za t ion u p o n t h e l iving s t a n d a r d s of o r d i n a r y peop le h a v e long been d i spu t ed . F r o m M a r x a n d Enge l s to H o b s b a w m a n d T h o m p s o n t h e pes s imi s t i c v iew h a s b e e n t h a t t h e g rea t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n u n d e r m i n e d condi­t ions of life for v i r tua l ly all ea r ly i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s in deve loping societ ies , G r e a t B r i t a i n in p a r t i c u l a r . On t h e o t h e r h a n d o p t i m i s t s s u c h as Macau lay , Cla-p h a m , a n d m o r e r ecen t ly H a r t w e l l , whi le a d m i t t i n g t h a t w o r k e r s expe r i enced low s t a n d a r d s of l iving d u r i n g t h e ea r ly i n d u s t r i a l e ra , h a v e h e l d t h a t e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t g r adua l ly i m p r o v e d t h e lo t of m o s t c o m m o n folk (1). One r e a s o n w h y th i s d i s a g r e e m e n t h a s n e v e r b e e n reso lved is t h a t t h e va r ious s t a t i s t i ca l indi­ces c r e a t e d t o desc r ibe p a s t l iving s t a n d a r d s — b e they p r i ce , wage , p r o d u c t i o n , c o n s u m p t i o n , o r d e m o g r a p h i c ser ies — h a v e s e ldom b e e n as re l i ab le o r a s closely t ied t o rea l cond i t ions a s the i r c o m p i l e r s m i g h t h a v e wished . T h e s t u d y of in fan t b i r t h we igh t s offers a n e w a n d po ten t i a l ly r e w a r d i n g a p p r o a c h to t h e s t a n d a r d of l iving p r o b l e m b e c a u s e of t h e l ink b e t w e e n t h e we igh t of a n e w b o r n chi ld a n d i t s m o t h e r ' s cond i t ion d u r i n g p r egnancy , especia l ly h e r diet .

T h r e e g r o u p s of f ac to r s collect ively d e t e r m i n e we igh t a t b i r t h : m a t e r n a l hea l th , p r e g n a n c y h i s to ry , a n d t h e genet ic o r cons t i t u t i ona l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of b o t h m o t h e r a n d child. A l though it w a s n o t genera l ly recognized un t i l wel l i n t o t h e t w e n t i e t h cen tu ry , n u t r i t i o n is a c e n t r a l e l emen t in the f irs t of t h e s e f ac to r s a n d h a s a d i rec t b e a r i n g u p o n fetal g r o w t h . H i g h ca lor ie d ie t s a r e a s soc i a t ed w i t h h igh m a t e r n a l we igh t gain d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y a n d h igh in fan t b i r t h we igh t s . Conversely , significant food dep r iva t ion is l inked w i t h l ower n e o n a t a l w e i g h t s . D u r i n g a six m o n t h f amine in w e s t e r n H o l l a n d in t h e w i n t e r of 1944-45 t h e m e a n decl ine in t h e we igh t s of n e w b o r n in fan t s w a s m o r e t h a n 300 g r a m s . An ave rage d r o p of over 500 g r a m s w a s r e c o r d e d in L e n i n g r a d d u r i n g t h e f amine seige of 1941 to 1943 (2).

N u m e r o u s o t h e r f ac to r s a l so affect m a t e r n a l h e a l t h and , in t u r n , t h e we igh t of a w o m a n ' s offpring. S m o k i n g , h igh a lcohol i n t a k e , a n d s o m e f o r m s of d r u g c o n s u m p t i o n s low fetal deve lopmen t . M a n y deb i l i t a t ing med ica l cond i t ions occur­r ing in p r e g n a n c y influence the u n b o r n , inc lud ing d iabe tes a n d h e a r t d i sease . Socia l a n d e c o n o m i c r a n k , m a r i t a l s t a t u s , a n d e d u c a t i o n levels a r e a lso corre la­t ed w i t h a m o t h e r ' s h e a t h a n d t h u s w i t h t h e we igh t of a chi ld w i c h she b ea r s (3).

F a c t o r s a s soc i a t ed w i t h t h e h i s t o r y of a p r e g n a n c y , t h e s econd g r o u p of va r i ab les , a lso influence n e o n a t a l we igh t s . Compl i ca t ions such as toxemia , u t e r i n e infect ion, i n c o m p a t i b l e b lood types , h y p e r t e n s i o n , a n d congen i t a l m a l f o r m a t i o n s can r e t a r d ges ta t ion . P a r i t y a n d chi ld spac ing m a y h a v e a n effect. T h o s e p l a c e d second, t h i rd , a n d f o u r t h in t h e family cons te l l a t ion , a n d t hose b o r n m o r e t h a n t w o y e a r s a p a r t , a r e on ave rage s o m e w h a t heav ie r t h a n o t h e r s . P r e m a t u r e a n d m u l t i p l e b i r t h s , too , a r e a l so n o r m a l l y a s soc ia t ed w i t h low we igh t a t b i r t h .

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The t h i r d g r o u p of fac to rs affect ing n e w b o r n we igh t s cons i s t s of gene t ic o r cons t i t u t i ona l inf luences . Race a n d e thn ic i ty a r e l inked w i t h m i n o r v a r i a t i o n s in b i r t h we igh t m e a n s . A m o t h e r ' s ind iv idua l genet ic i n h e r i t a n c e is a lso b e s t o w e d u p o n h e r chi ld. T h u s l a rge r m o t h e r s a r e likely t o b e a r l a rge r ch i ld r en whi l e sma l l e r w o m e n m o s t f requent ly p r o d u c e sma l l e r bab ie s . A w o m a n ' s age a n d t h e sex of h e r ch i ld a r e o t h e r r e l evan t va r i ab l e s . W o m e n b e a r heav ie r ch i ld r en bet­w e e n the ages of 20 a n d 35, a n d of t he t w o sexes m a l e s a r e usua l ly s l ight ly l a rge r .

The b i r t h we igh t s e x a m i n e d in th i s s t u d y w e r e g a t h e r e d a t t h e Univers i ty Lying-in H o s p i t a l in M o n t r e a l , C a n a d a f rom 1851 to 1900 (4). A l though n o t comp le t e , t h e r e c o r d s of t h e hosp i t a l w e r e careful ly k e p t t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of th is pe r iod . N o r m a l l y 80 t o 200 ch i ld r en w e r e b o r n t h e r e each year , t h e n u m b e r g r adua l ly inc reas ing over t i m e . This c o n s t i t u t e d t w o to t h r e e p e r cen t of all b i r t h s in t h e ci ty. Like m o s t n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a t e r n i t i e s t he U L I H w a s a c h a r i t a b l e o rgani ­za t ion . I t s p a t i e n t s w e r e a l m o s t inva r i ab ly poor , t h r e e fifths of t h e m be ing un­m a r r i e d . Mos t of t h e m w e r e Eng l i sh speak ing . S o m e significant c h a n g e s o c c u r r e d in t h e social c o m p o s i t i o n of t he p a t i e n t b o d y d u r i n g these y e a r s . I r i s h Cathol ics p r e d o m i n a t e d un t i l t h e l a t e r 1860's, b u t t he r ea f t e r t he C a n a d i a n b o r n , t h e ma jo ­r i ty of t h e m be ing P r o t e s t a n t s , f o r m e d the l a rges t g r o u p . T h e n u m b e r of m a r r i e d p a t i e n t s rough ly equa l l ed the u n m a r r i e d d u r i n g t h e ea r ly 1850's b u t soon d r o p p e d s h a r p l y to a b o u t one in four . These f ea tu res a p a r t , w e k n o w very l i t t le a b o u t t h e social c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p a t i e n t s in t h e hosp i t a l .

All full t e r m , s ingle b i r t h , live bab i e s for w h o m we igh t s w e r e n o t e d b e t w e e n 1851 a n d 1900 w e r e se lec ted for ana lys i s . T h e m e a n s a n d s t a n d a r d dev ia t ions of t hese we igh t s a r e r e c o r d e d in t h e fol lowing t ab l e :

Years N u m b e r of M e a n S t a n d a r d I n f a n t s B i r t h Weigh ts Devia t ion

( g r a m s ) ( g r a m s ) 1851-55 418 3616 541 1856-60 205 3537 485 1861-65 320 3547 532 1866-70 353 3606 500 1871-75 442 3572 555 1876-80 396 3514 540 1881-85 314 3395 513 1886-90 228 3317 536 1891-95 219 3291 462 1896-1900 296 3209 553

To ta l /Ove ra l l m e a n 3191 3481 543

As t h e t ab l e revea ls , d u r i n g the f irs t t h i r t y y e a r s of th i s pe r i od t h e m e a n we igh t s of t h e n e w b o r n s f luc tua ted w i t h i n a r a n g e of 100 g r a m s , w i t h a t r e n d t o w a r d g r a d u a l decl ine. They fell a n add i t i ona l 200 g r a m s d u r i n g t h e 1880's a n d a f u r t h e r 100 g r a m s d u r i n g t h e l as t decade of t h e cen tu ry . T h e overa l l dec l ine in m e a n we igh t s for t h e pe r i od w a s j u s t over 400 g r a m s , a d r o p of 11.3 p e r cen t .

Owing to l imi t a t i ons of space , t h e expe r i ence of va r i ous c o h o r t s in t h e h o s p i t a l p o p u l a t i o n can only b e s u m m a r i z e d h e r e . All g r o u p s of w o m e n de l ivered signifi­can t ly l igh te r ch i ld ren over t i m e w h a t e v e r t he i r n a t i o n a l or ig ins . I r i s h m o t h e r s b o r e s l ight ly heav ie r in fan t s t h a n C a n a d i a n w o m e n , t h e t w o a c c o u n t i n g for t h r e e f o u r t h s of t h e s a m p l e . T h e we igh t s of b a b i e s de l ivered by o t h e r na t iona l i t i e s f luc tua ted s o m e w h a t e r ra t ica l ly , probably owing to t h e sma l l size of t h e samples e x a m i n e d . B u t any e thn i c differences w e r e re la t ive ly m i n o r w h e n c o m p a r e d w h i t h t h e s u b s t a n t i a l d o w n w a r d t r e n d for all n a t i o n a l g r o u p s . T h e r e w e r e n o significant d i sc repanc ie s b e t w e e n t h e w e i g h t s of c h i l d r e n b o r n of Cathol ic a n d P r o t e s t a n t

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m o t h e r s , a n d t h e r e w a s only m i n o r v a r i a t i o n w h e n re l ig ion a n d n a t i o n a l o r ig in w e r e c o m b i n e d . Y o u n g e r a n d p r i m i p a r o u s w o m e n de l ivered s o m e w h a t l i gh t e r t h a n ave rage b a b i e s bu t , unexpec ted ly , t hose aged ove r 35 a n d t h o s e b e a r i n g fifth o r s u b s e q u e n t ch i ld ren , h a d t h e heav ies t in fan t s of all . ( P e r h a p s o lde r a n d mul -t i p a r o u s w o m e n en joyed s u p e r i o r d ie t s b e c a u s e t hey h a d c h i l d r e n in t h e w o r k force w h o cou ld m a k e s ignif icant c o n t r i b u t i o n s to family income. ) As an t i c ipa t ed , u n m a r r i e d w o m e n h a d s o m e w h a t l igh te r in fan t s t h a n d id m a r r i e d . B u t w h a t e v e r f ac to r is i so la ted , all s e g m e n t s of t h e hosp i t a l p o p u l a t i o n exh ib i t ed t h e s a m e t r e n d in a b o u t t h e s a m e deg ree : a genera l , s u b s t a n t i a l decl ine in m e a n b i r t h we igh t s .

Why d id these b i r t h we igh t m e a n s d r o p so s h a r p l y ? T h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d t h e hosp i t a l c o n t i n u e d to d r a w i t s p a t i e n t s f r o m t h e s a m e social a n d economic s t r a t a of M o n t r e a l society. T h u s n o c h a n g e o c c u r r e d in t h e b a s i c cha­r a c t e r of t h e s amp le . T h e r e w e r e s o m e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l changes w i t h i n t h e p a t i e n t body ; a sma l l i nc rease o c c u r r e d in t h e p r o p o r t i o n of t een age m o t h e r s , a s d id a l a rge r one in t h e n u m b e r of u n m a r r i e d w o m e n . B u t t h e s e c h a n g e s h a d only m i n o r effect on t h e obse rved t r e n d . T h e r a t i o of except iona l ly sma l l in fan t s ( u n d e r 2500 g r a m s ) i n c r e a s e d over t i m e . B u t w h e n these cases a r e s u b t r a c t e d f rom t h e s a m p l e t h e d r o p in m e a n we igh t s r e m a i n s s t r i k ing — s o m e 330 g r a m s . T h e smo­k ing fac to r c a n also b e e l imina ted , for C a n a d i a n W o m e n se ldom s m o k e d u n t i l c iga re t t e s b e c a m e fash ionab le a f te r t h e first Wor ld War .

O t h e r p o t e n t i a l inf luences, however , c a n n o t b e so easi ly d i smissed . I n t h e absence of any i n f o r m a t i o n o n a lcohol a n d d r u g u s e the poss ib i l i ty exis ts t h a t t he se m a y h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e decl ine , t h o u g h c o n s u m p t i o n w o u l d h a v e h a d to inc rease e n o r m o u s l y to a c c o u n t for m u c h of t h e t r e n d . N o r is t h e r e any evi­dence r e g a r d i n g changes in p r e g n a n c y compl i ca t i ons a n d m e d i c a l debi l i t ies a p a r t f r o m a s l ight r i se in st i l l b i r t h s t o w a r d t h e e n d of th is pe r iod , itself n o t p roo f of any m a j o r inc rease in pa tho log ica l cond i t ions d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y . W i t h o u t a n y ind ica t ion of t h e p r e n a t a l med ica l cond i t i on of t h e hosp i t a l ' s p a t i e n t s , n e i t h e r t h e p r e s e n c e n o r absence of s ignif icant changes in m a t e r n a l h e a l t h c a n b e a s s u m e d , a l t h o u g h the poss ib i l i ty of b o t h m u s t be a d m i t t e d . N o r is i n f o r m a t i o n ava i l ab le o n m a t e r n a l s t a t u r e , save a few r e p o r t s of l a te n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n t h r o p o m e -t r i s t s w h o p laced m e a n a d u l t f emale he igh t s in N o r t h Amer ica a n d G r e a t B r i t a i n a t b e t w e e n 62.5 a n d 63.3 inches (5). P e r h a p s , howeve r , t he o b s e r v e d decl ine in infan t b i r t h we igh t w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y a g r a d u a l d r o p in m a t e r n e l he igh t .

W h a t e v e r t h e cou r se of m a t e r n a l h e a l t h cond i t ions , t he complex r e l a t i onsh ip s b e t w e e n die t a n d well-being, a n d t h e g rowing b o d y of k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e i m p a c t of food dep r iva t i on u p o n we igh t a t b i r t h , b o t h s t rong ly sugges t t h a t t h e p r i m a r y cause of t he b i r t h we igh t decl ine w a s n u t r i t i o n a l . B e c a u s e t h e available, ev idence is insufficient it is unl ike ly t h a t th i s h y p o t h e s i s c a n ever b e p r o v e d conclusively. Never the le s s , t h e p r o t r a c t e d decl ine in b i r t h w e i g h t s a d m i t s of n o o t h e r convinc ing exp lana t ion . This be ing so, t he social a n d e c o n o m i c s ignif icance of a 400 g r a m decl ine in m e a n n e o n a t a l w e i g h t s is h e i g h t e n e d cons ide rab ly w h e n t h e d y n a m i c s of fetal we igh t gain r e t a r d a t i o n a s soc i a t ed w i t h m a t e r n a l m a l n u ­t r i t i on a r e cons ide red . As t h e D u t c h h u n g e r exper ience revea led , food depr iva­t ion m u s t b e a c u t e a n d p r o t r a c t e d be fore it is ref lec ted in t h e w e i g h t s of ch i ld r en a t b i r t h (6). Seen in th is l ight , t h e c o n t i n u o u s decl ine in b i r t h w e i g h t s m e a s u r e d a t t h e U L I H sugges t s a long h i s t o r y of i nc reas ing m a l n u t r i t i o n a m o n g p o o r w o m e n in M o n t r e a l , i nc lud ing poss ib le i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l t r a n s m i s s i o n of i t s effects .

As food suppl ies in c e n t r a l C a n a d a w e r e a m p l e , a n d as t h e i r cos t s dec l ined b y a t leas t 30 p e r cent d u r i n g t h e l as t t h i r d of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y (7), d e a r t h offers no exp l ana t i on for th i s p h e n o m e n o n . The p r o b l e m w a s r o o t e d in i n c o m e m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , itself de r ived f rom m a j o r e c o n o m i c a n d d e m o g r a p h i c c h a n g e s o c c u r r i n g in t h e city. As M o n t r e a l b e c a m e progress ive ly indus t r i a l i zed f rom t h e 1840s o n w a r d , m o s t i n d u s t r i a l e m p l o y m e n t c a m e to b e c o n c e n t r a t e d in a few low

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w a g e i n d u s t r i e s w h i c h p r o d u c e d c o n s u m e r goods for smal l , re la t ive ly p o o r , t a r i f f -pro tec ted local a n d n a t i o n a l m a r k e t s (8). These i n d u s t r i e s h a d low r a t e s of va lue a d d e d a n d they re l ied heavi ly u p o n c h e a p female a n d chi ld l abour . T h e ro le of w o m e n in t h e l a b o u r force is p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l evan t t o th i s s tudy . B e t w e e n 1850 a n d 1880 t h e r a t e of g r o w t h of f emale e m p l o y m e n t in i n d u s t r i a l o c c u p a t i o n s s e e m s to h a v e b e e n s l ight ly h i g h e r t h a n t h a t of t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r k force as a who le . D u r i n g t h e nex t t w e n t y yea r s , howeve r , t h e u r b a n e c o n o m y c r e a t e d very few add i t i ona l j o b s in t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g s e c t o r for w o m e n desp i t e a 70 p e r cen t i n c r e a s e in t h e civic p o p u l a t i o n . I n b r o a d e r t e r m s t h e ava i lab le ev idence ind ica te s t h a t , in w o r k i n g c lass M o n t r e a l genera l ly , r ea l i n c o m e s w e r e low (9). S u s t a i n e d h i g h r a t e s of u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h — averag ing t h r e e p e r cen t p e r y e a r f rom 1850 to 1900 — a lso l imi ted t h e poss ib i l i ty of gene ra l i m p r o v e m e n t s in l iving s t a n d a r d s .

As th i s b i r t h we igh t s t u d y reveals , p o o r p r e g n a n t w o m e n in M o n t r e a l suffered gr ievous ly d u r i n g th i s pe r i od of p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h a n d e c o n o m i c change . B u t w h a t do these findings tell u s of t h e w i d e r exper ience of w o r k i n g people in t h e ci ty d u r i n g t h e ea r ly i ndus t r i a l yea r s ? H e r e t h e ev idence is only sugges t ive . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t ind ica t ion is t h a t b o t h m a r r i e d a n d u n m a r r i e d p a t i e n t s expe r i enced s imi l a r re la t ive decl ines in t h e w e i g h t s of t h e t h e ch i ld r en w h i c h they b o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e f o r m e r con t inua l ly de l ivered s o m e w h a t heav ie r ch i ld ren . M a r r i e d p a t i e n t s w e r e p r o b a b l y m u c h m o r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e w o r k i n g c lass c o m m u n i t y t h a n w e r e t h e u n m a r r i e d and , if th i s is so, t h e b i r t h we igh t decl ines p o i n t t o w a r d a m o r e genera l fall in w o r k i n g c lass n u t r i t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s t o w a r d t h e e n d of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

Final ly, w a s t h e M o n t r e a l exper ience a typ ica l o r w a s i t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ? At th i s j u n c t u r e w e d o n o t k n o w . N o s imi l a r s tud ie s h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d w h i c h exp lo re t h e b i r t h we igh t h i s to r i e s of o t h e r n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y indus t r i a l i z ing ci t ies , a n d un t i l t hey a r e th i s m u s t r e m a i n an open ques t ion . I n t h e m e a n t i m e , t h e M o n t r e a l ev idence s t rong ly s u p p o r t s t h e pes s imis t i c convic t ion t h a t decl in ing l iving s t a n d a r d s w e r e t h e lot of t h e first i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s .

N O T E S

(1) A. Taylor, ed . , The Standard of Living in Britain in the Industrial Revolution (London, 1975). (2) Z. Stein et al . . Famine and Human Development : The Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944 - 45 (New-

York, 1975), 92 - 96 ; A. N. Antonov, « Children Born during the Seige of Leningrad in 1942, » Journal of Pediatrics, X X X (1947), 250 - 59.

(3) A. M. T h o m s o n , et al . , « The Assessment of Fetal Growth, » Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth. 75 (September , 1968), 903 - 1 6 ; D . M . Reed and F . J . Stanley , eds . , The Epidemiology of Prematurity (Bal t imore , 1977) ; J. Metcoff, « Associat ion of Fetal Growth w i t h Maternal Nutr i t ion , » Human Growth, vol. 1, Principles and Prenatal Growth, F. Falkner and J. M. Tanner, e d s . , (New-York, 1978), 415 - 60.

(4) Universi ty Lying-in Hospi ta l , Register of Pat ients , 1843 - 1905, Mc Gill Universi ty Archives , Montreal , Canada.

(5) H. P. Bowdi tch , « The Phys ique of Women in Massachuset t s , » Government of Massachuset t s , Twenty-First Annual Report of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts (1890), 287 - 304 ; A. Hunter , « The Medico-Actuarial Invest igat ion of Mortality of American and Canadian Life Assurance Com­panies , » Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, XLVI (October, 1912), 384 - 94.

(6) Ste in , 92 - 96. (7) K. W. Taylor and H. Michell , Statistical Contributions to Canadian Economic History (Toronto ,

1931). I I , 47 - 52, 55. (8) P.-A. Linteau, e t . al. , Histoire du Québec Contemporaine (Montréal , 1979), 138 - 62. (9) J. Bernier , « La Condit ion des travai l leurs , 1851 - 1896, » J. Hamel in , ed . , Les travailleurs

québécois, 1851 - 1896, (Montréal , 1973), 31 - 60 ; B . Bradbury, « The Family E c o n o m y and Work in an Industr ia l iz ing City : Montreal in the 1870's, » Canadian Historical Assoc iat ion, Historical Papers, 1979, 71 - 96.

The authors w i s h to acknowledge the financial ass i s tance of the H a n n a h Inst i tute for the His tory of Medic ine , Toronto , Canada.

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