Ethics integrity and_the_military_profession_lesson-2-3_the_three_moral_philosophies_v.brésil-2016-03.8

THE THREE CLASSIC MORAL PHILOSOPHIESRIO, BRAZILIAN NAVAL ACADEMY

MARC IMBEAULTDEAN OF RESEARCHROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE SAINT- JEANCANADIAN DEFENCE ACADEMY

ETHICS AND THE MILITARY PROFESSION

© All rights reserved – Marc Imbeault

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11Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean

Royal Military College Saint-Jean

http://www.cmrsj-rmcsj.forces.gc.ca/

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Truth, Duty, Valour

Summary

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• Introduction: Moral Dilemmas and Overview of the three moral philosophies

1. Teleological System 2. Deontological System3. Virtue Ethics• Conclusion: Three Complimentary Approaches

Introduction1. MORAL DILEMMAS

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2023-05-03 THE THREE MORAL PHILOSOPHIES

Dilemma : A situation in which it is very difficult to decide what to do, because all the choices seem equally good or equally bad; a moral dilemma.

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Longman Dictionary

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Two propositions

Contrary

Contradictory

Obligation to choose

+ time factor


Moral Dilemma

« What must I do? » We must attempt to find the best solution (or the least bad one).

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Conflict between values

Valid moral values and principles may enter into conflict.

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Judged independently, they are acceptable

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Moral Dilemmas are at the source of erroneous moral judgements.

Decisions taken quickly

Situations of stress


Dilemma + Stress ≈ Errors


The Profession of Arms (POA)

The POA confronts you with moral dilemmas.

Impossible to avoid a decision.

Necessary to make the best decision possible.

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The Urgency to Decide

Confusion in combat; No time to debate. Much advance thought and care should be given to morally delicate cases.

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Justifications

Defend actions after the fact..

Justifications.

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Analytical components of Moral dilemmas

Two Values (or principles) are in conflict.

Judged independently, they are acceptable.

Some harm will come from our decision.

There is really a choice.

We are free to choose.

A choice must be made!

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Reason Clearly Choose values and moral principles that can guide us during emergency. This will help us face a moral dilemma. Provide reasons for the choice.

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Introduction2. OVERVIEW OF THE THREE MORAL PHILOSOPHIES


Immanuel Kant1721-1804

Aristotle-385-322

John Stuart Mill1806-1873

Schools of Thought

Teleological Deontological Aretaic or virtue ethics


The Three Perspectives 1. Teleological system : telos = end

◦the action is right based on its consequences. 2. Deontological system : deon = obligation, duty

◦the action is what is right. 3. Aretaic or virtue ethics : arete* = virtue or excellence

◦being good through habit.

* "that which is good."

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Three classic moral philosophies

Being Action Action

You can use all of them!

1. Teleological SystemsUTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM AND JOHN STUART MILL

1.1. Jeremy BenthamACT UTILITARIANISM

1748-1832


The mummified corpse of Jeremy Bentham is conserved in the Library of the University College of London.


Bentham: basic ideas

Two things dominate the destiny of human beings: pleasure and pain.

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Bentham : basic ideas Bentham believed the moral rightness or wrongness of an action to be a function of the amount of pleasure or pain that it produced.


Bentham: basic ideas Utility Principle: “Greatest happiness for the greatest number of individuals.” Unique principle of morality.

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Bentham Calculated research of pleasure Arithmetic of pleasure “felicific calculus” or “utility calculus”. It could determine the moral status of any considered act. Government Criminal law

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1.2. John Stuart MillRULE UTILITARIANISM

1806-1873

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Mill’s Education James Mill, father of J.-S. Mill, was a proponent of utilitarianism. Author of an History of India James Mill imposes a strict regime on his son. Intellectual discipline. “thinking machine”

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James Mill (1773-1836)


Intellectual Crisis (1822-1826) “I was in a dull state of nerves, […] unsusceptible to enjoyment or pleasurable excitement; one of those moods when what is pleasure at other times, becomes insipid or indifferent […]. I seemed to have nothing left to live for.”

Autobiography

Growing awareness of the inadequacies of his father utilitarianism.


Personnal

Psychological

Intellectual

Assertion of independence


Madam Taylor

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Published in 1869

J.S. Mill met Harriet Taylor in 1830.He weds Harriet in 1851.


Liberalism and Utilitarianism System of Logic, 1843 Principles of Political Economy, 1848 On Liberty, 1859 Utilitarianism, 1863

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From Bentham

An act is good if we can reasonably expect it to produce the most possible good and the less harm to the largest number.

The consequence of the act is more important than its intrinsic nature.

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Difference with Bentham It is always better to be an unsatisfied human than a satisfied pig ! Distinction between J.-S. Mill and Bentham: types of pleasure, physical and intellectual

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Difference with Bentham The primary principal – or principle of utility – is the source of secondary moral principles. Actions judged in function of secondary principles: don’t lie, don’t cheat, etc.

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Rule utilitarianism

Experience shows that these rules were established in the best interest of the greatest number.

Recourse to principle of utility only in case of moral dilemma.


Example of a Dilemma

charity (good principle) self-preservation (another good principle). I must determine if feeding myself or feeding someone in need will produce the most happiness for the most individuals.

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1.3.UTILITARIAN DECISION MAKING


Decision Making

One must first:

Determine probable outcomes, good and bad, of each possible

action .

Calculate the precise utility or the precise good of each option.

Then:

Select the course of action, which

achieves the greatest good or greatest net

utility.

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Decision MakingUtilitarianism offers a unique and simple moral principle.

An absolute system capable of providing a potential answer in each situation.

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Strength

Utilitarianism echoes the impression that we have that morality must be at the service of the human being.


DifficultiesCan justify any type of action.

Inflict harm on a small number for the happiness of the larger number.

The evaluation of superlatives is often problematic.

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A weakness of utilitarianism resides in its acceptance of the idea that it is only the ends that count and not the means.


Difficulties Utilitarianism does not provide a methodology for deciding the priority to be given to a term relative to the other when they appear to conflict. Greatest happiness or Greatest number.


Quotations


2. Deontological SystemKANTIAN FORMALISM AND MORAL DUTY

IntroductionKANT IN THE ENLIGHTENMENT


References Imbeault, M., Rochon, S. et al. Philosophie 3 Éthique et Politique, Beauchemin, 2008. Paillé, Yvon, éditeur, Philosophie. Éthique et politique, Éducalivres (HRW), 1999. Jaspers, Karl, « Kant », Les grands philosophes, Gallimard, 1953. Philonenko, Alexis, « Introduction », Fondements de la métaphysique des mœurs, J. Vrin, 1980

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ReferencesCritique of Pure Reason, 1781

Dreams of a Spirit-Seer, 1766

Metaphysics of Morals, 1785

Critique of Practical Reason, 1788

Right to Lie, 1797


Biographical Elements Studies in Königsberg (Prussia), now Kaliningrad (Russia). Works as a tutor. Professor from 1770. Respect for authority and independent thinking. Considered by many as the most influential thinker of all time.

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KönigsbergKaliningrad


Themes Rapid Transformation of I8th.C. ideas. Progress lends to the belief of peace and imminent prosperity. Optimism.

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Condorcet

Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit, 1795 Perhaps the most influential formulation of the idea of progress ever written.

Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)


CondorcetCondorcet argued that the progress of the natural sciences must be followed by progress in the moral and political sciences;

that expanding knowledge in the natural and social sciences would lead to an ever more just world of individual freedom, material affluence, and moral compassion.


Condorcet And that social evils are the result of ignorance and error rather than an inevitable consequence of human nature.

PROGRESS IN SCIENCE PROGRESS IN MORALLITY


Aufklärung Kant understood “Aufklärung” as the “coming of age” of humanity. “Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity”. Kant



Auklärung Kant understands the majority of people to be content to follow the guiding institutions of society, such as the Church and the Monarchy, and unable to throw off the yoke of their immaturity due to a lack of resolution to be autonomous. ‘Argue as much as you like, but obey’ Freedom of expression


The French Revolution

Enthusiasm from the French Revolution. It is legitimate that a people attempt to create their own law. Horrified by the atrocities of the “Terror”.

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Robespierre


Execution of Louis XVI, 21 January 1793


2.1. Kant’s PhilosophyTHE CRITIQUE OF PURE REASON


Progress of Science Kant attempts to formulate a new theory of knowledge. A solid scientific foundation for philosophy.

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The Critique of Pure Reason Limitations of knowledge. Perspective of the knowledgeable subject. The subject is at the center of the process of knowledge. He provides the framework for how to interpret the object.

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Absolute ImperativeA new center of reflection The subject has a role comparable to the sun in the solar system.

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Kritik der reinen Vernunft


Objects turn around the subject and are known through it.

Copernican revolution in philosophy.


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Kantian ethics is also “subjectivist” “There is nothing it is possible to think of anywhere in the world, or indeed anything at all outside it, that can be held to be good without limitation, excepting only a GOOD WILL.”


Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten


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The Postulate of Freedom

Morality is unthinkable without the premise of freedom.

Without this premise, it is difficult to conceive that we can be responsible for what arrives…


Postulate: Suggest the existence, fact, or truth as a basis for reasoning, discussion or belief.

2.2. The categorical imperativeTHE MORAL LAW


ImperativeLongman Dictionary

Something that must be done urgently.

An idea or belief that has a strong influence on people, making them behave in a particular way.

An imperative verb is one that expresses an order, such as stand up.


Basic Ideas

Hypothetical Imperative

Categorical Imperative

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Kant distinguishes several types of imperatives.We will discuss two here:


Basic Ideas The hypothetical imperatives are expressed as follows: « If you want to get result A, then do B ». Such imperative takes the form of an equation between a means and an end and therefore (following Kant) has no moral force.

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Imperatives General Form of the Hypothetical Imperative : if x occurs, it is probable that y occurs In this case « y » can be a good.

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Good food promotes health !


Imperatives The Categorical Imperative is expressed in the following manner : « Do A », that is to say, do what reason tells you what is good to do. The Categorical Imperative shape our moral rules.

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Kant’s perspective Remember: It is the intrinsic nature of the act which establishes if it is morally good or bad. Not the consequences…


Imperatives When the requirement is absolute, it is stated categorically. The Categorical Imperative has takes the following form: You must do x. (You should always tell the truth.)

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Imperatives The categorical imperative is an intuitive, immediate and absolute injunction as all rational people understand by virtue of their rationality. For a soldier: « You must obey legitimate orders. »

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Moral law is expressed in the form of a categorical imperative.

ImperativesThe Hypothetical Imperative is relative

The Categorical Imperative is absolute


You must do x(There is no relation)

If x occurs, it is probable that y occurs(“x” is related to “y”)

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The Categorical Imperative or Moral law

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• The most general formulation of the Categorical Imperative (CI), or the moral law formally termed says :

“Act in such a way that the maxim or principle derivable from your behaviour would stand as a universal law. If you can’t consistently will that everyone perform the same type of action then that action is morally wrong.” Grundwork of the Metaphysic of Moral


Formulations

CI (abridged)

Your action must be based on a principle that you may want to make universal.

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Formulations

CI

« I ought never to conduct myself except so that I could also will that my maxim become a universal law »

Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals

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FormulationsThe two other well known

formulations are :

The principle of Finality (PF)

The principle of Autonomy (PA)

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The Principle of Finality

PF

Every human being has dignity and intrinsic value; so one must always treat others, whatever the circumstances, as an end and never as simply a means.

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The Principle of FinalityPrinciple of finality (PF):

You must act so as to respect the humanity in yourself and in others do not treat only as a means, but also as an end.

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The Autonomy Principle

PA

The principle of autonomy affirms that the rational being does not need an external authority to determine the nature of moral laws.

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The Autonomy Principle

PA

The Autonomy Principle stipulates that all rational beings should autonomously come to the same conclusions in moral matters.

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reserved – Marc imbeault95


2.3.DEONTOLOGICAL DECISION MAKING


Decision Making Rules Using deontological principles in decision making. Taken together, the three formulations of the Categorical Imperative, CI, PF, PA, contain the rules of ethical decisions.

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Deontological Decision Making Rules

Identify the different actions

possible :

Ignore the possible results of the

possible actions;

Determine if each action is

compatible with CI, PF, and PA;

Choose the action that is suitable.

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Universal Principles Deontology, as expressed by Kant, provides valid universal moral principles that can be discovered and experimented with by reason through the three formulations of the Categorical Imperative.

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Formal Law Moral Law is formal: It does not say what we must do here and now. Our action must be based on a principle that one may want to generalize (universal).

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Examples

Suicide : The universalization of the maxim means the self-

destruction of humanity.

The universalization of deceptive promises abolish the notion of

promises itself.

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There are no exceptions « The Right to Lie », 1797

According to Benjamin Constant, the moral principle that we must tell the truth cannot be absolute, otherwise it would make life impossible in society.

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There are no exceptions According to B. Constant : It is not mandatory, to tell the truth to those who could use it to do evil.

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Benjamin Constant (1767-1830)


There are no exceptions

Kant’s answer: Lying ruins the mutual trust relationship foundational to societies. The problem is not whether another person is entitled to the truth, but if I have the right to lie. The justification of the lie is based only on an assumption.

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The willingness to lie The consequences of a lie are independent of the willingness of the person to lie. But the decision to lie depends entirely upon the person…

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Objects (consequences): not under my control.

Subject (the one who decide) : the decision is my responsability.


The decision is my responsability

Objects (consequences): not under my control


Difficulties

1. Bringing our actions back to precise maxims is not always easy.

2. Two moral laws can be in conflict in a concrete situation. It is necessary to make a decision and we cannot comply with both at the same time.

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Clash of Values3. Absolutism does not easily

resolve conflicts between moral principles or values.

4. The application of the deontological ethics system

can become very rigid.

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Zidane decision and Referee decision in 2006 Football World Cup "If you want my shirt, I will give to you afterwards“ said Zidane. Materazzi then revealed that he replied, "Preferisco la …… di tua sorella" (I would prefer your ….. of a sister), which resulted in the head-butt.


Judgement In fact, Kant withholds judgement. Practical reason must determine for itself what moral rule must prevail in each specific case. Nothing can replace the exercise of judgement.

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“[…] it is evident that the understanding is capable of being instructed by rules, but that the judgement is a peculiar talent, which does not, and cannot require tuition, but only exercise. This faculty is therefore the specific quality of the so-called mother wit, the want of which no scholastic discipline can compensate.For although education may furnish, and, as it were, engraft upon a limited understanding rules borrowed from other minds, yet the power of employing these rules correctly must belong to the pupil himself; and no rule which we can prescribe to him with this purpose is, in the absence or deficiency of this gift of nature, secure from misuse. A physician therefore, a judge or a statesman, may have in his head many admirable pathological, juridical, or political rules, in a degree that may enable him to be a profound teacher in his particular science, and yet in the application of these rules he may very possibly blunder—either because he is wanting in natural judgement (though not in understanding) and, whilst he can comprehend the general in abstracto, cannot distinguish whether a particular case in concreto ought to rank under the former; or because his faculty of judgement has not been sufficiently exercised by examples and real practice.” Critique of Pure Reason, « Of the Transcendental Faculty of judgement in General”.


A physician therefore, a judge [,an officer] or a statesman, may have in his head many admirable pathological, juridical, [military] or political rules, in a degree that may enable him to be a profound teacher in his particular science, and yet in the application of these rules he may very possibly blunder—either because he is wanting in natural judgement (though not in understanding) and, whilst he can comprehend the general in abstracto, cannot distinguish whether a particular case in concreto ought to rank under the former; or because his faculty of judgement has not been sufficiently exercised by examples and real practice.

3. Virtue EthicsARISTOTLE

3.1.LIFE AND WORKS OF ARISTOTLE


School of Athens was painted in the Vatican between 1509 and 1511 by Raphael. Plato (in red and pointing the sky) and Aristotle (in blue and pointing the earth) are at the center.


BibliographyClozel, C.-M., Imbeault, M., Le discours philosophique, 1995.McKeon, R., The Basic Works of Aristotle, Random House, New

York, 1968.McKeon, R., Introduction to Aristotle, The Modern Library, New

York, 1947.Daigle, J., Samson, L., Séguin, L., Philosophie 1 Raison Vérité

Bonheur, Chenelière Éducation, 2012.

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Biography Aristotle born 384 B.C. Stagira Often called "the philosopher."


Biography His father, Nicomachus, was a phisycian. Nicomachus dies while Aristotle is little. Aristotle is raised by his adoptive father, Proxenus of Atarneus.

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Stagira, ancient city in Macedonia principally known for being the birthplace of Aristotle.

Aegean Sea

GreeceIonian Sea

Mediterranean Sea

Chalcidicee

Macedonia


Greece was cut up among many islands, peninsulas and mountain valleys. The geography of Greece kept the ancient Greek states divided and also small. Yet all Greece was united by the athletic contests held every four years at Olympia, and by the sacred shrines at Delphi, where Greeks from everywhere came to consult the famous oracle.

http://www.hyperhistory.com/

Aristotle was born in Stagira (-384)founded the Lyceum in Athens (-335)and died in Chalchis (-322).

http://www.hyperhistory.com/


Biography Aristotle came to study in Athens in 368 where he remained for twenty years the student of Plato at the Academy.

Plato (-428 -348) The execution of Socrates turned his politics. He created the Academy, where he taught while writing and publishing his "dialogues".


Biography After the death of Plato, he was invited to the court of Hermias and therefore left Athens. Aristotle married Hermias's niece, Pythia.

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Biography He then went to Assos, where he made important Zoological observations. He later traveled to Mytilene where he continued his research in biology.

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Assos

Mytilene


BiographyIn 343 he becomes a teacher of Alexander the Great.

The instruction of Alexander only lasted 3 years. Aristotle does not return to Athens before 335.

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Biography In the twelve years that follow Aristotle devotes himself to the creation of the Lyceum. He also establishes an extensive research program.


The LyceumSpeculative meditation on the origins ofroot causes and first principles.Taught all known academic disciplines:at a higher level than his competitors.

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Biography It is from this time that the composition of most of the books of Aristotle that we know. After the death of Alexander he is accused of « conspiring with the enemy » and of « impieties ».


Biography Prevent Athens from committing a second crime against philosophy. Aristotle takes refuge at Chalcis. Il seems as well that he did not approve of Alexander’s projects and conquests.

City vs Empires.

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One

Some

Many

Monarchy Tyranny

Aristocracy Oligarchy

PolityConstitutional Government

Democracy

Classification of constitutionsHealthy Corrupt

Where the moral sense can be developed

3.2.VIRTUE ETHICS


System Founded Upon VirtuesVirtue Ethics attempts to

answer the question:

What must I become?

The ultimate goal of education is to produce virtuous beings…

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Being virtuous


Virtue Ethics seeks to educate individuals according to an idealized sense of the possibilities of human existence.

People who serve as models for others.


Being Acting

An ethical system based on virtues emphasizes the importance of living a good life and excellence.

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Motivations

The system is defined by the motivations of people and who they are rather than what they do.


Aspiration

Ethics founded upon virtues is thus an

ethic of aspiration as opposed to an ethic

of duty or action.

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Decision Making

Decision Making Rule:

Find a moral example and model your life and your

behavior on that person or ideal type.

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Decision Making Faced with a dilemma, the question to ask is: "What is the ideal person would do in this situation? "

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Sérgio Vieira de MelloSpinoza


Good People

Virtue ethics also implies that people who are good will do good deeds.


Good People

This aspect is important for military forces in a society.

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Good People Given the power available to the armed forces and, therefore, the latent capacity of the latter to destroy civil society for their own purposes, should the society accept the recruitment of immoral people ?

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Good People Given their role, the armed forces want to develop, within their troops, traits such as: honesty, loyalty, courage, bravery, self-sacrifice and obedience, and will do everything to create models with these traits.

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The Virtuous Being Good motivations Control of emotions Not tempted to steal, lie or cheat Does good for the pleasure of doing good! Good character Good moral habits

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Virtues according to Aristotle

Virtues are positive character traits.

We acquire them through training which then become habit.

Act well spontaneously.

Abstract reasons ≠ exemplary people

Abstract principles do not build character.

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Ethics and Politics

To be happy and lead a virtuous lifeindividuals need adequate social institutions.

“For the whole must of necessity be prior to the part“ Politics

It is impossible to exercise virtues in an unjust society.

The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts.


Ethics and PoliticsEthics and Politics

"The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together.“ Politics



Virtues

The practice of virtues characterize the moral and political lives of people happy.


Virtues The moral life resides in moderation in all things Virtues are terms between two extremes.

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For example, one can be frightened or bold, feel desire or anger or pity, and experience pleasure and pain in general, either too much or too little, and in both cases wrongly; whereas to feel these feelings at the right time, on the right occasion, towards the right people, for the right purpose and in the right manner, is to feel the best amount of them, which is the mean amount—and the best amount is of course the mark of virtue. And similarly there can be excess, deficiency, and the due mean in actions. Now feelings and actions are the objects with which virtue is concerned; and in feelings and actions excess and deficiency are errors, while the mean amount is praised, and constitutes success; and to be praised and to be successful are both marks of virtue. Politics, (1106b)

Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait.



No principles No moral principles Good education Good habits Self control Courage Character

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Aristote (-384-322)

Part 3THE EXERCISE OF VIRTUE


Leonidas at Thermopylaeis an 1814 painting byJacques-Louis David (1748-1825)now on show at the Louvre. It shows the Spartan king Leonidas prior to the Battle of Thermopylae.


The Ideal Individual Leonidas King of Sparta 525 B.C. 480 B.C.


War against the PersiansConflicts betweenthe Persian Empire and the GreeksRevolt against the despotism of Darius

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Athens

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Revolt against Darius

Athens Persian Influence


The Persians Athens comes to the aid of the Ionians. Darius decides to punish the Greeks. The Persians camped on the plain of Marathon, 32 kilometer from Athens!

Darius King of the Persians550-486

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The Persians The Athenians destroy the army of Artaphernes. Darius was furious and prepared a gigantic army.

His son, Xerxes, undertook to complete the work of his father around -480.


Xerxes 519-465


The Persians

The Army arrives at Themopylae.

Resistance of Leonidas and his

Royal Guard.

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Xerxes came to the passage of Thermopylae to the head of prodigious strength: about 250,000 men, perhaps even up to 1,000,000. Herodotus speaks of three million, "Here against three million men once fought four thousand men from the Peloponnese. "

Thermopylae Pass


Thermopylae

Under the Command of Leonidas five thousand men defended the pass from the Persians.


[…] the Spartan Dieneces is said to have exhibited the greatest courage of all. They say that he made the following speech before they joined battle with the Medes: he had learned from a Trachinian that there were so many of the barbarians that when they shot their missiles, the sun was hidden by the multitude of their arrows.

He was not at all disturbed by this and made light of the multitude of the Medes, saying that their Trachinian foreigner brought them good news. If the Medes hid the sun, they could fight them in the shade instead of in the sun. This saying and others like it, they claim, Dieneces the Lacedaemonian left behind as a memorial.

Herodotus, History of the Persian War


The legend

The Spartans never capitulate.

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Tell them in Lacedaimon, passer-byThat here, obedient to their word, we lie


Spartan woman giving her son his shield

3.4.STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF VIRTUE ETHICS


MotivationMotivation can engender

exceptional individual examples.

The right people will act properly

Importance of the selection of soldiers.

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US Marines Example of the US Marines Corps:

“Honor, courage and commitment are the values that guide us”. Affirmation of who they are. Of what they want to be. The type of people they want to attract. Powerful expression of virtue ethics.

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Semper Fidelis distinguishes the Marine Corps bond from any other. It goes beyond teamwork—it is a brotherhood that can always be counted on. Latin for "always faithful," Semper Fidelis became the Marine Corps motto in 1883. It guides Marines to remain faithful to the mission at hand, to each other, to the Corps and to country, no matter what. Becoming a Marine is a transformation that cannot be undone, and Semper Fidelis is a permanent reminder of that. Once made, a Marine will forever live by the ethics and values of the Corps. In addition to Semper Fidelis, Marine Corps Officers also embrace the phrase Ductus Exemplo, "to lead by example," the motto of Officer Candidates School (OCS). Instructors look for candidates who display self-reliance, discipline and responsibility. Desire and motivation to lead Marines are deciding factors in an officer's success.

Marines Web site (August 2014)


Military VirtuesDevelopment of honesty

Loyalty

Courage

Bravery

Self-sacrifice and obedience


Medals

The provision of medals is a manifestation of virtue ethics. It creates a model for behaviour.

The Victoria Cross, instituted 1856 by Queen Victoria, is the Commonwealth's premier military decoration for gallantry. It is awarded in recognition of the most exceptional bravery displayed in the presence of the enemy.

http://www.encyclopediecanadienne.ca/fr/media/5663/


Medals The provision of valour and bravery medals constitutes a specific manifestation of virtue ethics.

Even if the award recognizes the action, in reality it creates a model of behaviour for others.

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Brigadier-General Paul Triquet (1910 - 1980) was a Canadian recipient of the Victoria Cross.


Becoming Virtuous… These strong points of Virtue Ethics allow it to overcome the principal weaknesses of the doctrine. How can we acquire virtue ? « I become virtuous by committing virtuous acts. »

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Becoming Virtuous

We find ourselves before a vicious circle which reveals itself to be highly unsatisfying to establish objective precepts of virtue ethics.

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One must ask oneself how to become virtuous?

« I become virtuous by

doing virtuous things »

« I find a model and I attempt to imitate it. »

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Acquisition of Virtues Moral virtues are precious, there is not, however: no clues as to how to acquire these virtues. No precise line of conduct in practical situations involving ethical dilemmas. In addition, virtues change with the times.

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Objectivity A system founded upon values is not universal. However, we should not reject the system. If it is possible to reach an agreement on the meaning and the operation of a particular virtue, then the system becomes a powerful tool for establishing ethical standards.

ConclusionTHREE COMPLIMENTARY APPROACHES


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1724 ● 1804 -384 ● -322 1806 ● 1873

Immanuel Kant Aristotle John Stuart Mill

Morality of Duty

Deontology

Virtue Ethics Morality of Utility

TeleologyAspiration

Act Being Act

What must I do ? What must I become ? What are the consequences of my action ?


Telling the Truth Example of a difficult question : Do we always need to tell the truth? Possible response : “yes” We expect others to affirm what is right. It is a question of confidence.

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Lying However, we know that others can sometimes lie to us and that sometimes we may also lie! Are there particular circumstances that can exist where lying could be acceptable, even necessary?

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Lying Exceptional Situation; In case of emergency; With a major significance; For a good cause.


Lying Four cases: 1. Pierre cheated on his girlfriend and does not want to suffer her wrath or make her feel pain in telling her the truth. Does Pierre have a morally valid reason to lie?

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Lying 2. The police are asking Paul where Alfred is, and Paul knows that he is wanted for a crime that he believes de did not do.

Could Paul lie to the police or simply hide the truth so as to not betray his friend?

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Lying 3. Same situation, but transposed within a

dictatorial regime where the police are searching for Alfred to interrogate him over his political activities.

Could Paul morally justify a lie in arguing that he wants to protect his friend from the abuses of a dictatorial regime?

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Lying 4. A soldier is captured and in the hands of the enemy, who ask to provide information in order to surprise attack other members of his unit.

Could the soldier morally justify the fact of not telling the truth, so as not to compromise the safety of his comrades ?

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Exceptions In all cases, it is question of exceptionally infringing upon a moral rule for the goal of avoiding more serious harm. Is this really the case? Has this become habitual?

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The Three Ethics Let’s examine this in light of the three moral philosophical approaches: Deontological, Utilitarian, Virtue Ethics.

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Lying is Wrong Deontological Approach It is necessary to always tell the truth: there are no exceptions. Consequences of an action do not count : They are but suppositions whereas the wrong act of lying is a certitude. It is the goodwill that motivates the action that is most important. Nevertheless, if you judge that there is another moral rule that should be apply in this particular situation your decision could be different.

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Consequentialism Utilitarian approach You should not tell the truth if the foreseen consequences are too harmful. The consequences of our actions are important : it is in light of them that we must evaluate the value of our moral actions. Conclusion: calculate!

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Becoming a liar Virtue Ethics Approach: Interested in what we want to become. Lying is perhaps not always wrong, but it risks becoming a habit. It must therefore be avoided so as not to become a liar ! Inversely, to tell the truth, is a virtue, it must be practiced.

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Let us imagine that someone requires our help : « A utilitarian will point to the fact that the consequences of doing so will maximize well-being, a deontologist to the fact that, in doing so the agent will be acting in accordance with a moral rule such as “Do unto others as you would be done by” and a virtue ethicist to the fact that helping the person would be charitable or benevolent.. »

Rosalind Hursthouse, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Virtue Ethics. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/

Differences Between the Three Approaches :

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/