Etudes d'esthétique médiévale by Edgar De BruyneReview by: George SartonIsis, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Aug., 1948), pp. 188-190Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/226326 .

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i88 Reviews press, and the aged neurologist was attacked by his medical colleagues as well as by skeptical laymen. In retrospect the experiments may perhaps seem crude and ill-controlled, but from the historical standpoint they mark the begin- ning of scientific study of the sex hormones; they also stand as an important milestone in the development of replacement therapy. Had it not been for the sexual angle, there can be no doubt that Brown-Sequard's contribution would have had a more favorable reception and a more immediate influence upon the development of scientific medicine.

Physiologists in the United States had been frequently stirred by the brilliance and energy of his restless spirit, for he was back and forth across the ocean innumerable times, lecturing and teaching. He served on the faculties of the Medical College of Virginia and Harvard Medical School but the routine of teaching kept him from experimental work and he therefore seldom could bring himself to assume formal academic responsibility for any period of time. He was a contributor to the Philadelphia Med- ical Examiner, the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, and the Virginia Medical and Surgical Journal, whose editors were forthright in his defense. His was a vigorous career which will engage the interest of physiologists, endocrinol- ogists, neurologists, and also the lay reader, for a life story so full of vitality, controversy, and positive contributions will always have universal appeal.

JOrN F. FULTON, M.D.

EDGAR DE BRUYNE: Etudes d'esthitique m&didvale. 2 parts in 3 volumes. (xiv + 371 pp., x + 400 pp.) (Rijksuniversiteit te Gent, Werken uitgegeven door de Faculteit van de Wijsbegeerte en Letteren, 97, 98, 99). Brugge, De Tempel, 1946.

The author's Thomistic studies induced him many years ago to investigate the origin and development of St Thomas's ideas on art and beauty. This implied the solution of the general problem: How was ancient aesthetics trans- mitted to the mediaeval thinkers and gradually modified by them? The three volumes before us represent the results of the author's very elab- orate investigations for the period beginning with Boetius and ending with the thirteenth century. It did not suffice to find out the mean- ings given to such terms as venustas or pulchri- tudo, compositio or consonantia, artis peritia or subtilitas; it was necessary to interpret the gen- eral conceptions of beauty and art in general, and of the several arts and letters in particular. The result is a history of mediaeval philosophy centered upon those conceptions. It would take too long to analyze Prof. De Bruyne's investiga- tions, the order of which every student of medi- aeval philosophy could easily foretell. Let us

simply observe that he divided his subject into four main parts: I. The founders (I 6o pp.) Boetius, Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville, Bede (or from the sixth century to the middle of the eighth). II. The Carolingian period (208 pp.), culminating in John Scot Erigena (or from the end of the eighth century to the end of the ninth). III. The Romanesque period (420 pp.), largely centered upon the twelfth century. IV. The thirteenth century (370 pp.).

The value of the author's analysis of all the relevant writings is much increased by the in- sertion of abundant Latin quotations in the text or in the footnotes; the reader is thus en- abled to judge to some extent for himself with- out having to hunt for the characteristic say- ings in the PL or in other editions. As it is obviously impossible to follow him in his lonig pilgrimage, the reviewer must restrict himself to a few remarks.

The early period is dominated by ancient traditions as represented by Plato, Aristotle (chiefly the Nicomachean Ethics), Cicero, Boe- tius, and modified by patristic literature. Chris- tianity had introduced a new scruple: Are the artistic activities or pleasures licit from the reli- gious point of view? We can speak of "introduc- tion" only with reference to pagan traditions, for the scruple existed in the Jewish conscience long before the Christians were aware of it. Similar scruples can be followed also in the Muslim tradition, where they were much stronger and lasted much longer than in Chris- tendom. The Sunni interdiction of images is well known, and Muslim discussions on the licit- ness of music are often referred to in my Intro- duction (e.g., 3, I63-65). This remark suggests that the questions investigated by Prof. De Bruyne would lend themselves very profitably to comparative studies. How did Catholic aes- thetics compare with the contemporary Ortho- dox, Jewish or Muslim? Semitic iconoclasm was complete and steady; Byzantine iconoclasm, in- termittent and incomplete. On the other hand, iconoclastic tendencies were quickly subdued in the Latin world and remained subdued in spite of sporadic outbursts of Christian asceticism. The Libri carolini are very characteristic in that respect. These books were composed by the order of Charlemagne (VIII-2); their author- ship is uncertain (Alcuin?) but their original text is very well known, because the official MS (Vaticanus lat. 7207) is extant. They conclude that works of art have no religious value, yet should not be destroyed, because they have a value of their own. As the author says "II est difficile d'affirmer avec plus de force l'autonomie de l'art: c'est lU le merite fondamental des Livres carolins." That defense of art and of sensuous beauty was admirably emphasized a century later by John Scot Erigena (IX-2), who did not hesitate to write: "Woman's beauty is the symbol of the beauty of the whole

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Reviews I89

universe. .. . God has created the visible world in order that man may be raised by that spec- tacle to the affirmation of His own exist- ence.... .

Suger of Saint Denis (XII-i) had these words, or at least these thoughts, in mind when he wrote the lapidary sentence "Mens hebes ad verum per materialia surgit." a

Thanks to Suger, we have reached what was perhaps the most pregnant period in the evolu- tion of mediaeval aesthetics, the first half of the twelfth century. That period is not only that of Suger,3 the golden age of St Denis, it is that of the Cistercian Reform and of Suger's great rival St Bernard of Clairvaux; it is also that of Hugh of St Victor, and finally of the school of Chartres, where Christian Platonism and hu- manism reached their climax. Gilbert de la Porr&e, Theodoric and Bernard of Chartres, William of Conches, Bernard Silvester all be- long to that golden age (Alan of Lille comes a little later, XII-2). The main problems of Christian aesthetics were elucidated by the discussions which took place in the first half of the twelfth century, chiefly in four places, the abbey of Citeaux, the cathedral of Chartres, the abbey of St Victor in Paris, and the abbey of St Denis.

The case of Citeaux is particularly signifi- cant, because the Cistercian Reform was an ascetic reaction which was directed in part against artistic efforts. Yet so deep was the artistic genius of the Cistercian architects that the austerity forced upon them actually helped them to create admirable monuments. This is a magnificent illustration of two important facts: first, the irrepressibility of genuine art by dog- matic aesthetics, second, the value of material restraints to bring out the best qualities of great artists. (The second fact is illustrated negatively by the ugly "works of art" due to the aesthetic anarchy of our own time.)

The aesthetic pregnancy of the twelfth cen- tury appears still in another, and to me unex- pected, way. St Augustine (V-i) had begun many centuries before a struggle against Mani- chaeism. The Cathari and other heretics revived Manichaean tendencies in the twelfth century; '

' The whole passage is too long to be quoted, but it can be read in Latin and French in De Bruyne (vol. I, 367). It helps us to appreciate once more the singular genius of Erigena.

s May I recall that this very sentence was used by me as epigraph for the part of my Introd. (2, io8) dealing with the first half of the twelfth century (XII-I).

An English translation of Suger's book on the abbey church of St Denis and its art treasures has been recently published by Erwin Panofsky (Prince- ton I946; Isis 37, I92). See also Panofsky's impor- tant corrections (1947).

' See my note on Cathari, Introd. (2, I57-59) and many notes on Manichaeans (passim; 3, I853, i 855).

this caused violent persecutions, particularly those of the Albigenses at the end of the cen- tury, and the organization of the Inquisition in 1352 (Introd. 2, 552). Those cruel persecutions, un-Christian (not to say inhuman) do not con- cern us here and now, but the struggle against Manichaean dualism and pessimism had another result: a reaffirmation of the permissible love of nature and of beauty, and Catholic optimism. This was well explained by the English Francis- can, Alexander of Hales (XIII-i), the first after Hugh of Saint Victor to devote a treatise of his summa to the beauty of the world. His message was a repetition in philosophic language of St Francis's Canticle of the Sun (St Francis died in 1226, Alexander in 1245). It is a message of joy and light against Manichaean darkness. De Bruyne's chapter on this subject, "L'esth6- tique de la lumiere" (vol. 3, 3-29), iS to my fancy the most original and the most agreeable of his work. Let me quote a couple of para- graphs:

L'esthetique du XIII siecle se developpe dans un climat particulier, celui d'une mystique de la lumi- ere. Certes, nous ne disons pas que l'idee de pro- portion disparait: elle ne perd rien de son impor- tance fondamentale. Mais alors que le Xll1 siecle insiste particulierement sur la "composition" c'est-h- dire sur la beaute de la composition musicale ou lit- teraire, de la composition architecturale ou plasti- que, de la composition du corps humain, le XIIIe si&cle attache une importance considerable a tout ce que est clarte, lumi&re, splendeur. Les systemes esthetiques, enfermes dans les Sommes immenses ou dans les opuscules plus modestes, ne prennent toute leur signification qu'en fonction d'une veritable esthetique diffuse de la Lumiere.

Celle-ci se manifeste sous trois formes principales; une forme litteraire, une forme mystique, une forme physique. Ne croyons pas qu'il y ait influence di- recte d'une de ces formes sur l'autre: il nous semble au contraire que l'esthetique litteraire de la clarte se developpe assez librement a cote des deux autres, plus savantes. I1 n'est toutefois pas possible de ne pas remarquer le parallelisme des termes, des images, des tendances et de ne pas considerer ces trois expressions de l'emotion et de l'aspiration hu- maines comme les elements d'une ame collective aux proportions gigantesques.

The rest of vol. 3 is devoted to the schoolmen of the thirteenth century, culminating in St Thomas who followed as always the via media, this time between his brother Dominican, the Neoplatonist Ulrich of Strassburg, on the one side, and the more scientifically-minded Bacon and Vitelo on the other.

The author has accomplished his task extre- mely well, but the task remains incomplete in two essential respects. In the first place, one's interest in mediaeval art cannot be satisfied with a discussion of aesthetics. Such a discussion is of course necessary, for the aim of mediaeval art was primarily religious or even theological. This has been very well shown in a long series of studies on Christian iconography by Emile

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I90 Reviews Male (Isis 6, 52-56) and by Louis Brsehier (Isis 4, 540-44). The understanding of Christian art implies a theological preparation. Yet, the main thing is the art itself, that is, the artists and craftsmen (not the theologians) and their immortal works. Thanks to De Bruyne's book it will be much easier for historians of art to provide for themselves and their readers the indispensable theological background. Art matters infinitely more than theoretical aesthet- ics; for example, he who tries to understand modern art contemplates the work done by modern artists and does not pay any attention to the aesthetical views of the philosophers or of the professors. In the same way, a student of, say, mediaeval architecture will derive more nourishment from Lund' than from De Bruyne. But, even that would not suffice. The history of aesthetics and the history of art must even- tually be completed by a survey of popular sensitiveness to art and to beauty. (One might call this popular or unconscious aesthetics, which is more interesting than the formulated one, especially that which was expressed in the scholastic language.) Such knowledge could not be derived from the learned books, nor yet from the monuments, but rather from the bonae litterae, the popular literature, the folklore and the anecdotes. Let me give you two of these (Introd. 3, 1256). About the year 1313, there was in the York minster a statue of the Holy Virgin so attractive that the archbishop took fright at its popularity. Some thirty years later a new crucifix ordered for the abbey of Meaux attracted considerable attention because the Christ's body was so beautifully shaped. This story is the earliest reference in English litera- ture to sculpture made from a living model. It is probable that many more examples could be collected from the chronicles and the romances, and out of their mass we would begin to under- stand popular reactions to beauty. Of course, we already know the reactions of the artists themselves - sculptors, painters, architects, limners, musicians - for their feelings, more than their knowledge, were the spring and motor of their activities.

The author announces that onerous duties will prevent him from completing his work for the period I300 to 1450, but that he may be able to write a simpler book wherein his conclusions would be summarized for the sake of the general reader. Let us hope that the period 1300 to 1450

will be investigated first in the same manner, if necessary by another scholar, otherwise the con-

6Fredrik Macody Lund: Ad quadratum. A study of the geometrical bases of classic and medie- val religious architecture (2 vols., folio, printed by order of the Norwegian Parliament, London I92I;

Isis 5, 539). 6 He is a man of considerable authority and re-

sponsibility in the Belgian government admin- istration.

clusions would remain inconclusive. The main purpose being to determine the transmission of ancient aesthetics to the people of the Renais- sance and to ourselves, this can not be done if one stops at 1300. The period 1300 to 1450 iS

of enormous importance in every study of mediaeval traditions, for it is the very period of decomposition without which a creative meta- morphosis would have remained impossible and unthinkable. Renaissance aesthetics emerged from the mediaeval even as the latter emerged from the ancient, but in each case the emer- gence involved a discontinuity within the tradi- tion. In the first case, the discontinuity was caused by Christian ideals contrasting and re- jecting the pagan ones; in the second, it was caused by the revival of ancient humanities and by a greater "joie de vivre." The continuation of the aesthetic tradition implied in both cases a disorganization and the formation of a new chrysalis.

The work is excellent and we are grateful to the author for having increased the availability of its rich contents by elaborate and thoughtful indices. The University of Ghent and the St Catherine Press of Burges deserve congratula- tions for their respective shares in its realiza- tion. GEORGE SARTON

JULIAN OBERMANN: Ugaritic Mythology. xxiv + I Io pp. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948. $2.75.

Mythology is the most rudimentary form of expression of the human mind, it goes back to the remotest phases of human history. Mythol- ogy is the religion of the pagans, the cosmol- ogy and philosophy of the primitives, and the literature of the pre-literates. In mythology, everything is vague and hazy as in a dream; the lines between fact and fiction, between real- ity and imagination are left undrawn; the myths of a race are the day dreams of its childhood.

In his book on Ugaritic Mythology, Dr J. Obermann, the eminent Semitic philologist of Yale University, undertakes to interpret the myths and dreams of a Semitic people who flourished some i5 centuries before our era in the ancient kingdom of Ugarit in Northern Syria. Twenty years ago virtually nothing was known about this Semitic race and its civiliza- tion. But in 1930 a French expedition uncovered at Ras Shamra, an Arab hamlet in the vicinity of the Mediterranean seaport of Latakia, in Northern Syria, two temples from the Late Bronze Age; and in what was evidently the li- brary and a school for scribes of one of these temples, a wealth of inscribed clay tablets have been found containing the myths and liturgies of this people, and the mound of Ras Shamra has been identified as the site of the capital of Ugarit.

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