SOCIOLOGIE URBAINE

COURS 4

Patrick Le Galès, FBA

Directeur de recherche au CNRS, Centre d’études européennes de

Sciences Po, Doyen Ecole Urbaine de Sciences Po

Chaire 2016

Brussels Studies Institute et

Citydev.brussels

ECOLE URBAINE

SOCIOLOGIE URBAINE

• Chicago : interactions

• Sociologie marxiste

• Sociologie wébérienne

• Sociologie post moderne

• Changements d’échelle

• Mobilités

• Technologie

• Sociologie politique des usages, des instruments, de la

gouvernance

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I MEXICO URBAN AREA

• 20 MILLION D’HABITANTS

• 9 DANS LE D.F. ET 11 DANS L’ÉTAT DE MEXICO

• INTÉGRÉE PAR 16 DÉLÉGATIONS ET 59 COMMUNES

• FRONTIÈRE DF-E.MEXICO SUR LE PLAN DES POLITIQUES DES SERVICES PUBLICS

SUBWAY IN THE 60’S

• Expansion of transport halted by the economic crisis, 1982

• Transport is about finance

• Chaos in ransport

• Bus labour Union, control of the company

PROBLEMS

• Trafic

• Air pollution

• Time

• Economic costs

• Political costs

DEMOCRATISATION

• Elected Mayor PRD, after PRI

• Cardenas, Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (2000 2005), marcelo Ebrard 2006-2012)

• Negociation of the budget against the state

• Motorway (12kms highway), BRT, subway, bike sharing

EXISTING JITNEYS (PESEROS, COMBIS MICROBUS)

• Corridor stragegy : use of space

• Historically a very powerful interest groups in Mexico city, very strong organisationASOCIATIONS CUPULES, (10) , control over routes negociated with mayors

• Long history of opposing transport ratinalisation

• 3,3% of journeys in 1972, 54% of journeys in 2000

• Small size vehicles, flexibility

• 30 000 Members, 100 associations

• Regulated fares

• Security ? Vehicle standards,

• Dangerous, polluting, unreliable, uncomfortable

• Race to compete for passengers

IMITATION

• BRT : (Brazil) then the Transmilenio in Bogota

• World Bank money, (5 million $-), Japan policy and human resources development fund (1,3M$), Shell and Hewlett foundation ( 1 million each)

• Network of expert

• Think tanks and associations, NGO

BRT AGAINST JITNEYS

• BRT seen as a way to prevent jitneys from benefiting from the most profitable routes

• Negociation : an environmental framing, institutionalisation,

• First year general strike

•

• Enrol jitneys as employees and stockholders if not independent entreprneurs

• Fare collections at the station (BRT managers) to ensure information and predictable revenue stream

• Jitneys owners, incentives to buy new subsidised buses, financial support

• Informal micro buses forbidden in the corridor

• A proposal : insurgents, one organisation for 262 firms, negociation with key individuals

• A pilot

• Key point : private operators fiance bus and fare equipment and are paid for the services, complex formula. Fares collected in a fund, then redistribution, a subcontractors, not metrobus

• Guaranteed income for individual bus owners to secure buy in

DETAILED NEGOCIATION

• With drivers

• With neighbouring group (UNAM)

• With the government

• With different interest groups

• Major success of the first route

• Mayor Ebrard uses first success to develop a series of BRT road (plus subway)

• Strong popular pressure, consultation

• New deal less generous

YEARS OF NEGOCIATION

• The more the system is successful the more the negociation for expansion is tougher in terms of financial conditions for the jitneys

• Also because PRD is reelected : only one game in town

• New set of protest and strikes

• Direct negociations with leaders, exension of routes for BRT

SAFER CLEANER MORE RELIABLE

• Between 2005 and 2014, creation of the longest BRT corridor in Latin America (Metrobus)

• 6 lines, 115 kms, bus exclusive lanes, 80 stations plus 246 of stratagic corridors

• Electronic fare system

• Low floor,low emission, 40%quicker than micro buses

• 900.000 daily users (4%)

• circulan en 2013 alrededor de 28,500 microbuses y autobuses y 102,000 taxis.

DUAL MANAGEMENT

• DF. Concessions for corridors and roads

• Organisés an ASOCIATIONS CUPULES, (10) relations with local authorities

• Mexico state : concession, lack of transparency for private groups, corruption

• Border Mexico DF versus Mexico state

TRANSFERT MEXICO DF ESTADO DE MEXICO

NEGOCIATIONS WITH JITNEYS

• Political priority

• Policy priority

• Limit the role of the new public bus company RTP

• Select key routes and strategic corridors

• Exchange fare increase for new buses

• Progressive enrolment of various association, particularly when PRD wins the election again

MOBILITY GOVERNANCE

• Serious policies being implemented

• Scale is limited

• Renovation of the city centre

• Governance : different organisations

• Cases of corruption : metro, concessions, negociations, political support, elections

II POLITIQUE DES TRANSPORTS EN

RÉGION PARISIENNE

• Recherche en cours avec Charlotte Halpern

• Gouvernance

• Secteur versus territoire

• Politique versus administratif

• Rationalité, illusions de rationalité

• Comment l’investissement dans le transport structure la

gouvernance de la région parisienne

• Expérimentation et incrémentalisme

1857

1b. Paris and Ile de France 1907

1964

PARIS

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Patrick Le Galès 33

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A METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT

• 124 municipalities

• Fusion of departements

• 6 million

• A bureaucratic monster or effective governance of the

metropole

• Everything into place (2016)?

1975 1997 2015

Paris city

council

Non existing Emergent

ideas

And project

No decision

capacity

Massive innovation

Tram, velib, less cars, auto lib,

transport and mobility services

Ile de

France

Region

Non existing Roads and

emerging

piecemeal

small projects

in the

periphery

Control of the regional transport

policy, planning and

implementation

Control of the regional agency

Implementation

Renovation of the train system and

RER

Support and renovation of the bus

and tram system in the regional

periphery

Innovation in services : Navigo pass

single price

Application

French

state

Dense Metro

and bus

system in Paris

RER regional

transport

system

Underinvestm

ent in the

network in the

region

(RER and

trains)

SGP : grand Paris Express (30 bn

Euros)

Charles de Gaulle Express

THE MODERNISING STRATEGY OF THE GAULLIST STATE

• Keynesian era: voluntarist planning policies led by de

Gaulle government during the 1960’s. The state,

understood as a technical and administrative

apparatus, is considered to be responsible for

managing demographic and urban growth. It undertook

then two important reformes

• 1959: creation of the district of Paris (La défense)

• 1964: Seine département dismantling) : the deal

between gaullists and communists

• PADOG : Planning the metropolitan regions (new

towns, RER, transport)

• Divide and rule, strong localism

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PLANIFICATION URBAINE ET TRANSPORT L’HERITAGE DE L’ETAT MODERNISATEUR

• Lucien Sfez, Critique de la décision : illusion de la

rationalité

• Villes nouvelles

• Voies sur berge

• Voies pompidou

• Banlieue rouge

Map 1. The SNCF-RATP joint infrastructure ownership and operation of RER lines B and A.

Source: SIA-Partners’ Blog on transport and distribution: http://transport.sia-partners.com/files/2011/07/GI-RATP2.png

• LA MOBILISATION POUR LE

TRANSPORT STRUCTURE L ACTION

COLLECTIVE AU SEIN DE LA REGION

ILE DE FRANCE

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Transportnetworksandlevels

National level Regional level Municipal level

HighwaysDepartmental&municipalroads

TrainsRER&

TransiliensMétro

Vélib&Autolib

BusRapidBustransit

METROLITAN GOVERNANCE : 3 DYNAMICS, 15 YEARS OF DEBATE

• Paris city councils and its neighbours, Paris Metropole :

cooperation between municipalities

• The rise of the region : a metropolitan region

• Grand Paris : a political economy led by the State with

president Nicolas Sarkozy

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ORGANISATION 1997

RENOUVEAU DES POLITIQUES PUBLIQUES

• 15 years of ongoing urban transport major policy initiatives and experimentation Paris Ile de France

• Velib, bike lanes, autolib, buses safe lane, planning (less parking), new services, the development of a tram network, the renovation of suburban railways, the Navigo card for all public transports now with a unique price for the whole Paris Ile de France region, more public space, no congestion charge, some coercion to limit the use of cars in case of pollution.

• not only were they extended from the center towards the periphery, but the periphery itself recently started developing policy initiatives and experimentations.

COMMENT EXPLIQUER CELA ?

• Urbanisation et effet capitale : compétition avec Londres

• Dynamiques politiques

• Concurrence coopération

• Rivalité RATP/SNCF

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• Trois (et demi) niveaux de gouvernement

• Trois périodes :

Avant 1977 : planification et transport organisés par

l’administration centrale d’Etat

1977-1997 : Etat et montée en puissance de la ville de

Paris et de la région Ile de France

2001-2015 : Coopération compétition entre Paris et la

Région (même coalition) mais consensus contre puis avec

l’Etat

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QUESTIONS

• Le cadrage et la politisation de la question des

infrastructures de transport

• Les changements d’échelle : qui est en charge, qui pilote

?

• L’évolution des régulations et de la réglementation

• Qui paye ?

• Qui sont les intérêts mobilisés et comment ?

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BUDGETS

• Regional council : 5 billion Euros

• City of Paris : 12 M inhabitants, 9 billions Euros budget

• Département , Between 1 and 1,6 billion Euros

• Paris Ile de France, 22% of the population, about a third

of GDP

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3 FACTEURS POLITIQUES

• 1) Mobilisation de la nouvelle équipe à Paris

• 2) La mobilisation de la région , negociated leadership

• 3) Sarkozy et le grand Paris : action collective par le

conflit qui crée le consensus

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1) L’INVENTION D’UN MODÈLE PARISIEN DE TRANSPORT URBAIN

DURABLE

• Innovation : Tramway, velib, autolib

• Plus important : pas congestion charge mais

transformation de l’espace public pour limiter le poids de

l’automobile (pour les habitants de Paris contre l’Ile de

France)

• Diffusion dans la métropole : expansion du système

parisien contre soutien politique

•

Réaction de la région

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L’EFFET « GAUCHE PLURIELLE »

• Elected Mayor 1977

• Region in 1986

• Chirac and Tiberj: the conservative city

• After 2001, the mobilization of the elected mayor of

Paris Bertrand Delanoe (and his team and networks).

He starts a series of innovation (tramway, velib,

Autolib). This is a case of strong collective political

leadership. This constitutes a major explanatory factor

in order to understand why transport developments

resulted from tensions between the city of Paris and the

rest of the region.

SUCCÈS POLITIQUE : PEAK CAR

• Paris Ile de France counts among those few metropolises in which a “peak car” appears to have been reached in the center, and seems to be spreading (IAURIF 2013). The evolution of car use between 2001 and 2010 in the Paris Ile de France Region indicates that the daily use of cars is stagnating, while at the same time the evolution also indicates a shift towards an increasing use of public transport. Within Paris the shift is more spectacular as 40% of the inhabitants do not have a car anymore, a rapidly growing trend.

2) REGION ILE FRANCE : MONTÉE EN PUISSANCE MALGRÉ LES ÉCHECS

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PARIS AND THE REGION

• Socialist/green alliance

Modernist social democrat and green priorities

• Conflict with the central state

• Three priorities :

Social cohesion, housing, social services,

integration of immigrants

Ecological priorities : transport in particular

Economic development

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• Region is worried, strong political rivalry

• Very democratic way of working, the president changes

every year, Consensus building

• Implementation of a series of initiatives on buses, bikes,

infrastructure, housing

• Tough negociations of contract with utility firms

• The core of the metropolitan region

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• Regional council: although also left-oriented, refers to the administrative region as the only legitimate scale, thus based on political representation. -> struggle btw. Delanoë and Huchon, which leds to Government/Capital-city alliances.

• Private interests: have constituted themselves in a specific lobby from the CCIP: “Paris-Il-de-France Capitale Economique”. Together with the government they focus on an hypothetical metropolitan area with strong functional powers. Their claims bout strategic planning are similar to the government: more infrastructures (roads, transportation system) to compete with the Great London.

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LA REGION CONTRE L’ETAT

• The mobilization of the regional council of Ile de France (ie the region) as part of the French decentralization process. The region took over of the agency in charge of transport (STIF : Syndicats des transports d’Ile de France) together with key stakeholders (central government, SNCF, RATP..) a case of negotiated leadership leading to collective action between key players in the Region.

• This is particularly relevant in order to highlight a less visible but nonetheless transformative dynamic in transport networks that is mainly driven by technological innovations (e.g., signaling, NTIC, reorganization of the infrastructure, new trains ...).

THE ILE DE FRANCE REGIONAL COUNCIL

• Right then left : Socialist with green and communist

• Priorities : planning, environment, inequalities

• New master plan against roads, more public transport

• Gained new powers : the regional transport agency

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(Source: DiRIEF)

Map 2c: Overview of Paris ring roads

ECHEC DE LA PLANIFICATION URBAINE

• Le Schéma directeur de la région Ile de France contre

l’Etat : transports publics, logement, écologie, faible pour

le développement économique

• Forte mobilisation : opposition de Paris, rejet de l’Etat

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3) PRÉSIDENT SARKOZY ET LE GRAND PARIS

• Discours de 2007

• Développement économique, nouveau capital….isme

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GRAND PARIS

• Creation of a ministry for « le Grand Paris »

• Political attack against the region, the master plan is not

accepted by the government (elections)

• Creation of « Atelier International du grand Paris »

ministry of culture, international consultation

• 2010 act : creation of the Société du Grand Paris to

create first, a new transport system

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• A complex political conflict

• (government with poor suburbs against Paris and the

region)

• Plan for a new massive transport system

• Competition between the subway company (RATP) and

the train one (SNCF)

• Competition between the region and the state : leading

to a compromise approved by the new government in

2013

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LE CONFLIT DU GRAND PARIS

• The conflict for leadership over the design of the Grand

Paris transport project between the Region and

President Sarkozy, which ultimately led all actors to

unify against this classic central government led

policymaking process in order to promote a

negotiated mode of transport governance as part of

the Grand Paris Express project.

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Patrick Le Galès 79

Patrick Le Galès 80

GRAND PARIS EXPRESS

• How much ? 40 Bn euros ?

• How long ? 30 years

• 200 kms of new subway line, or train,

• 72 new stations

• Improving normal trains too

• New consultation process

• The sarkozy Grand Paris project becomes a transport

system

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LE GRAND PARIS EXPRESS

• A major public investment, the Grand Paris Express (minimum 25 billion Euros until 2030, more likely to be 35), 68 new stations, new financing mechanisms, to which should be added a new transport between Paris city centre (Gare de l’Est) and Charle de Gaulle airport.

• The urban regional transport system used to be a case of governance quasi failure with bad suburban trains, an ageing specific transport (RER) built in the 1970’s and not reliable, and increased congestion on the roads.

• massive transformations were observed as part of the Grand Paris Express project. This project combines a massive renovation of existing public transport networks, including the metro, the RER and the bus network, and the expansion of the transport and mobility offer in the Paris Ile-de-France Region through major investments in new infrastructures and services. These investments were planned from 2010 onwards.

TOUS CONTRE L’ETAT

• STIF

• Consensus pour le transport : rapport parlementaire

• Combiner les deux projets

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CONCLUSION

• Mobilisations et conflits autour des transports dans la

région urbaine métropolitaine crée des capacités

d’action collective,

• Transforme la planification urbaine

• Changement d’échelle

• Expérimentations et incrémentalisme

• Coopération et compétition dans la mise en œuvre

• Gouvernance Ile de France in the making

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1975-1997 1997-2015 Main mechanisms

Paris city

council

Marginal Delanoe and the Greens Leadership and

political innovation

Ile de

France

region

Marginal Reaction to planning

failure (roads)

Serious indepth

renovation of the rail

networks but failed

political political

leadership

Reaction against Paris

Reaction against Sarkozy,

mobilisation against the

state

Not leadership but

political competition

and reaction

State In charge :

planning,

RER and the

roads

Weak

political

legitimacy

and conflict

Political leadership and

massive innovation

(architect, transport)

Main political

mechanism : everybody

against the Sarkozy

project

Leadership

Reaction against

Negotiation and

governance

1975-1997 1997-2015

Paris City

Council

No expertise

No instruments

No resources

No legitimacy

Increasing public expertise

Public private partnership (resources

and expertise)

Public tendering

and resource allocation

Strong political legitimacy to deal with

conflicts

Ile de France

region

No expertise

No instruments

No resources

No legitimacy

Transport, planning implementation

Strong expertise

(IAU), control of the regional transport

authority (STIF)

Weak political capacity

New forms of contract with public

and private partners (economic

regulation)

Information

French State

State specialised engineers in

the administration AND in public

and private companies

Public financial resources

Control of planning and

implementation

Roads, roads and more roads

(and the RER)

Fragmented expertise

Competition and conflicts between

different subgroups

Financial resource (fiscal resources

and instruments)

Decentralisation : divide and rule

POUR QUI CONSTRUIT ON LA VILLE ?

AVEC QUELS INSTRUMENTS ?

• Coût

• Conditions de vie dans les périphéries

• Mais utile pour les jeux olympiques ?

• Un autre exemple de consensus ambigu

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