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Artificial cranial deformation in pre-Hispanic Atacama and its role as a marker of social

identity: a quantitative approach.

Ana Bucchia, Germn Manrqueza,b, Thomas Pschelc

a Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Chile Santiago,

Stgo: 7800284, uoa, Santiago, Chile.

b Programa de Gentica Humana, I.C.B.M. School of Medicine, University of Chile- Santiago,

Stgo: 8380453. Santiago, Chile.

c Centre for Anatomical and Human Sciences, Hull York Medical School, University of York,

York, UK. Heslington, York YO10 5DD

Keywords: Pre-Hispanic Atacama, Geometric morphometrics, multiple correspondence analysis.

Number of pages: 24. Number of Figures: 5. Number of Tables: 4. Number of Graphs: 3.

Bibliography: 36 references

Abbreviated Title: Social Role of Artificial Cranial Deformation

Corresponding Author: Germn Manrquez. Address: . Telephone: . E-mail address:

Grant Sponsorship: Proyecto Anillo ACT-96, Programa de Investigacin Asociativa, Conicyt,

Chile


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ABSTRACT.

Various explanations have been put forward to account for artificial cranial deformation

(ACD) in South America. For the Atacama area (Northern Chile), some studies have concluded

that was used to create a communal identity that could serve to resist, or to form alliances with,

different outside sites (Inter Site Distinction hypothesis, this work). Other studies postulate that

there existed a certain relationship between ACD and the social status and gender of individuals

within the community (Intra Site Distinction hypothesis, this work). However, the methods used

to arrive at the above conclusions have significant limitations. Studies of cranial shape variation

have relied mainly on typological methods which reduce the great variability of artificial cranial

shapes down to a few deformation styles. Moreover, the archaeological contexts to which said

deformation categories have been associated have also been simplified, because all of these

studies analyze only a part of the grave goods.

In the present work we use a quantitative multivariate approach to assess the relationship

between cranial morphology and grave goods diversity. We studied the deformation patterns of

populations settled in northen Chile during the Formative (3500-1600 B.P) and Late Intermediate

(950-500 B.P.) Periods. We used X-rays of 216 individuals belonging to 7 archaeological sites

and, when possible, they were correlated with the corresponding funerary context. The results

indicate that cranial morphology do not correlate with social identity, but with the networks of

interaction among the sites. These results support the Inter Site hypothesis as opposed to the Intra

Site one.


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Artificial cranial deformation is a cultural practice of corporal modification worldwide

distributed (Dembo and Imbelloni 1938; Weiss 1962) showing high demographic frequencies

among pre Hispanic South American populations (Dingwall 1931; Perez 2007). Its main effect is

the permanent modification of the normal pattern of growth and development of the skull, by

using different deforming devices during the first years of post natal life (Manrquez et al. 2006).

Although several causal explanations for ACD have been proposed, the question about why

humans deformed skull vaults remains still open (Gerszten and Gerszten 1995; Schijman 2005).

These answers certainly depend on the specific cultural history of each site under study.In the South Central Andes ACD appears early in the archaeological record (Munizaga,

1980) and spans in Northern Chile for around 4000 years (Munizaga, 1980 and 1987). Two main

explanations have been proposed to elucidate the origin of this practice in this area: i) ACD was

an Inter Site identity symbol, therefore it was used as a social adscription sign to distinguish

between different sites of the region (Torres-Rouff 2002, 2007 and 2008) and ii) ACD was a

symbol of intra site identity, used to denote the social position of an individual or site within

society (Munizaga 1987; Torres-Rouff, 2007). As we see these hypotheses, both refer to social

identity in two different levels; the first refers to ethnicity or the categories of ascription and

identification by the individuals of a group and a dichotomization of others as strangers, as

members of another ethnic group (Barth, 1969). The second hypothesis is related to a status

differentiation among individuals of a same site.

Traditionally ACD has been studied from a descriptive, typological approach, classifying

skulls in a priori categories defined mostly by eyeballing (e.g. Dembo and Imbelloni 1938;

Weiss, 1962). Although interlandmark and angular measurements have been also introduced for


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classificatory purposes (i.e. Falkenburger, 1938; Imbelloni, 1924), they did not have any

significative impact on the later research of ACD.

Despite the straightforwardness and wide application of this approach, this methodology

has several limitations: i) the reduction of the total morphological variance of the skulls into a

discrete and limited number of categories that supposedly are able to describe without any

drawbacks the morphological continuum of craniofacial variation, and ii) the difficulty to

compare the results obtained by different researchers, due to the high subjectivity of the method

and the lack of well defined classification criteria. In order to overcome some of these

limitations, some researchers have applied linear morphometrics to classify ACD by applyingmultivariate statistics. Despite the fact that these methodologies increase objectivity and describe

in a better way the subtleties of morphological variation, the absence of an appropriate

mathematical background to separate shape and size components of variation led the application

of geometric morphometrics to analyze ACD (Frie and Baylac, 2003; Manrquez et al . 2006,

2011; Prez, 2007 and Prez et al. 2009). As compared with traditional morphometrics, it is

based in a coherent and well developed statistical theory of shape and allows a direct

visualization of the patterns of shape variation (Slice, 2007).

The Atacama Desert, the area of this study, extends over 3500 km. between the 15S and

26 S. Despite the presence of scarce fertile and verdant oases in this region (e.g. San Pedro de

Atacama, Calama, Pica), it is considered the driest desert in the world. This severe environment

has been the scenario of a long and successful history of settlement. Numerous archaeological

evidences demonstrate that oases has been occupied since the Formative period (ca. 3.000-1.850

B.P.) by agro pastoralist sites passing through strong processes of cultural influence and


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exchange with the Tiwanaku culture during the Middle period (ca. 1.550-950 B.P.) (Berenguer

and Dauelsberg 1989). Following these periods, during Late Intermediate period this area has

been characterized by the development of regional identity traits divided in traditional siteing

areas (ayllus). The last prehistoric stage of Atacama Desert populations corresponds to the Late

period (550-600 B.P.), and is characterized by the arrival of the Inca culture and its decline and

ending because of the Spaniards invasion.

Archaeological sites from the region show ACD frequencies from 50% on average (SPA

oases) to even 90% (Chorrillos cemetery, Middle Loa Basin) (Gonzlez and Westfall 2006;

Torres-Rouff, 2007). These high ACD frequencies in the prehistoric populations from NorthernChile, state the problem about the possible motivations underlying this body modification

practice. In order to address two possible explanations for this question (Inter Site vs. Intra Site

identity hypotheses), ACD patterns from different regions were compared synchronically and

diachronically by means of standard geometric morphometrics techniques. Associations between

ACD patterns and differential funerary goods were established applying a multiple

correspondence analysis, which make it possible to retain all the available information of grave

goods.

1. MATERIAL

The total sample was composed by 203 skull radiographies (aligned according to the Frankfurt

plane) from northern Chile archaeological sites of the Formative and Late Intermediate periods

(Table 1). These radiographic records are from northern Chile archaeological sites of the

Formative and Late Intermediate periods (Table 1) and are housed in the Program of Human


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Genetics, ICBM, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile. Only well-preserved adult skulls

were used. As adulthood criterion, the closure of the spheno occipital synchondrosis and/or third

molar final eruption were used (Hillson, 1996). These radiographies correspond to four

geographic areas (Fig. 1): San Pedro de Atacama, Superior Loa, Middle Loa and Arica (This last

region was incorporated in order to test the Inter Site hypothesis).

Besides this radiographic record, archaeological information from the graves was

included to test the Intra Site hypothesis. This information was obtained from the fieldworkreport of the Regimiento Chorrillos archaeological excavation and from the field logs of Tchecar

and Catarpe 2 sites written by Le Paige, during his surveys and excavations in San Pedro de

Atacama Oases. The remaining archaeological sites did not have available funerary context

information.

Table 1.

Figure 1. Map showing the approximate location of sites.

2. METHOD

The radiographs were taken using tube voltage of 60 Kv, 2 mA and exposure time was of

2 seconds, with a 2 m target film (Portable Geo Ray II X Ray system) distance. Later these

radiographic plates were digitized using an Epson Expression 10000 XL scanner (300 pp

resolution).


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Sex and deformation were estimated according to standard bioanthropological techniques

based on cranial morphology (Walrath et al. 2004).

After this first step, a standard workflow on Geometric Morphometrics was carried out.This branch of shape analysis has been usually understood as the quantitative study of shape and

its covariates (Bookstein, 1991), mainly consisting in three steps: a) collecting primary data

through the acquisition of Cartesian coordinates, b) obtaining variables describing shape change

(shape components) after a generalized Procrustes analysis, and c) the multivariate statistical

analysis of the shape variables.

Landmark coordinates were collected using TPSdig 2.16 v. software (Rohlf, 2010). On

each skull 12 landmarks were digitized (Table 2). Geometric morphometric and statistical

analyses were carried out in MorphoJ (Klingenberg, 2011), and Past (Hammer, 2001). ACD

classification were corroborated using a cross validated discriminant analysis and a Hotellings

T2test evaluating, the level of matching with the a prioriclassification and the significance of

the differences between sites multivariate means, respectively. Then, we analyze again those

skulls that were incorrectly classed according the discriminant function.

Table 2.

2.1 Intra Site hypothesis testing:

Explorative analyses were carried out using the frequency data from the funerary

contexts. This qualitative data set was examined carrying out a multiple correspondence analysis


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(MCA) in Xlstat. This technique is a data reduction method that generates a reduced number of

new variables that maximizes the total variance of the sample.

The MCA was applied to Tchecar and Catarpe 2 using their archaeological context

information. The artefact preservation in the Chorrillos site was not as good as for the other

archaeological sites, therefore instead of using that information, the spatial distribution of the

graves within the cemetery was employed.

In order to statistically test the Intra Site hypothesis, a Mantel test was applied on each

archaeological site. The correlation level was assessed after comparing Procrustes (i.e. the

morphometric distances between all the skulls within each site), and Euclidean (i.e. the MCAdistances corresponding to the differences found in grave goods) distance matrices by computing

the product moment correlation and the Mantel test statistic (observed Z values compared to their

permutational distribution). Finally, we carried out another Mantel test using Procrustes distance

matrices and the number of funerary goods. Due to the absence of this information for the

Chorrillos site, a spatial distance matrix was used as an alternative.

2.2 Inter Site hypothesis testing:

Exploratory analyses were carried out using the landmark coordinates from each skull. In

order to represent the ACD shape variation in morphospace the data was analyzed performing a

Principal component analysis (PCA). To establish the resemblance levels between geographic

areas, Mahalanobis distances were calculated for the deformed and non deformed skulls,

respectively. Pairwise Hotellings T2 tests with Bonferroni correction were applied to test for

significant comparisons and a cross validated discriminant analysis was performed to the define

matching level between ACD and the different classification criteria (i.e. geographic origin,


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chronological period). In order to estimate morphological affinities between the sites an UPGMA

cluster analysis was performed using the Procrustes distances.

3. RESULTSThe results are presented in two sections that correspond to the two hypotheses being

tested. The first section we describe and compare (both diachronically and synchronically) the

deformation patterns in all the sites. In the second section, shows statistical tests that relate the

cranial morphology with the funerary context of each individual, in each of the sites.

3.1 Inter Site distinctions

The morphological differences between the sites were calculated with the Mahalanobis

Distance. These distances were estimated separately for the sites of deformed and non deformed

individuals. In the case of the non deformed ones, we considered the first 13 principal

components, while for the deformed individuals we considered 12 components, which explain

approximately 95% of the variance in each case. The significance of these distances was

evaluated by means of Hotelling's T2 Test with Bonferroni Correction.

The results of these two tests are set out in Table 3, which shows that no significant

differences were found among the non deformed individuals, regardless of the site. In the case of

the deformed individuals, several comparisons showed significant differences, the Chorrillos site

being the one with the most different deformation pattern. The diachronic comparisons of this

test show that, for San Pedro de Atacama, there were no significant differences between the

deformed individuals in any of the sites (Hotelling's T2 test, p


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Table 3.

Unlike San Pedro de Atacama, in the Loa River basin there were statistically significant

differences in the morphology of deformed skulls between the Formative and the Late

Intermediate Period. In this latter period there was greater similarity between ACD in the

Chunchuri site (Middle Loa Basin) and the sites at San Pedro de Atacama.

In the UPGMA tree constructed from the matrix of the sites meanProcrustes distances(Fig. 2), Chorrillos clustered with Playa Miller 7. This result is consistent with the low

percentage of skulls correctly assigned in the cross validation table (Table 4), the closest

Mahalanobis distance compared to the other sites (Table 3), and the shared distribution area in

the PCA graphic (Fig. 3) being this latter greater than the distribution areas shared with other

sites.

Figure 2. UPGMA tree based on the geometric morphometrics distance (Procrustes

distances) between the consensuses configurations of the sample used in this study.

Table 4.

Figure 3.


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In these same tests, the Tchecar and Chorrillos sites had the highest Mahalanobis

distances (Table 3) and, in the PCA graphic, they are the sites most distant from each other along

the first dimension (X axis), which explains 30.29% of the total variance (Fig. 3).

Morphologically, skulls located further to the right along the X axis have a greater height of the

cranial vault and a smaller anteroposterior distance. In other words, skulls that are more erected

with respect to the Frankfurt plane are located further to the right of the graph, while the more

oblique skull shapes are located towards the left.

3.2 Intra Site distinctions

The following section shows the multiple correspondence graphics for Catarpe 2 and

Tchecar.

For Catarpe 2, the first two dimensions explain, respectively the 36.99% and 19.93% of

the total variance (Fig. 4). The graph shows that the biggest differences between individuals did

not correspond to the presence or absence of grave goods, but to the presence or absence of

specific types of objects in the graves. These major variances are explained by objects having

low frequencies in the graves, and especially by the association of these grave goods with others

that are also infrequent, for example bows and arrows, textiles, iconographic drug consumption

paraphernalia and cucurbits. These last three categories and the presence of foreign objects make

a large contribution to the first two dimensions at Tchecar, explaining 35.94% and 19% of the

variance in grave goods (Fig. 5). Nevertheless, grave goods as a whole do make some

contribution to the variance (the contribution to the first two dimensions ranged between 0.010

and 0.25 out of a possible maximum of 1).


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Figure 4.

Figure 5.

In order to determine whether the main differences in grave goods correspond to grave

goods associated with status, we created a priori variables of status in accordance with the

definitions given by archaeological literature (i.e. textiles (Murra, 1976), metals (Barn and

Serracino, 1980) and iconographic drug consumption paraphernalia (Llagostera et al., 1988, and

Torres, 1984). Individuals in the first (lowest) status level had none of these objects (orcategories) (Es-0), while high-status individuals had a maximum of 3 of these objects (Es-3).

This analysis was done for Catarpe 2 (where there was presence of status objects in several of the

graves), but not for Tchecar.

Figure 4 shows that levels Es-2 and Es-3 are located at the extremities of the first two

dimensions, which mean they are indeed associated with grave goods that make a large

contribution to the variance.

These graphics also show that the supplementary variables sex and type of burial are

located near the center of both the X and Y axes, which means that they do not affect the

distribution of grave goods in the tombs.

Finally, the Mantel test computed between morphological (Procrustes) distances and the

Euclidean distances (calculated on the basis of the symmetric graph of the multiple


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correspondence analysis), produced a non significant correlation (p>0,05). Similar results were

obtained by the Mantel test correlating the Procrustes distances and the quantity of objects in the

tombs ( The sample size of Solor 3 was too small to run this test). The results of the Mantel test

for the Regimiento Chorrillos site were also not significant.

4. DISCUSSION

To elucidate the role of ACD as an identity marker in Central South Andean pre-Hispanic

populations, in the present work intra and Inter Site hypotheses were contrasted with grave goodsand the ACD patterns of other sites.

4.1 The relation between ACD and grave goods (H2: Intra Site distinction

hypothesis)

The analysis of the evidence does not support the Intra-Site hypothesis. Although

multiple correspondence analysis allows to clearly distinguish the identity of the individuals,

these differences do not correlate with the shape of the skull (Mantel test). Nor is there a relation

between Procrustes distances and the number of objects in the graves, or between Procrustes

distances and the location in which the individuals were buried (Regimiento Chorrillos).

In order to test H2, we performed multivariate tests considering two factors

simultaneously: the variability of the grave goods as a whole, and the continuous variations of

cranial shapes in the sites (Procrustes distances). We concluded that the social identity of an

individual in a site has to be defined by the grave goods as a whole, without discarding any of the


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objects a priori, unless it has been shown that certain objects contribute very little to the variance

of the grave goods.

Although the contribution of the objects to the variance of the grave goods varies from

site to site some of the objects have a similar marked influence on the variance, as is shown in

both Catarpe 2 and Tchecar. At both sites, we found certain tools (spindles, shovels, axes), metal

objects and iconographic drug consumption paraphernalia, which make a big contribution to the

variance of the grave goods and to the identity of the individual. If future studies were to show

that this is a common pattern for different geographically distant sites, comparisons of identitycould be made not just within the sites, but also between them.

4.2 Deformation patterns and their mutual relations (H1: Inter Site distinction

hypothesis)

The results of this study indicate that during the two periods in question, there were two

quite different deformation patterns (erect and oblique, for Tchecar and Chorrillos). This is in

agreement with the observations made by Manrquez et al. (2006). However, the cranial shape of

the great majority of deformed individuals falls into a continuous range of variations between

these two extremes (Fig. 3), making it difficult to assign these skulls a priori into either category,

as is done by the Dembo and Imbelloni method (1938), which is used in most of the studies of

ACD in the South Central Andes. Thus, Geometric morphometric approach made it possible to

maintain the data of all the variations of cranial shapes without having to classify them into a

priori typological categories.


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Based on the above data, it is possible to state that the deformation patterns vary over

time in certain areas, while other areas show no significant changes: in San Pedro de Atacama

there is continuity in the deformation patterns between the Formative Period and later periods

(end of the Middle and Late Intermediate Periods), as shown by the Hotelling T2 test (Table 3)

and the principal component graphic (Fig. 3).

The deformation patterns in the sites of the Middle Loa had not previously been

compared between themselves or with other areas. The results of this study indicate that, unlike

San Pedro de Atacama, the deformation patterns of the human sites living in the Middle Loa vary

significantly between the two time periods in question.It is interesting to note that while Chorrillos has the largest Mahalanobis distances of all

the sites, Chunchuri (same area, different period) is more similar to the sites of San Pedro de

Atacama (with which it has no significant differences (Fig. 3and Table 3). The smallest

Mahalanobis distance of Chorrillos is with the Arica coastal site Playa Miller 7 (Table 3, Table 4

and Figure 3), which is from an equivalent time period, but located in the coast of the Pacific

Ocean at a distance of over 400 kms. (Fig. 1). Regarding this point it is interesting to mention

that the archaeological context at Chorrillos reveals the existence of specialized exchange

networks with the coast, San Pedro de Atacama, the southern Altiplano, and north-western

Argentina (Gonzlez and Westfall, 2006).

The archaeological literature has concluded that transformation into a Formative society

in northern Chile was marked by interaction networks with foreign sites, especially with

populations coming from the highlands of Altiplano, and in lesser extent with the Atacama

Plateau and the Norwest Argentina (Muoz, 1989). Regarding ACD patterns, Arica and the

Altiplano have shown no significant differences (Pschel, 2012). So, these interaction networks


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of these populations may also explain the resemblance between Arica and Chorrillos ACD

patterns.

As for the similarity between Chunchuri and the sites of San Pedro de Atacama during

the Late intermediate Period, the literature concludes that (with some local exceptions) there

existed an "Atacameo" cultural unit during this period, which is expressed, for example, in

regional textile styles (Agero, 2000) and funerary ceramics (Uribe, 2002). These interaction

networks could explain the similarities in the deformation patterns during this period and

indicated the importance of San Pedro de Atacama in this common identity. Briefly, our results

show that ACD patterns vary in relation with interaction networks and superregional identities,which support the Intra Site hypothesis.

5. CONCLUSIONSThe results of this study do not support the Intra Site Distinction Hypothesis. The

differences in social identity between individuals of each site were represented in great detail.

However, these variations do not correlate with the morphology of the deformed and non

deformed skulls.

On the contrary, the deformation patterns could be related with ethnic ascriptions and

interaction networks between geographically distant sites as has been described in the literature.

The deformation patterns may vary over time, and when they do so, they are influenced by

deformation patterns of other sites in the interaction network. These conclusions support the Inter

Site Distinction Hypothesis and are in agreement with previous works (Torres-Rouff, 2002).

This study evidenced the need to represent grave goods and cranial morphologies as

objectively and precisely as possible. Further studies should consider large numbers of


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synchronous archaeological sites over extensive geographical areas, in order to observe relations

between deformation patterns and interaction networks in South America, where ACD was

extensively practiced.

Acknowledgements.

We wish to give special thanks to Juan Carlos Salinas and Alejandro Daz, who took the

X ray images used in this study, and for his valuable advice. We also wish to thank Diego

Salazar for his guidance and assistance in the archaeological context analysis and GiancarloBucchi for his help in writing this text. Finally, we wish to thanks to Manuel Arturo Torres from

Museo R. P. Gustavo Le Paige, Corporacin de Cultura y Turismo (Calama), to Bernardo

Arriaza from Museo San Miguel de Azapa (Arica) and to Philippe Mennecier, Vronique

Laborde and Aurelie Fort from Muse de l'Homme (Paris) for the access to the

bioanthropological collections.

This study was funded by Proyecto Anillo ACT-96, Programa de Investigacin

Asociativa, Conicyt, Chile (G. M.) and Becas Chile, Conicyt-PCHA/2012/73130010 (T.P.).
http://www.calamacultural.cl/http://www.calamacultural.cl/http://www.museums-of-paris.com/musee_fr.php?code=342http://www.museums-of-paris.com/musee_fr.php?code=342http://www.museums-of-paris.com/musee_fr.php?code=342http://www.calamacultural.cl/


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Caption Figure 1. Map showing the approximate location of sites.

Caption Figure 2. UPGMA tree based on the geometric morphometrics distance (Procrustes

distances) between the consensuses configurations of the sample used in this study.

Caption Figure 3. Relative warp analysis (Principal component analysis and thin plate spline) of

all deformed skulls. The grids represent the magnitude and direction of the variation in the skull

form along the X and Y axes of the bivariate graph (RW1 = 30.29% and RW2 = 17.6% of the

total variance). The skulls of Regimiento Chorrillos are represented with , Chunchuri with

, Caspana with +, Solor 3 with , Tchecar with , Catarpe with and Playa Miller 7 with

.

Caption Figure 4. Symmetric variable plot of Multiple correspondence analysis for the grave

goods at Catarpe 2. The two axes represent the 56.93% of the total variance. B: Presence of

baskets. Bu-1 y E-2: Single and multiple burials. Cu: Curcubits.D.P.-1 and D.P-2: iconographic

and undecorated drug consumption paraphernalia. Es-0, 1, 2 and 3: Status levels (see below).

Ha: Hats. M-1, M-2: beads and metal ornaments. P: pottery. S-0 and S-1: Male and female. Te:

Textile. T-1, T-2, T-3, T-4 and T-5: bows and arrows, awls, tie hooks (used to tie bundles to

llamas), spindles, and several tools in the same grave, respectively. Gray labels represent the

absence of the above grave goods. Light gray labels are supplementary variables.


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Caption Figure 5. Symmetric variable plot of Multiple correspondence analysis for the grave

goods at Tchecar. The two axes represent the 54.93% of the total variance. B: Baskets. Bu-1 and

Bu-2: single and multiple burials. Cu: Curcubits. DP-1 and DP-2: iconographic and undecorated

drug consumption paraphernalia. FO: foreign objects. M: beads. P: Pottery.T1, T2, T3, T4: bows

and arrows, spindles, tie hookand and axes, respectively. S-0 and S-1: Male and female. Te:

textile. UO: unique object (not found in another graves). Gray labels represent the absence of the

above grave goods. Light gray labels are supplementary variables.

Documents

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