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Vol. 4 AUTUMN 1968
INTERIIATIOIIAL
BIODETERIORAT/011
BuLLETIN
BIODETERIORATION INFORMATION CENTRE
THE UNIVERSITY OF ASTON IN BIRMINGHAM
ENGLAND
No.2
CATOMANCE LIMITED
manufacturers of
mystox* for the preservation of
timber, textiles paper, cordage
·plastics and specialised applications
* "'ystox is the registered trade mark of
Catomance Limited 94 BRIDGE ROAD EAST, WELWYN GARDEN CITY,
HERTS., ENGLAND. Telephone: Welwyn Garden 24373/8
)
Vol. 4 AUTUMN 1968
INTERNATIONAL
8JODETERIORATION
BuLLETIN
Editor
H. 0. W. Eggins*, Aston in Birmingham, England
Editorial Board
G. Ayers!, Wolverhampton, England G. Becker, Berlin, Germany D. S. Belford, Castleford, England D. G. Coursey, London, England J. J. Elphick, Poole, England J. Garrido, Madrid, Spain
N. E. Hickin, East Grinstead, England H. J. Hoeck, Delft, Holland A. M. Kaplan, Natick, U.S.A. Y. LeGrand, Vert-le- Petit, France A. 0. Lloyd, Welwyn Garden City, England R. W. Traxler, Lafayette, U.S.A. R. Zinkernagel, Basel, Switzerland B. J. Zyska, Katowice, Poland
Publications Editor
M. J.D. Willsher*, Aston in Birmingham, England
*Biodeterioration Information Centre, Department of Biological Sciences,
No.2
The University of Aston in Birmingham, Gosta Green, Birmingham 4, England. Telephone 021-359 3611, Ext. 229
N.B.-Full addresses of Editorial Board Members are given in the Notes to Contributors at the end of this
Bulletin.
INTERNATIONAL BIODETERIORATION BULLETIN Page
Contents and Summaries } in English
iii
Notes to Contributors X
BULLETIN INTERNATIONAL DE LA DETERIORATION BIOLOGIQUE Page
Table des Matieres et resumes } en Francais
iv
Avis aux collaborateurs ix
INTERNATIONALES BIODETERIORATIONS BULLETIN Seite
Inhalt und Zusammenfaussungen } in Deutsch
v
Hinweise fiir Beitrage X
BOLETIN INTERNACIONAL DE LA BIODETERIORACION Pagina
Contenido y Resiimenes } en Espana!
Apuntes para los contribuidores
vi
ix
CONTENTS AND SUMMARIES
Research Facilities INVESTIGATIONS INTO BIODETERIORATION IN ROMANIA A. Savulescu
Review Articles
Page
75-77
THE ROLE OF CLADOSPORIUM RESINAE IN THE CORROSION OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS 79-81 D. G. Parbery
In literature comparing the roles of bacteria and fungi in corroding aluminium there is a general belief that bacteria are the more important. It has been found, however, that there is no acceptable basis for this belief.
THE DECAY RESISTANCE OF WOOD FIBRE BUILDING BOARDS AND PARTICLE BOARDS 83-88 D. Jackson and J. G. Savory
The literature relating to decay resistance of particle boards and fibre boards and laboratory methods of assessing it has been surveyed. Board properties affecting fungi degradation are discussed mainly in relation to attack by the lower fungi.
The soil/block method is one of the most frequently used and recommended laboratory tests for board material, but its overall suitability is not well established. Both the type of test used and method of examination of decayed material affect the results obtained. ·
Whilst particle board and insulating boards have been the subject of many studies little work appears to have been done on hardboard decay.
New Teclmiques and Work in Progress BIODETERIORATION OF POLYESTER-BASED POLYURETHANE D. M. Evans and I. Levisohn
Fungal growth, in particular attack by Stemphylium, is a cause of degradation of polyester-based polyurethane. Biodeterioration can be slowed down by the use of hydrolysis inhibitors or (and) certain fungicides. Among the fungicides tested, only 8 - hydroxy - quinoline was found to protect the material adequately.
STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT FACTORS ON THE GROWTH AND CELLULOLYTIC ACTIVITY OF TRICHODERMA VIRIDE C. Costa and H. Pacheco
Having established the optimum conditions for the growth and cellulolytic activity of Trichoderma viride: agitation; aeration; concentration of cellulose SOLKAFLOC BW 200; age and size of colony; the authors studied the changes in pH and the uptake of K +, NH, + and N03- ions during mycelial growth. When the pH was adjusted to 6.3 after four days, the rate of growth, mycelial weight and cellulolytic activity were increased.
89-92
93-100
A NOTE ON MICROBIAL SPOILAGE OF TOILET SOAPS AND THEIR PROTECTION A. Nowakowska
101-103
Toilet soaps and their packages were examined for contamination by spoilage micro-organisms and the effectiveness of 8 - hydroxyquinolinol, copper - 8 - hydroxyquinolinolate and malachite and brilliant green dyes against these micro-organisms was investigated.
Meetings PRESERVATION OF WOOD IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT E. B. Gareth Jones
105-107
A meeting of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Group on the Preservation of Wood in the Marine Environment was held on the 4th and 5th April, 1968, immediately following a successful 'Workshop' on wood, held at the Portsmouth College of Technology from the 27th March to the 3rd April.
COLLOQUIUM ON MICROBIOLOGICAL DETERIORATION OF MATERIALS IN WARSAW, 107 POLAND B. J. Zyska
Book Reviews 109-112
Notices vii
Acknowledgments to sustaining organisations viii
Notes for contributors ix-x
iii
TABLE DES MATIERES ET RESUMES Page
Facilites de Recherche INVESTIGATIONS DANS LA BIODETERIORATION EN LA ROMANIE 75-77 A. Savulescu
Articles de Revue LE ROLE DU CLADOSPORIUM RESINAE DANS LA CORROSION DES ALLIAGES 79-81 D'ALUMINIUM D. G. Parbery
Dans Ia litterature qui compare les roles des bacteries et des mycetes dans Ia corrosion d'aluminium on croit generalement que les bacteries soot plus importantes. On a trouve, cependant, qu'il n'y a pas aucun fondement agreable de cette foi.
LA RESISTANCE A LA DECOMPOSITION DES PLANCHES A BATIR DE FIBRE DU BOIS 83-88 ET DE COPEAU D. Jackson et J. G. Savory
La Litterature qui se rapporte a Ia resistance a Ia decomposition des planches de copeau et de fibre du bois et les methodes du laboratoire de l'estimer ont ete regarde. On discute les attributs des planches qui affectent Ia degradation par les mycetes, surtant par rapport a l'attaque par les mycetes inferieurs.
La methode du bloc du sol et une des eprenves laboratoires le plus frequemment employees et recommandees pour les materiaux de planche, mais son aptitude generale n'est pas bien etablie. Et le type d'epreuve utilise et Ia methode d'examen affectent les resultats obtenus.
Tandis que des planches de copeau et d'isolement ont formees le sujet de beaucoup des etudes, on voit peu de travail sur Ia decomposition de panneau dur.
Techniques nouvelles et travaux en cours LA BIODETERIORATION DE POLYURETHANE DE POLYESTER D. M. Evans et I. Levisohn
La croissance fongueuse, particulierement l'attaque par Stemphylium, est une cause de degradation de polyurethane de polyester. La biodeterioration peut etre ralentie par !'usage des inhibiteurs de Ia hydrolyse ou (aussi) des certains fongicides. Parmi les fongicides eprouves, on ne trouvait que 8- hydroxe - quinolene protegeait suffissament le material.
89-92
ETUDE DE L'INFLUENCE DES AGENTS DIFFERENTS SUR LA CROISSANCE ET L'ACTU- 93-100 ALITE CELLULOLYTIQUE DE TRICHODERMA VIRIDE C. Costa et N. Pacheco
Ayant etabli Ia condition optimale pour Ia croissance et l'activite cellulolytique de Trichoderma viride; !'aeration, Ia concentration de cellulose SOLKAFLOC BE 200, !'age et Ia grandeur de Ia colonie; les auteurs ont etudie les changes en pH et !'absorption des ions de K+ NH4 + et NO,- pendant Ia croissance myceliale. Quant le pH etait ajuste a 6.3 apres quatre jours, le taux de croissance, poids myceliale et l'activite cellulytique etaient augmentes.
UNE NOTE SUR LA SPOLIATION MICROBIALE DES SAVONS DE TOILETTE ET LEUR PROTECTION 101-103 A. Nowakowska
Les savons de toilette et leur emaballage etaient examines pour Ia contamination par les microorganismes de spoliation, et !'on a fait des investigations sur l'efficacite de 8 hydroxe- quinolene, cuivre 8 - hydroxe - quinoleine et des teintes de vert malachite et vert brillant contre ces micro-organismes.
Seances LA PRESERVATION DE BOIS DANS L'ENVIRONNEMENT MARIN E. Gareth Jones
Une seance de !'Organisation de Cooperation et de Developpement Economiques du Groupe sur Ia Preservation de Bois dans l'Environnement Marin etait tenue le quatre et cinq avril, 1968, immediatement a pres un "atelier" reussi sur le bois, tenu au Portsmouth College of Technology du vingt-sept mars au trois avril.
105-107
COLLOQUE (A VARSOVIE, LA POLOGNE) SUR LA DETERIORATION MICROBIOLOGIQUE 107 B. J. Zyska
Revues des livres 109-112
Avis vii
Remercicments aux organismes de sootier viii
A vis aux coUaborateurs ix-x
iv
INHALT UND ZUSAMMENFASSUNGEN Seite Forschungseinrichtungen ERFORSCHUNGEN IN BIOVERSCHLECHTERUNG IN ROMANIEN 75-77
Vbersichtsberichte DIE FUNKTION DES CLADOSPORIUM RESINAE IN DER ABNUTZUNG DEN ALUMINIUM- 79-81 LEGIERUNGEN D. G. Parbery
In dem Schriftmaterial gegenuberstellend die Funktionen den Bakterien und Schwammen in der Abnntzung von Aluminium, es gibt eine allgemeine Meinung, dass die Bakterien mehr wichtig sind. Man hat jedoch gefunden, dass es gibt keine angehnehme Basis ftir dieser Meinung.
DER VERFALLWIDERSTAND VON HOLZFASER- UNO HOLZABFALLEBAUPAPPEN 83-88 D. Jackson und J. G. Savory
Das Schriftmaterial iiber den Verfallwiderstand von Holzfaser-und Holzabfallebaupappen und Laboratoriumsverfahren der Aschutzung werden ubergesehen. Man diskutiert die Eigenheite der Pappe die die Abtragung den Schwammern beinflussen, hauptsachlich mit Bezug auf dem Angriff von den Niederschwammen.
Das Bodenblockverfahren ist ein den vielfachesten gebrauchten und angepreisten Laboratoriumsprufungen fur Pappestoff, aber sein allgemeiner Andstand ist nicht gut angelegt. Sowohl die Art des Versuchs gebraucht als die Prufungsmethode des verfaulten Material die Ergebnisse beeinflussen.
Wahrend Holzabfallebaupappen und Isolierpappen sind der Gegenstand vielen Untersuchungen gewesen, es stellt sich heraus, dass man hat weniges Arbeit uber den Hartholzverfall getan.
Neue Untersuchungsverfahren und Iaufende Arbeit en BIOVERSCHLECHTERUNG DES POLYURETHAN AUF POLYESTERBASIS 89-92 D. M. Evans und I. Levisohn
Pilzartiges Gewachs, besonders Angriff von Stemphylium ist eine Ursache der Abtragung des Polyurethiin auf Polyestcrbasis, Bioverschlechterung kann hintergehalten werden von der Anwendung den Hydroliseinhibitoren und/oder gewissen Fungiciden. Aus den Fungiciden gepruften, nur 8- Oxychinolin befand sich das Material angemessen zu beschutzen.
FORSCHUNG IN DEN EINFLUSS VON VERSCHIEDENEN FAKTOREN UBER OEM 93-100 ANWACHSEN UNO DER ZELLULOLYTJSCHEN AKTIVJTAT VON TRICHODERMA VIRIDE C. Costa und N. Pacheco
Nach die gunstige Bedienung fur dem Anwachsen und zellulolytischen Aktivitat von Trichoderma viride angelegt wurden; Bewegung, Auflockerung; Anhaufig von der Zellulose SOLKAFLOC B W 200; Alter und Abmessung der Kolonie; die Autoren studierten die Anderunge in pH und die Aufnahme von K+, NH,+ und N03- Ionen wahren mycelianes Anwachsen. Als der pH nach vier Tage nach 6.3 abgerichtete wurde, die Abgabe des Anwachsen, mycelianes Gewicht und zellulolytische Aktivitiit erhohte wurdcn.
EINE ANMERKUNG UBER OEM DURCH MIKROBEN VERANLASSTEN AUSCHUSS DEN TOILETTENSEIFEN UNO IHREN BESCHUTZUNG 101-103 A. Nowakowska
Toilettenseifen und ihre Pakete gepruft wurden fur Verunreinigung von durch Mikroben veranlassten Auschuss, und die Wirksamkeit von 8- Oxychinolin, Kupfer 8- Oxychinolinat und Malachitgrun und Brillantgrun Farben gegen diese Kleinelebewesen gepruft wurde.
Versammlungen HOLZKONSERVIERUNG IN DER OZEANJSCHER UMGEBUNG 105-107 E. B. Gareth Jones
Eine Versammlung des Organisation fur Wirtschaftlicher Gemeinschaft und Entwickelung Gruppierung uber der Holzkonservierung in der ozeanischer Umgebung Statt am 4. und 5. April, 1968, fand, sogleich nach einer erfolgereichen "Werkstatt" uber Holz, abgehalten in dem Portsmouth College of Technology von 27. Marz his 3. April.
KOLLOQUJUM (WARSCHAU) OBER DER MIKROBIOLOGISCHEN VERANDERUNGEN 107 AN MATERIALIEN B. J. Zyska
Buchbesprechungen I 09-112
Notizen ~i
Anerkeunung der Stiitzorganisationen viii
Hinweise fiir Mitarbeiter ix-x
v
CONTENIDO Y RESUMENES
Facilidades para Investigaciones INVESTIGACIONES EN CUANTO AL BIODETERIORO EN ROMANIA A. Savulescu
Articules de Revista
Pagina
75-77
LA ACTUACI6N DE CLADOSPORIO EN LA CORROSI6N DE ALEACIONES DE ALUMINIO 79-81 D. G. Parbery
En Ia literatura que compara Ia actuaci6n de los bacterios y de los fungos a! corroer el aluminio, hay una creencia general que los bacterios tienen un papel mas importante. Se ha descubierto, sin embargo, que no existe un base aceptable para esta creencia.
LA RESISTENCIA CONTRA EL DETERIORO DE TABLAS PARA CONSTRUCCI6N FABRIC- 83-88 ADAS DE FIBRAS DE MADERA Y DE PARTICULOS DE MADERA D. Jackson y J. G. Savory
Hay aqui una revista de Ia literatura tratando este tipo de resistencia, y los metodos empleados en los Iaboratorios para determinarla. Se consideran los elementos en las tablas que contribuyen a! deteriore causado por los fungos, principalmente tocando a! ataque por los fungos inferiores.
El enterramiento en el suelo es una de las mas frecuentemente empleadas pruebas de laboratorio para el material de tab las, pero nose ha bien establecido su aptitud general. Tanto el tipo de prueba em pieado como el metoda de examinar el material degenerado tienen su afecto para los resultados.
Aunque se ha producido un numero bastante grande de estudios sobre las tablas de particulos y aisladoras, pocos estudios existen en cuanto a! deterioro de tabla dura.
Tecoicas Nuevas y Trabajos Corrientes EL BIODETERIORO DE POLIURETANO CON BASE DE POLIESTER D. M. Evans y I. Levisohn
El crecimiento fungoso, sobre todo el ataque por el Stemphylio, contribuye a Ia degradaci6n del poliuretano con base de poliester. Se puede retardar el biodeterioro empleando los inhibientes de hidr6-Iisis yfo ciertos fungicidas. Entre los fungicidas probados, se hall6 que solamente el 8-hidroxi-quinolino ofrecia una protecci6n adecuanda a! material.
89-92
ESTUDIO DE LA INFLUENCIA DE VARIOS ELEMENTOS SOBRE EL CRECIMIENTO Y LA 93-100 ACTIVIDAD CELULOLiTICA DE TRICHODERMA VIRIDE C. Costa y H. Pacheco Los autores, habiendo establecido las 6ptimas condiciones para el crecimiento y Ia actividad celulolltica de Trichoderma viride, aver:- agitaci6n; aeracion; concentraci6n de celnloso SOLKAFLOC BW 200; edad y tamafio de Ia colonia-se dedicaron a estudiar las alteraciones en pH y Ia asorci6n de los iones K +, NH, + y N0
3- durante el crecimiento micelio. Cuando se ajust6 el pH a ;6.3 despues de cuatro dias,
Ia velocidad de crecimiento el peso micelio y Ia actividad celulolltica se habian aumentado.
NOTA SOBRE EL DANO MICROBIANO DE LOS JABONES DE TOCADOR Y SU PROTECCI6N 101-103 A. Nowakowska
Los jabones de tocador y sus empaques fueron sujetados a un examen para buscar Ia contaminaci6n por los micro-organismos daiiosos, y se investig6 Ia eficacia de 8-hidroxiquinolinol, cobre-8-hidroxiquinolinolato y malaquita, y los tintes verdes brillantes contra estos organismos.
Reuoiones LA PRESERVACI6N DE LA MADERA EN EL MEDIO AMBIENTE MARINO E. B. Gareth Jones
Se celebr6 una reunion del Grupo estudiando Ia Preservaci6n de Ia Madera en el medio ambiente marino, establecido por Ia Organisaci6n para Ia Co-operaci6n y el Desarrollo Econ6mico, el 4 y 5 de Abril de 1968, inmediatamente despues de un "taller" sabre Ia madera, que tuvo mucho exito, en el Colegio Tecno16gico de Portsmouth, desde el 27 de Marzo basta e1 3 de Abril.
105-107
COLOQUIO (EN VASOVIA, POLONIA) SUBRE LA DETERIORACION MICROBIOLOGICA 107 DE MATERIAS B. J. Zyska.
Revistas de Libros 109-112
Anuncios vii
Reconocimientos a las orgaoisaciones mantenedoras viii
Apuntes para los contribuidores ix-x
vi
I
'I [,
L ' ' '
NOTICES
CONFERENCE ON TROPICAL AND SUB-TROPICAL FRUITS
TO BE HELD IN LONDON NEXT YEAR
A conference on Tropical and Sub-Tropical Fruits organised by the Tropical Products Institute, part of the Ministry of Overseas Development, will be held in London from 15th-19th September, 1969.
The aim of the Conference is to bring together producers from the developing countries; consumer interests in the temperate countries, and scientific, technical and commercial experts. Discussions will range from specific fruits (e.g. bananas, citrus, avocado, mango, pineapple) to broader topics such as the problems of establishing industries in developing countries, of shipping, packaging and containerization, controlled atmosphere storage, processing, fruit pathogens and their control; fruit physiology, the design of stores and the organisation of the international fruit trade.
Further particulars may be obtained from:
The Scientific Secretariat, Tropical Products Institute, 56/62 Gray's Inn Road, London, W.C.l., England.
vii
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TO SUSTAINING ORGANISATIONS
Financial support for the International Biodeterioration Bulletin from the following organisations is gratefully acknowledged:
ALBRIGHT & WILSON (MFG) LTD., Oldbury Division, P.O. Box 3, Oldbury, Warley, Worcs.
AVON RUBBER COMPANY LIMITED, Melksham, Wiltshire; manufacturers of tyres and miscellaneous rubber products.
BEECHAM GROUP LIMITED, Toiletry Division, Beecham House, Great West Road, Brentford, Middlesex.
BORAX CONSOLIDATED LIMITED, Borax House, Carlisle Place, London, S.W.l. (Tel. VICtoria 9070); miners, refiners and suppliers of borax, boric acid, boron ores, boron products and allied chemicals.
B.D.H. CHEMICALS LIMITED, Laboratory Chemicals Division, Poole, Dorset; manufacturers of laboratory chemicals, biochemicals, industrial fine chemicals and microbiocides.
BRITISH INSULATED CALLENDERS CABLES LIMITED, 38 Wood Lane, London, W.l2.
THE BRITISH PETROLEUM COMPANY LIMITED.
B.X.L. PLASTICS MATERIALS GROUP LIMITED, Tyseley, Birmingham.
CADBURY BROTHERS LIMITED, Bournville, Birmingham; manufacturers of cocoa, chocolate, cake and milk products.
CATOMANCE LIMITED, Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire; manufacturers of speciality chemicals for the textile, paper, timber, leather industries, etc., including fungicides, bactericides and insecticides.
CENTRAL LABORATORY TNO, Delft, The Netherlands; research, analysis and testing facilities in materials science and technology, including biodeterioration and marine research. Sponsored by government agencies and by international industries.
CHRIS FOREIGN FOODS WHOLESALERS LTD., Stories Mews, Stories Road, Camberwell, London S.E.5.; tropical foodstuffs importers.
CIBA LIMITED, 4000 Basle 7, Switzerland. COALITE AND CHEMICAL PRODUCTS
LIMITED, P.O. Box No. 21, Chesterfield, Derbyshire; manufacturers of chlorinated and a!kylated phenols, phosphate plasticisers and bactericides. Extensive research work and development carried out in all these fields and customer service facilities are available for bactericides.
COMMERCIAL PLASTICS GROUP OF COMPANIES, Industrial Division, Berkeley Square House, Berkeley Square, London W.l.; specialists in the production of film and sheeting in PVC, polythene and high impact polystyrene for all types of applications.
COURT AULDS LIMITED, Coventry. CUPRINOL LIMITED, Adderwell, Frome, Somer
set; manufacturers of preservatives for wood, tex~ tiles, cordage, paper, adhesives, paints, leather, plastics, and paint driers.
THE DUNLOP COMPANY LIMITED. FARBENFABRIKEN BAYER A.G., Leverkusen,
Germany; manufacturers of dyestuffs, industrial chemicals, synthetic fibers, pharmaceutical and
viii
agricultural chemicals and preservatives for wood, foodstuffs and technical products.
FISONS LIMITED, Cambridge Division, Saffron Walden, Essex; makers of agricultural chemicals. Research on control of weeds, plant diseases, spoilage organisms, and agricultural and livestock pests.
GAGLIARDI RESEARCH CORPORATION, East Greenwich, Rhode Island, U.S.A.; sponsored industrial research in textile chemical dyeing and finishing products and processes.
GALLOWAY & BARTON-WRIGHT, Haldane Place, London, S.W.l8.; consultants in industrial microbiology and microbiological deterioration.
GEIGY (U.K.) LIMITED, Simonsway, Manchester, 22.
J. R. GEIGY S.A., Basle, 21, Switzerland; manufacturers of dyestuffs, industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals and agricultural chemicals.
GLAXO LABORATORIES LIMITED, Greenford Road, Greenford, Middlesex; manufacturers of pharmaceuticals, industrial enzymes and fine chemicals.
ARTHUR GUINNESS SON & COMPANY (DUBLIN) LIMITED.
HICKSON & WELCH (HOLDINGS) LTD., Ings Lane, Castleford.
IMPERIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES LIMITED, Agricultural Division, Billingham, Co. Durham.
ARTHUR D. LITTLE LIMITED, with offices at Berkeley Square House, Berkeley Square, London, W.l., and offices and laboratories at Inversk Gate, Musselburgh, Midlothian; independent sponsored research organisation.
MAY & BAKER LIMITED, Dagenham, Essex; chemical manufacturers.
RECKITT & SONS LIMITED, Hull. RENTOKIL LABORATORIES LIMITED, East
Grinstead, Sussex. REVERTEX LIMITED, Harlow, Essex. SCIENTIFIC CHEMICALS INC., 1637 South Kil
bourne Ave., Chicago, Illinois, 60623, U.S.A.; leading manufacturers of industrial fungicides and bactericides who maintain substantial research and development facilities to assist customers in the development of final products geared to meet government and industry standards.
SHELL INTERNATIONAL CHEMICAL COMPANY LIMITED.
STAUFFER CHEMICAL COMPANY RICHMOND RESEARCH CENTER, 1200 South 47th Street, Richmond, California 94804, U.S.A.
VINYL PRODUCTS LIMITED, Butter Hill, Carshalton, Surrey; manufacturers of synthetic resins, specialising in emulsion polymers for adhesives, building, paper, surface coating and textile applications.
YARSLEY LABORATORIES LIMITED, Clayton Road, Chessington, Surrey; independent research and testing facilities.
I \
J '
AVIS AUX COLLABORATEURS
Le bulletin est publiC deux fois par an, au printemps et a rautomne. Les textes dactylographies doivent entre envoyes en triple exemplaire au Redacteur, Dr. H. 0. W. Eggins, Biodeterioration Information Centre, Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Aston in Birmingham, Gosta Green, Birmingham, 4, England (Angleterre) ou a l'une des personnes suivantes: Mr. G. Ayerst, Dept. Biology, College of Technology, Waiver
hampton, England. Prof. G. Becker, Bundesanstaldt fUr Materialprfifung, Bertin
Dahlem 45, Unter den Eichen 86/87, Germany. Dr. D. S. Belford. Hickson & Welch (Holdings) Ltd.,lngs Lane,
Castleford, Yorkshire, England, Mr. D. G. Coursey, Tropical Products Institute, 56-62 Grays
Inn Road, London, W.C.l., England. Mr. J. J. Elphick, Admiralty Materials Laboratory, Holton
Heath, Poole, Dorset, England. Dr. J. Garrido, Departmento de Fermentaciones Industriales,
Castello 25, Madrid, Spain. Dr. N. E. Hickin, Rentokil Research Laboratories, Felcourt,
East Grinstead, Sussex, England. Dr. H. J. Hueck, Central Laboratory TNO, Schoemakerstraat
97, P .O.B. 217, Delft, The Netherlands. Dr. A.M. Kaplan, Head, Fungicides & Germicides Laboratory,
Pioneering Research Division, U.S. Army Natick Laborator· ies, Natick, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Monsieur Y. LeGrand, Centre d'etudes du Bouchet, Vert·le· Petit, (S & 0), France.
Mr. A. 0. Lloyd, Catomance Ltd., 94, Bridge Road East, Welwyn Garden City, Herts., England.
Prof. R. W. Traxler, Department of Microbiology, University of Southwestern Louisiana, Drawer 1007, USL Station, Lafayette, La. 70501, U.S.A.
Dr. R. Zinkemagel, J. R. Geigy S.A., CH-4000, Basel 21· Switzerland.
Dr. B. J. Zyska, Glowny lnstytut Gomictiva, Katowice, Plac Gwarkow 1, Poland.
Le bulletin servira d'organe de diffusion des travaux traitant tons les aspects de Ia deterioration biologique en gCnerai, c'est· :\~dire Ia deterioration par les m.icro-organismes, les insects, les rongeurs etc ... de mat~riaux ayant une importance fconomique.
C'est en premier lieu un bulletin d'information et par consC.. quent, s'il faut obtenir des autorisations de citer des articles de Ia part de leurs auteurs, i1 faudra l'indiquer par un asterique sur le texte et une indication appropri6e sera faite ala publication.
Chaque texte devra etre prisCnte sur A4 papier (21.0 em. x 29.7 em.) et, sauf pour l'article analytique, ne devra pas dCpasser cinq pages comportant 500 mots environ par page y compris les tableaux et Jes figures.
Les textes devront etre dactylographies en trois exemplaires avec double espacement et tapCs sur un seul cote seulment. lls devront etre pris6ntes pour Ia publication en anglais, fran~ais, allemand ou espagnol, avec un bref resumes en nnglais de 25 mots environ.
Les figures devront etre clairemont dessinees a l'encre de chine ou photographi6es. La reduction dCsitee dcvra etre clairmont indiquCe; aprCs r&luction, les figures ne devront pas depasser 17 em. par 26 em.
Lorsque des figures devront etre inserCes dans le texte, la place de chacune d'elle devra etre approximativement marquee dans le texte dactylographiC.
Les references bibliographiques devront etre indiquees selon !'example suivant: Reese et Levinson (1952) dans le texte et dans Ia bibiographie Reese, E. T. et Levinson, H. G. (1952}-Etude comparative de Ia dCgradation de la cellulose par les micro-organismes: Physiol. Plant. 5, 354-366. ll est demandC nux auteurs d'utillser Ia Liste lnternntionnle des AbrCviations (World list of Scientific Periodicals Abbreviations) dans Ia citation des references bibUographiques.
Les Cpreuves ne seront pas envoyCs aux auteurs avant la publication dCfinitive.
25 exemplaires seront envoy6s gratuitement a chaque auteur. Des exemplaires supplCmentaires peuvcnt etre obtenus sur demande a l'Editeur au prix de 48 NF, par centaine.
Des exemplaires du bulletin seront envoyCs a ceux qui s'intCressent a Ia dCtCrioration biologique; nous esperons que les dcstinataires voudrant bien expedier au Redacteur Jes noms des personnes susceptibles d'etre intCressCes.
ix
APUNTES PARA LOS CONTRIBUIDORES
El Boletin se produce dos veces al ano, en Ia primavero y en el otono (abril y octubre). Las contribuciones escritas a Ia mAquina y por tri~licada deben ser enviadas al Redactor Dr. H. 0. W. Eggms, Biodeterioration Information Centre, Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Aston in Birmingham, Gosta Green, Birmingham, 4, England, o a uno de los siguientes:
Mr. G. Ayerst, Dept. Biology, College ofTeclmology, Wolver~ hampton, England.
Prof. G. Becker, Bundesanstaldt flir Materialprilfung, BertinDahlem 45, Unter den Eichen 86/87, Germany.
Dr. D. S. Belford, Hickson & Welch (Holdings) Ltd., Ings Lane, Castleford, Yorkshire, England.
Mr. D. G. Coursey, Tropical Products Institute, 56-62 Grays Inn Road, London, W.C.l., England.
Mr. J. J. Elphick, Admiralty Materials Laborntof)'. Holton Heath, Poole, Dorset, England. '·
Dr. J. Garrido, Departmento de Fennentaciones Industriales, Castello, 25, Madrid, Spain.
Dr. N. E. Hickin, Rentokil Research Laboratories, Felcourt, East Grinstead, Sussex; England.
Dr. H. J. Hueck, Central Laboratory TNO, Schoemakerstraat 97. P.O.B. 217, Delft, The Netherlands.
Dr. A. M. Kaplan, Head, Fungicides & Gennicides Laboratory, Pioneering Research Division, U.S. Anny Natick Laboratories Natick, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Monsieur Y. LeGrand, Centre d'etudes du Bouchet, Vert-le~ Petit, (S & 0), France.
Mr. A. 0. Lloyd, Catomance Ltd., 94, Bridge Road East, Welwyn Garden City, Herts., England.
Prof. R. W. Traxler, Department of Microbiology, University of Southwestern Louisiana, Drawer 1007, USL Station, Lafayette La. 70501, U.S.A.
Dr. R. Zinkemagel, J. R. Geigy S.A., CH-4000, Basel 21, Switzerland.
Dr. B. J. Zyska, Glowny lnstytut Gornictiva, Katowice, Plac Gwarkow 1, Poland. El Boletin servinl de vehiculo para Ia publicaci6n de obras de
toda clase sobre todos los aspectos de Ia biodeterioraci6n en general, es decir la deterioraci6n de los materiales de importancia econ6mica por los microorganismos, insectos, roedores (ratas) etc. Es en primer Iugar un boletin de nuevas y por consiguiente si se necesita obtener de ciertos autores el permiso de citar de sus articulos, se deber.i indicarlo por un asterisco en el manus· cripto y se hara una observaci6n apropriada al publicarlo.
Cada contribuci6n debe estar presentada en p!iginas de papel en A4(2l.Ocm. por 29.7cm.) y, con excepcion delar ticulo de revista, debe limitarse a cinco p3ginas de unas 500 palabras por p<iginas, incluidas las tablas e illustraciones.
Las contribuciones deben estar escritas a la mAquina por triplicado, a dos especios, en un lado de Ia hoja solamente. Pueden se presentadas para Ia publicaci6n en ingl6s, frances, aleman o espanol, con un breve resumen en ingiCs de Wl8S 25 palabras.
Hay que presentar las ilustraciones distintamente trazadas en tinta china o fotgrafiadas. La deseada reducci6n debe indicarse claramente, y cuando reducidas las ilustraciones no deben exceder 17 em. por 26 em.
Cuando hay que introducir cifras en el texto, hay que indicar en el documento el Iugar aproximado donde deben ponerse.
Las referencias bibliogr;ificas deben indicarse asi-por ejemplo .. Reese and Levinson (1952)" en el texto, y en Ia bibliografia "Reese, E. T. and Levinson, IH· G. (1952). Comparative Study of the breakdown of cellulose by microorganisms. Physiol. Plant., S, 35~366". Se ruega a los nutores que empleen Ia Lista de Abreviaturas Mundiales (World List of Sclentific Periodicals Abbreviations) a1 citas referencias bibliograficas.
No se devolvenin las prubas a los autores antes de Ia publica· ci6n definitiva.
Se envianin gratis al autor 25 tirades aparte de reimpresi6n. Se pueden obtener mas tirades dirigiCndose al Redactor de Publicaci6n a raz6n de 670 pesetas por ciento.
Se mandanin ejemplares del boletin a quienquirera que se interese por los estudios de Ia biodeterioraci6n. Se espera que los reciban envianin al redactor los nombres de otros individuos que puedan interesarse por este tema.
NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
The BuUetin is produced twice yearly in the Spring and Autumn. Typescript contributions in triplicate should be sent to the Editor, Dr. H. 0. W. Eggins, Biodeterioration Information Centre, Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Aston in Birmingham, Gosta Green, Binningham, 4, England, or to one of the following:
Mr. G. Ayers!, Dept. Biology, College of Technology, Wolverhampton, England.
Prof. G. Becker, Bundesanstaldt fUr Matcrialpri.ifung, BertinDahlem 45, Unter den Eichen 86/87, Germany.
Dr. D. S. Belford, Hickson & Welch (Holdings) Ltd., logs Lane, castleford, Yorkshire, England.
Mr. D. G. Coursey, Tropical Products Institute, 56-62 Grays Inn Road, London W.C.l., England.
Mr. J. J. Elphick, Admiralty Materials Laboratory, Holton Heath, Poole, Dorset, England.
Dr. J. Garrido, Departmento de Fermentaciones Industriales, Castello 25, Madrid, Spain.
Dr. N. E. Hickin, Rentokil Research Laboratories, Felcourt, East Grinstead, Sussex, England,
Dr. H. J. Hueck, Central Laboratory TNO, Schoemakerstraat 97, P.O.B. 217, Delft, The Netherlands.
Dr. A. M. Kaplan, Head, Fungicides & Germicides Laboratory, Pioneering Research Division, U.S. Army Natick Laboratories Natick, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Monsieur Y. LeGrand, Centre d'ctudes du Bouchet, Vert-IcPetit, (S & 0), France.
Mr. A. 0. Lloyd, Catomancc Ltd., 94, Bridge Road East, Welwyn Garden City, Herts., England.
Prof. R. W. Traxler, Department of Microbiology, University of Southwestern Louisiana, Drawer 1007, USL Station, Lafayette La. 70501, U.S.A.
Dr. R. Zinkemagcl, J. R. Geigy S.A., CH-4000, Basel 21, Switzerland.
Dr. B. J. Zyska, Glowny Instytut Gomictiva, Katowice, Plac. Gwarkow 1, Poland.
The Bulletin will act as a vehicle for the publication of work on all aspects of biodeterioration generally, i.e. the deterioration of materials of economic importance by microorganisms, insects, rodents, etc. It is primarily a news bulletin and therefore if pennission to quote from articles is to be obtained from authors this should be indicated on the manuscript by an asterisk. An appropriate indication will then be made when published.
Each contribution is to be submitted on international A4 size paper (8.27in. by ll.69in. or 2l.Ocm. by 29.7crn.) and, except for the review article is not to exceed five pages containing ~pproximately 500 words per page, includingt tables and illustrations.
Manuscripts should be typewritten in triplicate, doublespaced. on one side of the paper only. They may be submitted for publication in either English, French, German or Spanish, with a brief summary in English of approximately 25 words.
Illustrations should be clearly drawn in Indian Ink or should be photographed. The reduction desired should be clearly indicated; illustrations when reduced are not to exceed 17cm. by26cm.
For figures to be inserted in the text the approximate place for each one should be marked in the typescript. ·
The bibliographic references are to be indicated as e.g. Reese and Levinson (1952) in the text, and in the bibliography: Reese, E. T. and Levinson, H.G. (1952), Comparative study of the breakdown of cellulose by microorganisms. Pbysiol. Plant., 5, 354-366. Authors are requested to use World List of Scientific Periodlenls Abbredations in the quotation of bibliographic references.
Proofs will not be sent to authors before final publication.
25 reprints will be sent free of charge to each author. Addition· al reprints are obtainable on application to the Publications Editor at a charge of £4, SlO, per hundred.
Copies of the Bulletin will be sent to anyone interested in the field of biodeterioration; it is hoped that the recipients will send to the Editor names of any other people who may be interested.
X
HINWEISE FUR MITARBEITER
Das Bulletin erscheint zweimaljiihrlich und zwar im Frtihjahr, und Herbst. Richten Sie bitte Ihre maschinengeschriebenen Beitriige an den Herausgeber, Dr. H. 0. W. Eggins, Biodeterioration Information Centre, Department of Biological Sciences. The University of Aston in Birmingham, Gosta Green. Birmingham, 4, England, oder an cine dcr folgendcn anschriften:
Mr. G. Ayerst, Dept. Biology, College of Technology, Waiverhampton. England. Prof. G. Becker. Bundesanstaldt flir Materialprlifung, Bertin
Dahlem 45, Unter den Eichen 86/87. Germany. Dr. D. S. Belford, Hickson & Welch (Holdings) Ltd., logs Lane,
Castleford, Yorkshire, England.
Mr. D. G. Coursey, Tropical Products Institute, 56-62 Grays Inn Road, London W.C.l., England.
Mr. J. J. Elphick, Admiralty Materials Laboratory, Holton Heath, Poole, Dorset, England.
Dr. J. Garrido, Departmento de Fermentaciones Industriales, Castello 25, Madrid, Spain.
Dr. N. E. Hickin, Rentokil Research Laboratories, Felcourt, East Grinstead, Sussex, England.
Dr. H. J. Hueck, Central Laboratory, TNO, Schoemakerstraat 97, P.O.B. 217, Delft, The Netherlands.
Dr. A. M. Kaplan, Head, Fungicides & Germicides Laboratory, Pioneering Research Division, U.S. Army Natick Laboratories Natick, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Monsieur Y. LeGrand, Centre d'etudes du Bouchet Vert-IcPetit, (S & 0), France.
Mr. A. 0. Lloyd, Catomance Ltd., 94, Bridge Road East, Welwyn Garden City, Herts., England.
Prof. R. W. Traxler, Department of Microbiology, University of Southwestern Louisiana. Drawer 1007, USL Station, Lafayette La. 70501, U.S.A.
Dr. R. Zinkemagel, J. R. Geigy S.A., CH-4000, Basel 21, Switzerland.
Dr. B. J. Zyska, Glowny Instytut Gornictiva, Katowice, Plac. Gwarkow 1, Poland. Das Bulletin soU der VerOffentlichung von Arbeiten fiber
alle Aspekte des Abbaues durch Organismen im allgern.einen dienen, wie z. B. die ZerstOrung von Materialien von wirtschaftlicher Bedeutung durch Mikroorganismens, Insketen, Nagetiere usw. Das Bulletin wird vorwiegend Neues bringen. Deshalb, wenn die Erlaubnis, a us Arbeiten zu zitieren, vom Autor eingeholt werden mu8, ist dies durch ein Sterchen auf dem Manuskript zu Kennzeichen. so daB eine diesbezilgliche Anmerkung bei der VerOffentlichung gemacht wedenkann.
Jeder Beitag soli im A4 papier eignereicht werden (21.0cm. x 29.7cm.) und einschli8Iich der Tabellen und Bilder 5 Seiten mit je ungefiihr 500 Wijrtem nicht liberschreiten.
Die Manuskripts sollen in 3facher Ausfertigung, m.aschinengeschrieben mit 2zeilgem Abstand und nur auf einer Seitc des Papiers, eingesandt werden. Zum Abdruck kOnnen sic in Englisch, FranzOsisch, Deutsch oder Spanisch vorgelegt werden, mUsscn aber eine kurze englische Zusammenfassung von ungcffihr 25 WOrten enthalten.
Abbildungen werden mit Ausziehtusche gezeichnet oder als Photographien erbeten. Der gewtinschte VerkleinerungsmaB stab ist deutlich anzugeben. Verkleinerte Abbildungen sollten ein Format von 17 em. x 26 em. nicht Uberschreiten. FUr in den Text einzufilgende Bilder ist der ungefiihre Platz fUr jedes einzelne in dcm Manuskript klar zu kennziechnen.
FUr die bibliographischen Hinweise gilt folgendes Beispiel: Reese und Levinson (1952) im Text, im Literaturverzeichnis: Reese E. T. und Levinson, H. G. (1952). Vergleichende Untersuchung tiber den Abbau von Cellulose durch Mikroorganism.en: Physiol. Plant. 5, 354-366, Die Autoren werdcn gebeten, beim Ziticrcn von Literatur die International GebraUchlichen AbkUrzungen (World List of Scientific Periodicals Abbreviations) zu benutzen.
Vor den endgliltigen Ver5ffentlichung erhalten die Autoren keine Korrekturbzilge.
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Jeder, der sich fUr das Gebiet des Abbaues durch Organismen interessiert. kann den Bulletin erhalten. Die empffinger Adressen von anderen interessierton Personen an den Herausgeber zurUckzuschicken.
I '
Siivulescu, Alice. Int. Biodetn Bull., 4, (2), 75-77, (1968). Investigations into biodeteriorations in Romania.
INVESTIGATIONS INTO BIODETERIORATION IN ROMANIA Alice Siivulescu'
In Romania the oldest investigations of biodeteterioration were carried out in connection with the degradation of wooden railway sleepers as well as in controlling the fungus Meru/ius /achrymans in construction where wood is employed. Most investigations of this kind were effected at the Forestry Research Institute in Bucharest.
A series of investigations, less systematized were undertaken in connection with the degradation of stored agricultural products particularly cereals for consumption or seed requirements such as potatoes, beet, etc.
The problem of biodeterioration in its more complex content began to take shape in Romania only after 1960.
A series of investigations were outlined by research units created or reorganised in different institutions.
Thus the Forestry Research Institute centered its activity particularly around different wood protection methods by chemical preparations produced by our industry. Preoccupations existed concerning the impregnation of beech wood for coal and metal mines, with non-washable fungicidal substances; likewise the wood used for vegetable cultures or in the zootechnical sector. A standard was elaborated for the prevention and control of the fungus Merulius /achrymans on the basis of an extensive study of the morphology and physiology of this destructive agent.
On the eve of 1960, the first researches were begun• at the Biological Research Centre of the Academy, at present the "Traian Siivulescu" Institute of Biology, concerning the resistance of plastics to the attack of micro-organisms. After the elaboration of basic methods, these investigations were passed on to the Institute of Research and Design for the Electrotechnical Industry (I.C.P.E.) in Bucharest. In the framework of this institute, preoccupations were diversified on the line of investigations concerning climatic protection. The investigations effected likewise helped to the elaboration of certain standards.
In the last three years, a small working group was created at the "Traian Siivulescu" Institute of Biology within the section of microbiology and general phytopathology, which tackled for the first time in our country another series of biodeterioration problems. Thus, in collaboration with the Direction of State Archives, a study is being undertaken, concerning the deterioration of materials from archives, by microorganisms particularly fungi, involving prevention,
'Splaiul Independentii 296, Bucharest, Romania.
control and reconditioning methods. Collaboration was begun with the great libraries of this country in connection with the deterioration of books and manuscripts by micro-organisms. The first more organized investigations concerning the degradation by micro-organisms of the works of art from museums and on historical monuments were likewise begun. Collaboration is being established for biodeterioration problems concerning leather objects, particularly those serving the mounting of machine parts for export. Some investigations are being made concerning the biodeterioration of textiles.
For the first time in our country some of the more important objectives of biodeterioration will be formulated on the occasion of the National Conference of General and Applied Microbiology with international participation, which will be held in Bucharest between the 4th and the 7th December 1968 under the auspices of the Roumanian Academy. A special section is dedicated to problems of biodeterioration. In this section communications will be presented concerning the microfiora from paper pastes in the process of fabrication, physico-mechanical and chemical modifications of paper under the action of micro-organisms, and certain aspects of the restoration of docnments, the influence of some fungicides upon micro-organisms on different kinds of textiles, microbial degradation of some kinds of leather and its control, and microbiological corrosion of metals and its control.
Some round table discussions and synthesised reports will help to outline the future development requirements of the multiple research aspects of biodeterioration.
We give below an alphabetical list of the principal papers worked out by Roumanian research workers in the last 8 years in the field of biodeterioration.
Anghelescu, N., (1963). Fungicide folosite Ia impreg-narea lemnului de minii ~i in sectorul agrozootehnic. [Fungicides used for impregnating mine timber and in the agrozootechnical sector.] I.N.C.E.F. (M.S.)
Foc1iineanu, A. 0., Piti1, I., (1965). Vergleich zwischen verschnittenen Bitumen und verschnittenen Microwachsen unter Beriicksichtigung ihrer elektrischen Eigenschaften und Ihrer Verhaltens gegen Mikroorganismen vorund nach dem Zusatzvon Fungiziden. Bitum. Teere, Asphalte. Peche und Verwandte Stoffe. 16, 557-560.
Mrs. Viorica Lazar and Zoe Petre have contributed to the arrangement of the references. (Copy received July 1968).
75
Investigations into biodeterioration in Romania. Alice Savulescu
Lazar, Viorica, (1967). Cercetari asupra unor ciuperci saprolite de pe diferite substraturi. [Investigations on some saprophytic fungi from different substratums]. Studii # cercetiiri de Biologie, seria botanica, 19, (6), 463-467.
Lazar, Viorica, Becerescu, D., (1968). Investigations on mould development in stored corn. Revue Roumaine de Bio/ogie, Serie Botanique, 13, ( 4), 257-262.
Piti~, 1., (1961). Influence des micoroorganismes sur Ia resistance electrique superficielle. O.C.D.E. des materiaux, Paris, Documents de travail. DAS/RS/ 65.305.
Piti~, I., (1961). Contributii Ia studiul comparativ a! mucegaiurilor recomandate pentru standardizarea metodei de incercare a rezistentie Ia mucegaiuri a materilelor plastice. [Contributions to the comparative study of moulds recommended for tbe standardization of the method of testing the resistance of plastics]. Standardizarea, 13, (10), 493-495.
Piti~, I., (1961). Utilizarea micoroorganismelor in problemele de incercari climatice. [The utlization of micro-organisms in climatic testing problems]. Buletin ICET, 2, 53-59.
Piti~, 1., (1962). Determinarea eficacitatii unor fungicide cu aplicatii in industrie [Efficiency determination of some fungicides with applications in industry] Rev. de. Chimie, 13, (5), 289-293.
Pili~, I., (1962). Contributii Ia studiul modificarii caracteristicilor electrice ale diferitelor mase izolante electrice sub actiunea temperaturii, umiditiitii ~i micro-organismelor [Contributions to the study of modifications in electrical characteristics of different electro-insulating masses under the action of temperature moisture and micro-organisms]. Buletin ICET, 2, 30-34.
Piti~, I., (1962). Contributions a !'etude de revetments de protection en matieres plastiques, utilisees en electro-technique. IV. Symposium anuelle "Les recherches sur les polymeres". A cad. Polonaise des sciences. Ladz. 37.
Piti~, 1., (1964). Rezultatul incerciirilor climatice asupra materialelor electroizolante [Results of climatic tests on electro-insulating materials]. Lucriirile ICEP, ill, 174-187.
Pili~, I., (1964). Essais sur Ia resistance de PVC aux micro-organismes du sol. Industrie de 1Plastique modernes et elostomi!res, Paris, 16, (4), 109.
Piti~, I., Antoniu, M. (1961). Actiunea ciupercilor ~i efectul fungicidelor in protectia climaticii. [Action of fungi and effect of fungicides in climatic protection]. III. Sez. teh. stiint. ICET, ill, 231-245.
Piti~, I., Foqiineanu, A. Antoniu, M. (1963). Badania plesni odpornos niektorych mas elektroizolcyjanych Przelglad Electrotechnichzy [Study concerning the resistance of certain protective coating for electric appliances]. Warszawa, 39, (12), 472-475.
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Piti~, 1., Fo~iineanu, A. 0., Antoniu, M. (1965). Contributii Ia studiul unor lacuri electroizolante alchilice ~i epoxialchilice. [Contributions to the study of some alkylic and epoxi-alkylic electroinsulating varnishes.) Lucriiri ICPE, XI, 13-19.
Sacheliirescu, Fl., (1967). Antiseptizarea lemnului de fag ~i molid prin impregnarea cu produse fungicide nelavabile realizate in Republica SocialistiiRomania. [Antiseptization of beech and spruce for wood by impregnation with non 20 washable fungicidal products of Roumanian origin.] Industria lemnului, 18, (2), 51-56.
Sacheliirescu, Fl., Vintilii, E., Boiciuc, M., (1962). Protectia lemnului utilizat Ia confectionarea ramelor de serii de tip solar pentru culturi de legume [Protection of the timber used in the manufacture of hothouse frames of the solar type for vegetable cultures]. INCEF (M.S.).
Sacheliirescu, Fl., Catrina, 1., Vintilii, E., Constantinescu, 0. (1963). Incerciiri de determinare a durabilitiitii lemnului cu ajutorul radioizotopilor [Determination tests of wood durability by means of radioisotopes]. Industria lemnu/ui, 14, (11), 421-424.
Sacheliirescu, Fl., Vintilii, E., Boiciuc, M., (1964). Verificarea eficacitiitii substantelor fungicide prin incerciiri in conditii apropiate de practicii [Verification of the efficiency of fungicidal substances by tests in conditions close to practice). Industria /emnului, 15, (4), 137-142.
Sachelarescu, Fl., Vintila, E., Biociuc, M., (1964). Durabilitatea lem.nului de plopi repede cresciitori cultivati in Republica Socialista Romania. [Durability of the wood of quick-growing poplars cultivated in the Socialist Republic of Romania]. Industria lemnului, 15, (3) 85-87.
Sachelarescu, F., Boiciuc, M., Vintila, E., ( 1964) Protectia lemnului utilizat pentru constructia ramelor de rasadnite ~i a serelor folosite in legumicultura [Protection of timber employed in construction of hotbed frames and of hothouses used in vegetable growing.) Industria /emnului, 15, (12), 460-464.
Sachelarescu, Fl., Vintila, E., Gheorghe, M., (1965). Produse fungicide pe baza de fluor, fabricate in R.P. Romana, pentru protectia lemnului. [Fungicidal products on the basis of fluorine, produced in Romania for wood protection.] Industria /emnului 16, (4), 126-!31.
Savulescu, Alice, Lazar, Viorica, (1963). Odpornosc mieszanek polichlorku winylu na plesnie. [The resistance of P.C.V. against the action of moulds.] Polymery-Tworzywa Wie/koczasteczkowe, 196-197.
SB.vulescu, Alice., Lazar, Viorica, Becerescu, D., (1960). Der Einfluss einiger Schimmelpilze auf Plaste. Revue de Biologie, 5, (1-2), 67-75.
Siivulescu, Alice, LazB.r, Viorica, Popescu, Georgeta, (1963). Cercetari aspura identificarii ~i combaterii mucagaiurilor de pe celoloza [Investigations on the identification and control oftbe moulds on cellulose) Studii si cercetiiri de biologie, seria Bio/ogie vegetalii, XV, (4), 521-529.
Investigations into biodeterioration in Romania. Alice Siivulescu
Savulescu, Tr., ~i colab., (1936). Starea fitosanitarii in Romania in anul 1934-1935 [L'Etat Phytosanitaire en Roumanie au cours de l'annee 1934-1935]. Imprimeria Nationalii, Bucuresti, p. 20.
Savulescu, Tr. ~i. colab., (1943). Starea fitosanitarii in · Romania in anu1 1940-1941 [L'etat Phytosantiaire en Roumanie au cours de l'annee 1940-1941]. Tiparul Romanesc, p. 37.
Soru, Eugenia, Siivulescu, Alice, !strati, Maria, Lazar, Viorica, (1965). Studies on the enzymatic activity of some saprophytic fungi which attack plastics. Revue Roumaine de Biologie, Serie de Botanique, 10, (5), 419-427.
Vintilii, E. (1957). Forschungen iiber neue Laboratoriumsmethode zur Feststellung des fungiciden Wertes von Holzschutzmitteln. Holzschutztagung, Praga.
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Vintilii, E. (1959). Protectia lemnu1ui (Wood protection). Editura Agro-Silvicii, Bucuret~i.
Vintila, E., (1963). Conservarea lemnu1ui de specii de foioase moi repede crescatoiire in timpul verii. [Conservation during summer of the wood of quickgrowing soft foliate species.] Industria /emnului 14, (6) 226-231.
Vintilii, E., Sacheliirescu Fl. (1961). Cercetari asupra durabilitiitii lemnului de plopi negri hibrizi cultivati in R. P. R. [Investigations on the durability of the wood of hybrid black poplars grown in Romania]. INCEF (M.S.).
Normativ pentru prevenirea ~i combaterea buretului de casii Ia materialele lemnoase folosite in constructi. [Standard for the prevention and control of the fungus Meru/ius /achrymans]. (1963).
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Parbery, D. G. Int. Biodetn Bull., 4, (2), 79-81, (1968). The role of Cladosporium resinae in the corrosion of aluminium alloys.
THE ROLE OF CLADOSPORIUM RESINAE IN THE CORROSION OF ALUMINUIM ALLOYS
D. G. Parbery1
Summary In literature comparing the roles of bacteria and fungi in corroding aluminium there is a general
belief that bacteria are the more important. It has been found, however, that there is no acceptable basis for this belief.
The corrosion of aluminium alloys by micro-organisms growing in the fuel tanks of jet aircraft has confronted researchers with the problem of evaluating the relative importance of the roles of the various organisms associated with the corrosion. Both bacteria and fungi are involved and it is known that species of each group of organisms can induce corrosion of aluminium alloy. The problem of sorting out the relative importance of the different organisms is now being attemped, but because of the complexity of interacting biological and physical factors involved, the difficulty of choosing a suitable starting point is considerable. The interpretation of results will be greatly influenced by the basic information available when choosing the starting point.
In the literature on this subject there is a general bias toward the view that bacteria are the more important group of organisms in causing corrosion in aluminium fuel tanks. This biased belief is perhaps stronger in papers of the early 1960's than now hut it is there, and it is misleading to many students of this subject. It is not the purpose, in reviewing the literature, to refute this belief but to demonstrate that an alternative interpretation of the result on which the belief is based, is possible.
The reason for the difficulty of interpretation of some research results in this subject are varied. In some instances it seems that too little emphasis has been placed on knowing more about the basic biology, the natural behaviour of the organisms involved. In other cases techniques have been used which, because of their value in bacteriology when their usefulness in mycology has been unknown, have lead to the misinterpretation of results. Yet again, inadequacies in some techniques become apparent only in retrospect, often in the light of later findings. Also, it seems inevitable that when biologists become involved in fields of engineering and chemistry, or when engineers and chemists become entangled in biology, that these problems will arise. There is need for expert and close liaison.
Except for one report made in 1944 (Copenhagen 1950) most reports of the microbial corrosion of
aluminium have been published since 1960. They deal almost exclusively with the corrosion of alloys in fuel tanks and wing components of aircraft using jet fuel. (Anon. 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963; Birkholz, Rogers and Kaplan 1961; Blanchard and Gaucher 1964; Boggs 1961; Brooks 1963; Churchill 1963; Churchill and Leathern 1961; Donahue 1961; Elphick 1966; Hendey 1962, 1964; Hedrick et a/. 1964; Hedrick and Gilmartin 1964; Hedrick and Carrol 1966; Iverson 1967; Krinitsky 1964; Leathern and Kinsell 1963; London eta!. 1964; ,Rogers and Kaplan 1964; Stormont 1961; Ward 1963; Wilson 1963; Yuhara 1960).
In some instances the view has been put that the micro-organisms found in fuel could have been encouraged by the by-products of non-biological corrosion or that micro-organisms were the result and not the cause of corrosion (Stormont 1961; London et a/. 1964). There is plenty of evidence resulting from well controlled experiments (Hazzard and Kuster 1962; Hendey 1962, 1964; Hedrick eta/. 1964; Davis 1967) to refute this view.
The examination of microbiological sludge removed from corroded fuel tanks invariably shows a mixed culture of fungal and bacterial species (Leonard 1960; Churchill and Leathern 1961; Churchill 1962; Prince 1961; Ward 1963; Hedrick et a/. 1964; Rogers and Kaplan 1964; Iverson 1967; Darby et a/. 1968). Consequently interest has developed in finding out how many of the organisms are able to induce the corrosion of aluminium alloy when grown in pure culture. The result has been that two organisms, Cladosporium resinae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, have been found commonly in association with corroded alloys and each is able to induce corrosion in aluminium pieces in pure cultures (Hedrick et a/. 1964; Davis 1967). There are other, less common, organisms that are also capable of causing corrosion. These are: a gram negative bacterium, identified as "17-11" (Hostetler and Powers, 1963); Desulfovibrio desulfuricans (Hedrick et a!., 1964; Iverson, 1967) and Aspergillus niger (Hedrick et a!., 1964).
Having found that these organisms can cause corrosion in pure culture, Hedrick et a/. (1964) then
1Botany School, University of Melbourne, Parkville N.2., Victoria, Australia. (Copy received March 1968.)
79
The role of Cladosporium resinae in the corrosion of aluminium alloys. D. G. Parbery
noted that they caused much more corrosion when grown in mixed culture. Attempts to discover the reasons for this have failed. Hedrick eta/. (1964) found no correlation between the amount of growth of the organisms and the amount of corrosion produced. It is doubtful, however, whether these results can be interpreted for there is no quantitative measure given of the amount of growth produced nor the amount of corrosion involved. A later report (Hedrick and Carrol, 1966) states that, in tropical regions, B-58 aircraft suffered more severe corrosion than in temperate zones and that there was more microbial growth in tropical than in temperate climates. This does suggest a correlation between growth and corrosion.
A study made recently by Parbery (unpublished) supports the view that corrosion is correlate with growth, at least in respect to the fungus, Cladosporium resinae. A series of Bushneii-Hass (1942) liquid cultures were prepared in which the following nitrogen levels were provided; 0, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0, and 10%- To the 200 mi. of mineral solution, 50 mls of kerosene were added*. The flasks were inoculated with a spore suspension (I ml) of isolate C!Ol and incubated for 30 days. Growth was then Il,leasured by filtering off the mycelium, drying it, and weighing it.
To each flask, a piece of aluminium alloy of known weight was added so that it lay in the bottom of the Erlenmeyer flask. Each flask was then incubated for a further 40 days. At the end of this time, additional growth of Cladosporium resinae was removed and weighed, the pH of the aqueous phase was taken and each piece of aluminium alloy was washed, dried and reweighed (Table !). The result of this study was that the growth of the fungus followed a normal growth curve with a maximum at 0.5% Nitrogen. There was a close correlation between the amount of mycelium produced and the percentage loss in weight of the aluminium pieces (Table 1). There was also a correlation between the amount of growth and the drop in pH in the aqueous phase of the medium (Table !). There was no change in the pH of the kerosene which was always about 6.9.
In most flasks there was no fungal growth in contact with the alloy. Some aluminium pieces did show a focus of corrosion, especially if fungal growth did occur in contact with it, but commonly, there was a general loss in weight, without pitting or other signs of corrosion. This general observation supports the belief that corrosion is the result of action by the organic acid residues of the breakdown of hydrocarbons. The usual end products of the oxidation of hydrocarbons are organic acids (Raymond 1961 ; Kester 1962; McKenna and Kallio 1965; Raymond and Jamison 1967).
It is evident therefore, from the above experiment, that quantitative experiments using both bacteria and fungi singly and in combination would be valuable. Growth in combination, however, would
80
!ie_ld results which would more readily be interpreted If It were known what effect each organism had on the other. One may stimulate or inhibit the other or there could be muted stimulation. A requirement: before such results could be gathered, would be the development of a means of separating the fnngal and bacterial growth from each other, so that the growth of each could be measured. The current methods of evaluating relative growth are not adequate.
The technique of making a streak onto agar medium and of then estimating the relative numbers of ba:teria and fungi per given volume of liquid, by counting the resultant colonies is not suitable for various reasons. Firstly, the number of spores produced by a fungus need not bear any relation to the amount of growth which has occurred. Indeed, according to Kleb's Laws (Lilley and Barnett 1951) the reverse is more often the case! With bacteria, however, it is an accurate measure of growth. Secondly, some isolates of Cladosporium resinae spore only sparsely or not at all in kerosene (Parbery, unpublished) so that it is possible to have abundant mycelial growth and, using this method, record only bacterial growth. Thirdly, the ability of an organism to compete with another on a solid medium, such as a streak plate, need not be the same as in liquid culture. Consequently, the opinion held by Rogers and Kaplan (1964) that bacteria grow better than the Cladosporium resinae could be re-interpreted if the meaning of the relative numbers of material and fungal colonies in their experiment was known.
In a recent paper, Crum, Reynolds and Hedrick (1967) in trying to evaluate the effect of surfactants on corrosion induced by mixed cultures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Cladosporium resinae measured by the changes in growth of the microbes by the standard plate count method. Observations made on a wide range of isolates from soil (Parbery 1967) indicate that, as the pH or oxygen availability in cultures fall, some isolates cease spore production · altogether. Consequently, there are two dangers inherent in measuring growth by noting number of spores: (i) that sporulation may be proceeding at a different rate to the growth due to changes in the ;medium and (ii) the effect of surfactant on growth could be quite different to its effect on sporulation.
Hills, Evans and Davis (1967) have shown that different amounts of water in fuel influence different micro-organisms in different ways. No one has yet made a detailed study of the effects of oxygen levels, temperature or pH, or the effect of other organisms. When this is done, not only will it be possible to evaluate the relative importance of species within mixtures, but it may also be possible to compare the results of different works.
*N.B. Care was taken to use uniform sized and shaped flasks since lack of uniformity leads to differences in the areas of the kerosene-mineral solution interface and this is reflected in differences in the amount of growth.
.,
il
The role of Cladosporium resinae in the corrosion of aluminium alloys. D. G. Parbery
References
Anon. (1955), Lockheed Field Service Digest, 1, '(6): 1-19.
Anon. (1960), Boeing Airplane Co. Document No. EDP998 April.
Anon. (1961), Lockheed Service News, No. 29 JulyAug.
Anon. (1962), Proceedings on Jet Fuel Microbiology and Corrosion Conference. Natl. Read. Sc. Res. Course. April 9-10.
Anon. (1963), Microbial Corrosive Effects on Structural Materials used in Aircraft Fuel Tanks, General Dynamics/Fort Worth FPR N1, Quarterly Progress Reports No. I & 2. Contract AF 33 (657) - 8752 Feb.
Birkholz, D. 0., Rogers, M. R., and Kaplan, A. M. (1961), The Microbial Deterioration of Hydrocarbons and the Related Degredation of Equipment used for Storage, Distribution and Handling of Petroleum Products. Microbial Def Ser., No. 5 June.
Blanchard, G. C. & Gaucher, C. R. (1964), Dev. Ind. Microbial., 6: 95-104.
Boggs, W. A. (1961), Lockheed Aircraft Corp. Rep. V. E., FP 79 May 3.
Brooks, D. (1963), 28th Mid-year meeting, Div. Refining Am. Petrol. Inst., Philadelphia, Pa., May 13.
Bushnell, L. D. & Hass, H. F. (1941), J., Bact. 41: 653-673.
Churchill, A. V. (1962), Tech. Doc. Rep. No. ASDTDR-62-361, Aeronautical Systems Div., Airforce Systems Command, Wright Patterson AF 3, Ohio, July.
Churchill, A. V. (1963), Materials Protection, 2, (6): 19-23.
Churchill, A. V. & Leathern, W. W. (1961)- U.S. Airforce, A. S. D. Tech. Rept. 61-193.
Copenhagen, W. J. (1950), Metal Industry, 71: 137. Crum, M. G., Reynolds, R. J., & Hedrick, H. G.
(1967)- Dev. Ind. Microbial.; 8: 253-9. Darby, R. T., Simmonds, E. G., Wiley, B. J. (1968)
Int. Biodetn. Bull., 4, (1): 39-42. Davis, J. B. (1967) Petroleum Microbiology. Elsevier
Pub. Co. (Lond.). Donahue, T. B. (1961) Lockheed Field Service Digest,
7, (5): 3-13. Elphick, J, J. (1966) Anti-Corrosion pp. 23-25 June. Hazzard, G. F. & Kuster, E. C. (1963) D.S.L. Rep.
252 Part 111 Melb. Hedrick, H. G. & Carroll, M. T. (1966) Dev. ind.
Microbial. 7: 372-83. Hedrick, H. G. & Gilmartin, J. N. (1964) Ibid., 6:
127-32. Hedrick, H. G., Miller, G. F., Halkias, J. E., Hilder
brandt, J. F. & Gilmartin, J. N. (1964) Ibid., 6: 117-23.
81
Hendey, N. I. (1962), Admiralty Materials Lab. (Grt. Br.) Report AD- 290- 648.
Hendey, N. L (1964). Trans. Br. mycol. Soc., 47: 463-75.
Hills, E. C., Evans, D. A., Davies, I. (1967). J. Inst. Petrol, 53: (524): 280-4.
Hostetler, H. F. & Powers, E. J. (1963). 28th Midyear meeting, Div. Refining, Am. Petrol. Inst., Philadelphia, Pa., May 13.
Iverson, W. P. (1967). Electrochem. Techno/., 5 (3-3): 77-79.
Kester, A. S. (1962). Dissertation Abstracts, 22 (10): 3350.
Krinitsky, J. A. (1964). Naval Reviews, Feb. pp. 13-18. Leathern, W. W. & Xinsel, N. A. (1963). Dev. ind.
Microbial., 4: 9-16. Leonard, J. N. (1960). Naval Res. Rev. 16-18 Feb.
Naval. Res. Lab. Washington, D.C. Lilley, V. G. & Barnett, H. L. (1951). Physiology of
Fungi, McGraw Hill (1st Ed. Lond.). London, S. A., Finefrock, V. H. & Killian, L. N.
(1964). Dev. ind. Microbiol., 6: 61-91. McKenna, E. J. & Kallio, R. E. (1965). Ann. Rev.
Microbiol., 19: 183-208. Parberry, D. G. (1967). Trans Br. mycol. Soc., 50:
682-85. Prince, A. E. (1961). Dev. ind. Microbial., 2: 197-204. Raymond, R. L. (1961). Ibid., 2: 23-32. Raymond, R. L. & Jamison, (1967). Appl. Microbial.,
15, (4). Rogers, M. R. & Kaplan, A. M. (1964). Dev. ind.
Microbial, 6: 80-94. Stormont, D. H. (1961). Oil Gas J., 59, (27): 82-84. Ward, C. B. (1963). Materials Protection, 2: 10-12, 16. Wilson, D. C. (1963). Contamination Control, 2 (1):
11-12. Yuhara, Y. (1960). Shoseki Gibo, 4: 63-78.
TABLE I
The effect of different nitrogen levels on the growth of C. resinae and subsequently on the pH of the medium and loss of weight of aluminium pieces.
Percentage Mean Growth Mean pH Loss of
Na after 70 days after weight of (asNH,SOJ. (mgs). 70days. aluminium
pieces mgfgm.
0 0 6.7 0 0.001 82 6.7 0 0.005 99 6.4 0.21 O.o! 294 6.2 0.70 0.1 835 3.5 3.20 0.5 1543 3.2 7.30 1.0 935 3.4 8.60 5.0 453 3.6 3.50
10.0 301 3.9 1.3
Jackson, D. and Savory, J. G. Int. Biodetn Bull., 4, (2), 83-88, (1968). The decay resistance of wood fibre building boards and particle boards.
THE DECAY RESISTANCE OF WOOD FffiRE BUILDING BOARDS AND PARTICLE BOARDS
D. Jackson' and J. G. Savory'
Summary The literature relating to decay resistance of particle boards and fibre boards and laboratory methods
of assessing it has been surveyed. Board properties affecting fungal degradation are discussed mainly in relation to attack by the lower fungi.
The soil/block method is one of the most frequently used and recommended laboratory tests for board material, but its overall suitability is not well established. Both the type of test used and n)ethod of examination of decayed material affect the results obtained.
Whilst particle board and insulating boards have been the. subject of many studies, little work appears to have been done on hardboard decay.
1. lntroduction
Manufactured wood-based building boards are divided into two main categories, fibreboards and particle boards, largely on the basis of type of bond and size of the component wood particles. The former are made from separate wood fibres, bonded together with the naturally-occurring lignin and other cell wall compounds. Particle boards are formed from larger chips or shavings of wood bonded together with artificial adhesives such as urea-formaldehyde (UP) or phenolformaldehyde (PF) resins. Both types are further subdivided on a basis of density, thickness and presence of additives, hardboard being the most highly compressed type of fibreboard (FAO, 1957; Lewis and Schwartz, 1965). As the several variables, e.g. species of wood, bonding agent, density, surface treatment, type and amount of additive, can be altered as required during manufacture a very wide range of products exists, suited to a correspondingly large number of uses (Fidor, 1964).
There is increasing use of boards in exterior conditions where they are exposed to the weather and consequently to wide ranges of moisture content. Fibreboards and particle boards may be used for wall cladding, underfioor covering and in the construction of farm buildings where contact with animals or waste food may raise both the moisture content and nutrient level in the board, making it susceptible to fungal attack.
However, hardboards in particular are being used in these more severe exposure conditions and structural units comprising mainly oil tempered hardboards for housing chickens, pigs and cattle are reported to be withstanding degrade successfully (Anon. 1967).
The necessity for the production of durable
boards or protection of non-durable boards, with a view to widening their use still further, has been discussed on several occasions and has led to a broad field of study, including investigations into exterior durability, decay resistance and preservative treatment.
2. Exterior Durability
Exterior tests are realistic in that the conditions of the experiments reflect closely those encountered in the practical usage of the board. Although fungal decay is not the prime consideration in such tests and inoculation is not deliberately carried out, the results are important in that they provide information about the effects of moisture alone; weatherproofing is just as necessary as treating with fungicide when the board is to be used outdoors. Damage is usually estimated visually and by strength loss measurements. Hann et. a/. (1962, 1963) tested the loss in strength of particle boards after natural and accelerated weathering and found that greater deterioration took place after cyclical changes of temperature and humidity than after constantly adverse exposure; PF boards were more durable than UF or urea-melamine boards and the addition of I per cent of wax increased the resistance of UP boards to natural weathering.
In a further study on exterior grade particle board Gatchell et a/. (1966) stated that resistance to thickness swelling was probably the most useful criterion for exterior durability and from the results obtained concluded that the resin content was the most important single variable. Heebink (1967), in a report concerned with the effect of cyclical changes in moisture content on particle board durability also recognised changes in thickness and linear dimensions as important symptoms of degradation, particle board being
'Mycology Section, Forest Products Research Laboratory, Princes Risborough, Aylesbury, Bucks., England. (Copy received September, 1968.)
83
The decay resistance of wood fibre building boards and particle boards. D. Jackson and J. G. Savory
intermediate between exterior plywood and high density hardboard with respect to such changes. Use of higher resin content and correctly shaped chips could further improve exterior grade board: smaller particles in the outer layers enhance the surface smoothness whilst a core of chips with a high slenderness ratio reduces longitudinal movement.
Similar tests have been carried out on hardboard samples (Crawford, 1959; Ruffin, 1960). Ruffin (1960), in a report concerned mainly with the effect of wood species and degree of hydrolysis during manufacture, lists several factors which could effect the durability of hardboard, viz. wood species, severity of hydrolysis or heat treatment on fibre, type and amount of binder, water repellent and other additives, degree and uniformity of fibre refinement and sheet formation, density and severity of exposure.
3. Decay Resistance
Several surveys have been made of the decay resistance of boards, particularly particle boards, but because of the large number of different types available and the corresponding number of variables the results are often difficult to evaluate.
3. I Particle boards
Clark (1960) investigated the effect of several variables in manufacture of particle board in soil/block tests with Poria monticola and Lenzites trabea. The results indicated that increased decay resistance might be attained by using naturally resistant wood (e.g. western red cedar), lowerdensity urea-formaldehyde-bonded boards, or increasing the amount of the latter type of binder. Increasing the amount of PF resins or adding wax did not appreciably increase the resistance of the boards. The soil/block test was considered suitable for initial comparisons of this nature. German workers appear to favour the agar/block test method. Willeitner (1965a) tested the decay resistance of particle boards to Kolle flask cultures of four common wood-rotting Basidiomycetes and concluded that the shape of particle, adhesive and density all affect fungal growth, as can swelling by uptake of water. The effect of timber species on decay was less noticeable than with solid wood; although makore boards were resistant, small amounts of non-durable chips such as pine and beech in them rapidly promoted the growth of fungus, "on the principle of the weakest link in the chain". One interesting result obtained was that urea resins could have a promoting effect on growth of fungus and phenol resins the reverse.
Stolley (1958) gives a series of values for weight losses of PF and UF boards as a result of Basidiomycete decay as an illustration of the fact that although particle boards are less susceptible than timber they are definitely not resistant to decay. Coniophora cerebella caused higher weight losses with UF boards (54 per cent) than with PF boards
84
(22 per cent) but Poria vaporaria showed little preference, giving about 10 per cent weight loss with both types. These results contrast markedly with those of Kunzelmann (1960) who obtained very low weight losses (4 per cent) with each of three brown-rotting Basidiomycetes (C. cerebella, Merulius /acrymans and P. vaporaria). The test blocks nevertheless showed quite high losses in bending strength after exposure to fungal attack. Willeitner (1965b), who emphasized the need for strength testing in addition to making weight loss determinations, introduces a "visual-manual scale of valuation of degree of deterioration" which he found bears a linear relationship to the logarithm of the weight Joss determined by normal methods. This scale depends on the amount of visual decay and ease of cleaving or crumbling the test blocks as compared with control blocks; in practice this is probably a rather subjective procedure.
The same author tested seven different board samples for decay resistance (Willeitner, 1966) by the Kolle flask agar/block method using the three soft-rotting fungi Chaetomium globosum, Ceratocystis sp. and Paeci/omyces sp., and found that boards containing mixed hardwood and softwood chips were decayed more than pure softwood boards. Microscopic examination of macerated samples showed that beech chips were completely destroyed (contrasted with pine and spruce particles from the same board), and that numerous forms of cavities (Courtois, 1963) were present. No difference was noted by Willeitner between UF and PF boards with regard to decay resistance.
3.2 Fibreboards
Insulating boards and hardboards as well as particle boards are liable to attack by a very wide range of fungi, from wood-rotting Basidiomycetes to mould species (Meyer and Spalding, 1958). In their studies on the preservation of hardboard Narayanamurti and George (1961) tested the resistance of hardboard treated in various ways to decay by Polystictus versico/our and P. sanguineus by the Kolle flask agar/block method. They obtained high weight losses of material that had not been treated with preservatives but found that heat treatment increased the resistance to decay and that oil tempering followed by heat treatment resulted in even lower weight losses.
Akai and Ueyama (1960), in tests on hardboard and other wood building boards using common wood-destroying Basidiomycetes, found that after 100 days incubation with Poria vaporaria, which caused most decay, hardboard showed a Joss in weight of 50 per cent whilst particle board showed a loss of only 10 per cent. It was also demonstrated that tempered and non-tempered hardboard suffered similar weight losses (cf. Narayanamurti and George, 1961).
The chemical changes which take place as a result of oil-tempering are not well understood but
The decay resistance of wood fibre building boards and particle boards. D. Jackson and J. G. Savory
definite chemical combination of the oil with lignin or other cell-wall constitutents is involved. The literature concerning this topic and the chemistry of hardboard formation in general has been reviewed by Paszner and Wilson (1965). Despite the lack of complete knowledge, it is agreed that many chemical changes take place during the manufacturing processes, e.g. alteration of lignin and hydrolysis of cellulose. Although the hydrolysis and removal of hemicellulose is more pronounced in Masonite hardboards (Harris, 1952; Lewis, 1958), normal washing of the pulp will remove mineral salts and soluble carbohydrate material even in boards produced by the Asplund process.
Kunzelmann (1960) showed that hardboard exposed to attack by fungus suffered weight losses intermediate between those for insulating board and particle board, but did not lose as much bending strength as particle board.
Buttner (1965) used the Kolle flask agar/block test iu studies on particle boards and fibreboards, and found that whilst moulds, soft-rots and Coniophora cerebella all caused decay, the last caused by far the greatest damage. This result could presumably reflect the unsuitability of this test method for use with mould fungi and soft-rot organisms. Much interest has in fact been centred on the role of moulds in the attack and decay of wood-fibre boards, particularly in America (Merrill 1965; Merrill et a/., 1965). Englerth (1946) subjected several types of experimental and commercial fibreboards to decay by a mixed inoculum of mould fungi and bacteria, all of which had previously been isolated from decayed boards or cellulose material. The water-soaked test blocks were dipped in a suspension of the organisms and incubated in closed vessels, no additional nutrient media being added. The results, obtained by a visual appraisal of delamination and mould growth, included the observations that asphalt included in the boards was not mould-inhibiting, and that moulds could penetrate the unbroken surfaces of the boards and cause delamination.
A more concise and modern account of the importance of moulds in the fibreboard field is given by Merrill et a/. (1965), who suggested that they could probably attack wood at a lower moisture content than could Basidiomycete fungi. By means of strength loss, weight loss and chemical composition tests it was found that most of the moulds were similar in their action to the brownrotting Lenzites trabea except for a slower rate of attack. i.e. they removed hemicelluloses and oc-cellulose but hardly any lignin. These workers suggested as a possible reason for this susceptibility to mould attack that the lignin is altered or repositioned in some way during the manufacturing processes, thus permitting easier access to the cellulose material.
Merrill (1965) and Merrill and French (1965) have also examined the effect of Chaetomium
85
globosum on fibreboards as part of their mould studies. On microscopic examination of sections cut from decayed fibreboards using a rotary microtome they found that there were very few typical soft-rot cavities present. They suggested, that, as the board was composed of individual fibres, the S2 layer of the cell wall would he exposed at the broken ends, thus making nutrients available without the need for penetration through the wall from the lumen. These results contrast with those of Willeitner (1966) for particle board; here abundant soft-rot cavities were found in macerates of decayed material.
3.3 Test methods for evaluating decay In 1954 the FAO (1954) recommended the use
of tl)e soil/block test for fibreboards in general, although no information was given about the fungi to he included. In a later publication (FAO, 1958) the FAO stresses the need for mould resistance tests, probably of a different nature from the existing tests. It also offers the opinion that for board samples the soil/block method may be too severe, and that tests reflecting more moderate exposure conditions may he of greater value. Several types of laboratory tests are proposed by the British Standards Institution (1968) which however comments, "whilst laboratory tests allow comparisons of the degree of relative resistance (natural or otherwise) of materials to wooddestroying fungi and moulds, they are not necessarily reliable indications of the service life of these materials in actual use''.
In addition to methods involving calculations of weight loss as a guide to the amount of fungal decay, studies have been made using decrease in strength to measure decay. Merrill and Erench (1964, 1966) examined such methods in the course of their fibreboard studies and concluded that nailhead pull-through resistance and lateral nail resistance can be used satisfactorily for measure, ments of diminution of strength properties of boards as a result of decay. Using Lenzites trabea they found that a 12-15 per cent loss in weight corresponded to a 50 per cent loss in strength; thus relatively small amounts of decay as measured by loss in weight could be important where any structural strength of the board was involved.
Measurements of the bending strength, modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity of test blocks have also been used for assessing the amount of fungal degradation which has taken place (Kunzelmann, 1960; Narayanamurti and George, 1961). An important point to be taken into consideration here is the loss in strength resulting from exposure of blocks to factors other than fungal decay (e.g. temperature, humidity). Such losses can be of the order of 20-30 per cent.
4. Protection of Boards
As a result of the recognition of the risks of decay which are present in board utilisation,
The decay resistance of wood fibre building boards and particle boards. D. Jackson and J. G. Savory
several studies have been made on methods of preservation; a brief survey will complete the general background to decay of wood building boards.
The adhesive resins associated with certain types of board, mainly particle board, may confer some degree of protection on the product. This is particularly so with the PF resins. More important perhaps is the fact that the resins themselves are durable, and have greatly contributed to the production of exterior-grade boards. Huber (1958) is of the opinion that although the resins themselves are resistant to fungal attack, they do not increase the resistance of the actual wood particles; this situation also arises in connection with the decay resistance of plywood. Problems encountered include not only the suitability of different preservatives but also at what stage of manufacture preservative should be added to the board (Stolley, 1958; Meyer and Spalding, 1958; Huber, 1958). In most modern methods preservative is added to the resin before spraying the chips or, in the case of fibreboards, by adding it to the fibre slurry.
Stolley and Narayanamurti et a/. (1961) found that PCP and sodium PCP were effective at a concentration of 2-5 per cent for protecting particle boards against Basidiomycete attack. Meyer and Spalding (1958) give the toxic limits for copperPCP in insulating board as 0.4-0.6 per cent; these values were derived by visual assessment of field tests and not by accelerated laboratory tests. Hardboard can also be preservative treated. Narayanamurti and George (1961) found that a mixture of PCP and DDT added to the board with the tempering oil to give a 1 per cent retention was effective against Polystictus versicolor but not completely effective against P. sanguineus. Less effective chemicals tested were BHC, "Xylamon" and copper naphthenate. Becker (1959) outlined in more detail the methods of treatment and the the range of preservatives which are in use.
The report by Merrill and French (1963) is interesting not only from the point of view of preservation but also with regard to studies of suitability of the test methods. Four test methods were used, and it was concluded that the soil/block test was most applicable to fibreboards because of its accuracy and practicability.
5. Discussion Wood-fibre building boards differ considerably
from type to type because of the several variables which can be altered during the manufacturing processes. They also differ in several respects from natural timbers: these factors, which could have a possible bearing on the extent and type of fungal attack and decay, will now be considered.
All boards, particularly hard boards, have a high surface areafvolume ratio. Two considerations arise from this: one is that they will be rapidly affected by varying weather conditions and will be wetted
86
and dried out easily, thus often providing moisture conditions intermittently suitable for fungal growth, conditions in which microfungi rather than wooddestroying Basidiomycetes are likely to effect colonisation. The second is that soft-rot microfungi, which are essentially surface rots, could cause much damage in thin boards. As they are formed from defibrated wood, boards do not possess the orientation of tissues found in natural timber, and hence there may be no paths of easy entry, such as rays or vessels, for fungal hyphae. In high density boards there may be an even greater mechanical barrier to rapid colonisation and attack by fungi. Of course boards, even the naturally bonded types, do not possess the continuous rigid framework that is found in natural timber, so a relatively small amount of decay of the wood fibre portion would result in quite a high loss in strength. As already noted, strength loss has been shown to be of importance and should not be neglected when experimental results are evaluated.
In fibreboards the presence of many broken wood fibres makes available to fungi, without boring through any protective layers, the materials of all layers of the cell wall. This has been suggested by Merrill as a reason for the lack of typical soft-rot cavities in fibreboards, and could result in more rapid decay than in timber. In spite of this, it might still be expected that the conical-ended cavities would be present in the S2 layer, even if bore holes were absent, as little food material could be obtained from the very end face of a broken fibre. The inherent difficulty of detecting fungal attack in fibres already damaged mechanically and the deficiencies of his method of examination may have influenced Merrill's observations.
The availability of nutrients in fibreboards and particle boards is important and has a general bearing on fungal growth. The conditions under which boards are manufacturered are quite severe, especially in the case of hardboards. High temperatures and pressures are used, and this doubtless affects the natural chemical composition of the wood fibres. Lignin, the natural bonding agent in fibreboards, is probably repositioned, if not altered; this might render the lignin unsuitable as food material for fungi such as the white rots whilst at the same time allowing easier access to the carbohydrate material. The latter has been suggested as the reason for the susceptibility of boards to mould growth.
Other changes, such as chemical transformation or alteration of the degree of polymerisation, could also affect fungal growth. A rather special case in this respect is that of the Masonite hardboards. The fibre used in these is formed by a high temperature-high pressure process followed by a sudden release of pressure; the result is an explosive defibration of the wood due to a weakening of the middle lamella bonds, during which the lignin is physically, if not chemically changed to act as a more efficient natural binder in the hardboard.
,, '
The decay resistance of wood fibre building boards and particle boards. D. Jackson and J. G. Savory
The conditions approach those of a high temperature acid hydrolysis and it is claimed that all or most Of the hemicellulose is degraded and removed in subsequent washings. The finished board is thus less hygroscopic than normal; a slow rate of wetting up in use may confer an increase in decay resistance.
Washing of the pulp prior to board formation will remove a high percentage of water soluble material, including mineral salts and simple carbohydrates (natural and hydrolysis products). As substances such as these are important to the growth of fungi, particularly soft-rotting microfungi, this removal could result in the board being harder to colonise than timber but would not necessarily make it completely resistant to attack for in spite of chemical and physical modifications, hardboard is still a ligno-cellulose substrate.
Particle boards are a less severely modified type of wood product; the wood source continues to exist as large chips and flakes as opposed to separate fibres and thus a certain amount of tissue orientation still remains. Resins and other additives are included, but as these, particularly the resins, do not always form a complete layer over the chips they may not always improve the resistance of the boards; indeed the effects of UF and PF resins upon attack by Basidiomycetes are under dispute. Undoubtedly moisture conditions suitable for fungal growth also result in swelling of the chips, surface roughening and edge cracking of particle boards. These factors could increase the eventual susceptibility of the boards to attack by fungi by causing local decreases in density which would in turn affect oxygen and moisture relations.
In the above discussion an attempt has been made to consider those properties of wood-based boards which may have a bearing on fungal attack. In practice the various effects cannot be separated. There is abundant evidence in the literature that collectively they do not make any of the various kinds of board material wholly resistant to fungal attack. Basidiomycetes cause marked degradation of particle board, insulating board and hardboard. Microfungi have also been reported as capable of attacking board materials but at a much slower rate than Basidiomycetes. As yet little work has been done on the resistance of hardboard to microfungi.
The test methods used in fibreboard decay studies have not yet been standardised. Further work needs to be done to clarify the position in relation to the different types of fungi. The soilburial and mycelial-mat test methods may be suitable for both soft-rots and moulds, which need additional nutrients before easily-detectable weight losses can be obtained. The agar/block method has been used with board material, but does not allow for any great degree of moisture control, and in the past difficulty has been encountered when testing plywood by this method due to a
87
high moisture content of the test blocks. The soil/ block method may in fact prove better in this respect as control can be exercised by varying the moisture content of the soil.
References
Akai, S. and Ueyama, A. 1960. Studies on the Microbial Stain and Decay of Building Boards and their Prevention. I. Forced-decay tests on Building Boards using some wood-destroying fungi. J. Japan Wood Res. Soc., 6 (3), 128-132.
Anon, 1967. Hardboard and Farm buildings. 14th Annual Fibre Building Boards Supplement. Wood, 32 (4), 41-44.
Becker, G. 1959. Protection of Fibre and Chipboards against wood-destroying organisms in the Tropics. Compos. Wood, 6 (4), 33-36.
British Standards Institution. B.S. 1982:1968. Methods of Test for fungal resistance of manufactured building materials.
Buttner, M. 1965. Uber die Gefiihrdung von Werkstoffen aus Holz und Einjahrpflanzen durch Pilze. Holztechnologie, 6, (2), 123-127.
Clark, J. W. 1960. Decay Resistance of Experimental and Commercial Particleboard. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison. Report No. 2196. August, 1960.
Courtois, H. 1963. Mikromorphologische Befallsymptome beim Holzabbau durch Moderfaulepilze. Holzforsch. und Holzverwert., 15 (5), 88-101.
Crawford, I. A. 1959. Exposure tests on Tempered Hardboard. New South Wales Forestry Commission, Division of Wood Technology. Project U-16. Final Report.
Englerth, G. H. 1946. Deterioration of Fibreboards by Moulds. US Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry Pathology. Forest Path. Spec. Release No. 29.
Fidor, 1964. Handbook of Fibre Building Boards. Fibre Building Board Development Organisation Ltd., London.
Food and Agriculture Organisation, 1954. Third conference on Wood Technology. FAO, Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organisation, 1957. Fibreboard and Particleboard (Proc. International Consultation on Insulation board, Hardboard and Particleboard, Geneva).
Food and Agriculture Organisation, 1958. Developments in Test Methods for Fibre boards and Particleboard. FAO. Rome.
Gatchell, C. J., Heebink, B. G. and Hefty, F. V. 1966. Influence of Component Variables on Properties of Particleboard for Exterior Use. Forest Prod. J., 16 (4), 46-59.
Hann, R. A., Black, J. M. and Blomquist, R. F. 1962. How Durable is particleboard? Forest Prod. J., 12 (12), 577-584.
The decay resistance of wood fibre building boards and particle boards. D. Jackson and J. G. Savory
Hann, R. A., Black, J. M. and Blomquist, R. F. 1963, How Durable is particleboard? Part II. The effect of Temperature and Humidity. Forest Prod. J., 13 (5), 169-174.
Harris, E. E. 1952. 'Wood Hydrolysis', in Wood Chemistry Vol II ed Wise and Jahn. Reinhold, New York.
Heebink, B. G. 1967. A look at Degradation in Particleboards for Exterior Use. Forest Prod. J., 17 (1), 59-66.
Huber, H. A. 1958, Preservation of Particleboard and Hardboard with Pentachlorophenol. Forest Prod. J., 8 (12), 337-360.
Kunzelmann, E. 1960. Uber das Verhalten von Holzfaser- und Holzspanplatten gegeniiber holzzerstlirenden Pilzen und Feuer sowie die Moglichkeiten des Schutzes-Teil I. Holztechnologie, 1 (1), 44-51.
Lewis, W. C. 1958. The explosion process for producing fibre for hardboards. Proc. International Board Consultation, Paper 5.4.
Lewis, W. C. and Schwartz, S. L. 1965. Insulating Board, hardboard and other structural fibreboards. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison. Research Note FPL-077. August, 1965.
Merrill, W. 1965. Decay of Wood and Wood Fibreboards by Common Fungi Imperfecti. Material und Organismen, 1 Suppl. 69-76.
Merrill, W. and French, D. W. 1963. Evaluating Preservative treatment of Rigid Insulating Materials. TAPPI, 46 (8), 449452.
Merrill, W. and French, D. W. 1964. Wood Fibreboard Studies. I. A Nailhead pull-through method to determine the effects of fungi on strength. TAPPI, 47 (8), 449451.
Merrill, W. and French, D. W. 1965. Wood Fibreboard Studies. III Effects of Common Moulds on the cell-wall structure of the Wood Fibres. TAPPI, 48 (11), 653-654.
88
Merrill, W. and French, D. W. 1966. Wood Fibreboard Studies. IV. Effects of Decay on Lateral Nail Resistance and Correlation of Lateral Nail resistance with Nailhead pull-through resistance. TAPPI, 49 (!), 33-34.
Merrill, W., French, D. W. and Hossfeld, R. L. 1965. Effects of Common Moulds on Physical and Chemical Properties of Wood Fibreboard. TAPPI, 48 (8), 470474.
Meyer, F. J. and Spalding, D. H. 1958. Anti-termite and anti-fungal treatment for fibreboard, hardboard and particleboard. Proc. International Board Con· sultation, Paper 5.24.
Narayanamurti, D. and George, J. 1961. Preliminary note on the Preservative treatment of hardboards. Svensk Papp. Tidn. 64 (18), 667-669.
Narayanamurti, D., Prasad, B. N. and George, J. 1961. Protection of Chipboards from fungi and termites. Norsk Skogind, 15 (9), 375-376.
Paszner, L. and Wilson, J. W. 1965. Influence of fibre chemical constituents on oil-tempering of hardboard. Forest Prod. J., 15 (5), 206-214.
Ruffin, E. T. 1960. Exterior Durability of Hardboard. Forest Prod. J., 10 (7), 336-341.
Stolley, I. 1958. Some Methods for Treating Particleboards to Increase their Resistance to Fungi and Termites. Proc. International Consultation on Insulating board, Hardboard and Particleboard, Geneva, 1957. Paper 5.38. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.
Willeitner, H. 1965a. Das Verhalten von Holzspanplatten beim Befall durch Pilze Erste Mitteilung: Zerstlirung von Spanplatten durch Basidiomyceten. Holz Roh-u Werkstoff, 23 (7), 264-271.
Willeitner, H. 1965b. Uber die mykologische Prtifung von Holzspanplatten. Materia/priifung, 7 (4), 129-134.
Willeitner, H. 1966. Uber den Abbau von Holzspanplatten durch Moderfaulepilze. Material und Organismen, 1 Suppl. 77-88.
I, lj ' I
I
Evans, Dorothy M. and Levisohn, I. Int. Biodetn Bull., 4, (2), 89-92, (1968). Biodeterioration of polyester-based polynrethane.
BIODETERIORATION OF POLYESTER-BASED POLYURETHANE* Dorothy M. Evans' and Ida Levisohn 2
Summary Fungal growth, in particular attack by Stemphylium, is a cause of degradation of polyester-based
po!Y?':"thane. Biodeteriorati~~ can be slowed down by the use of hydrolysis inhibitors or (and) certain fungiCides. Among the fungicides tested, only 8 - hydroxyquinoline was found to protect the material adequately.
Introduction
The following studies on the microbial deterioration of certain polyurethanes were prompted by the examination of a prematurely aged polynrethane roller discarded by the litho-printer because it had become soft and deformed. Inspection showed that the softened areas were sponge-like in structure and that the spaces contained fungal hyphae.
"Polynrethane" covers a wide range of formulations. The material used for the litho-rollers under consideration was compounded from polyester. It has been shown by Ross (1963) that this soft-cast rubber type of polynrethane can support fungal growth when used in potted firing modules. Leeflang (1963) has recorded biodeterioration of water pipe washers made from this kind of material, a fact also discussed in Plastics & Rubber Weekly (1964). An indication that po!ynrethanes might be susceptible to fungal growth is given by Brown (1946) and Berk (1957) who report that the adipic acid and di-ethylene glycol used in making polyester, are able to support mould development. It is also well known that esterases are common in fungi, that they are not very specific, and the production of extra-cellular hydrolytic enzymes can be induced by compounds that are not natural substrates, as , for instance shown by Klausmeier (1961).
The purpose of the following researches was to investigate whether fungi will attack polyurethane following the softening of the material due to hydrolysis-which will eventually occur in any case--<Jr whether mould growth is a major and more direct cause of deterioration.
Description of deteriorated material
By means of a lens one can easily detect channellike lesions on the surface of the damaged areas and, below the surface, tubular formations branching out in various directions (plate I, II). This net-work of tunnels is frequently seen to radiate from a point. The tunnels contain individual hyphae (5-71' in diameter) or hypha! strands of various thickness.
122 Linden Court, Leatherhead, Surrey, England. 221 Meadow Court, Epsom, Surrey, England. (Copy received 1st May, 1968). *Based on PATRA Printing Laboratory Report 71, (1966).
89
Over a longer period, and more rapidly when exposed to higher temperature and humidity and also to light, the damaged material softens increasingly. Left in the laboratory for several months, it becomes a gelatinous mixture of degradation products and fungal hyphae.
Isolation of fungi from deteriorated polyurethane rollers
In order to identify the fungi that might be responsible for the tunnel formation and thus connected with the deterioration of the rollers, samples from damaged roller material were surface-sterilized and plated on various conventional nutrient media. In addition to species of Aspergillus and Penicillium (mainly P. citrinum) regular isolates were species of Phoma, Fusarium, Cephalosporium, and Stemphylium. Fusarium and Cephalosporium are the main contaminants of fountain solutions used on litho-machines, as reported by Levisohn et al. (1963), and one would therefore expect these fungi to occur on used rollers. The presence of Stemphylium is interesting as this fungus has been described by Scott (1920) as the "rubber fungus" causing damage to artificial and natural rubber.
Experimental infection of fresh samples of polyurethane
Thin slabs of polyurethane convenient for microscopic examination of samples during the growth of inoculated fungi were made in the laboratory.
The fungi isolated from deteriorated material were separately inoculated onto fresh pieces of polynrethane which had been placed in sterile petri-dishes with agar or water. The inoculations were repeated many times with both sterilized and untreated polynrethane. In addition, polynrethane samples were placed on agar seeded with the various mycelia under observation. It was found that /'enicillium citrinum and various species of Phoma grew only on the surface of the material. Aspergillus niger, Fusarium and Cephalosporium produced a limited amount of penetration
Biodeterioration of polyester-based polyurethane. Dorothy M. Evans and I. Levisohn
just below the surface, especially on the autoclaved samples. Stemphylium made tunnels deep into the polyurethane within two days of incubation, and even more quickly on autoclaved material.
Species of Stemphylium isolated from sources other than deteriorated polyurethane behaved in a similar way, e.g. S. verruculosum isolated from sisal kraft and S. lanuginosum from soap wrappers. After inocu" lation the polyurethane around each Stemphy/ium spore became etched away, and, as soon as germination occurred, the hyphae produced tunnels growing straight into the mass of the sample, never growing on the surface and never sporulating.
As a number of fungi, in particular Stemphylium, were shown to utilize polyurethane freely, one seems justified to assume that fungal growth is a major cause of the observed damage. The fact that growth was quicker and more vigorous on autoclaved samples, suggests that hydrolytic deterioration contribute to hasten fungal decay.
Growth of fungi on polyurethane constituents
It was observed that fungal growth occurred prolifically in water surrounding the samples, showing that a nutrient fraction of the polyurethane is extractable in water. Prominent organisms in the aqueous leachates were: Botryotrichum, Mesobotrys, Pmicillium citrinum, Phoma, Pul/ularia, Scopulariopsis, Tetracoccosporium, and bacteria. In order to assess the magnitude of fungal growth in the leachates it was convenient to solidify them with plain or a nutrient agar. After longer and repeated leaching the solid material was still prone to fungal attack, the extent of tunnelling decreasing with longer leaching time. Consecutive leachates also showed decreased growth stimulation. After extensive leaching, the polyurethane inoculated with isolates from deteriorated material was found to support the growth of Stemphylium only. In the framework of this study no investigation was made of the ability of Stemphylium to utilize the polyurethane directly through enzymatic activity.
Aqueous extracts of the polyesters that are commonly used in Gt. Britain for the production of polyurethane showed luxurious fungal development, like leachates from a finished material. In preparing the ester leachings for testing, they are filtered (not decanted as for polyurethane extracts) since undissolved particles were observed to have an adverse effect on mould growth. No attempt was made to analyse the nature of this effect. The main fungi growing in the polyester leachates were Mesobotrys and Metarrhizium, and Monilia and Scopulariopsis were always present. Only few bacteria occurred, probably due to the low pH (usually about 4, whereas the polyurethane leachates have a pH of about 7). Stemphylium was apparently suppressed by the vigorous growth of the other fungi and was not isolated from either polyurethane or polyester leachates.
90
Protection against deterioration
Resistance of polyurethane can be improved by incorporation of stabilizers (e.g. Daltogard, Stabaxol) and fungicides. Manufacturers' samples containing a stabilizer as well as material made in the laboratory with I % addition of one of the anti-hydrolysis compounds, were tested by inoculation with Stemphylium, Aspergillus niger and Penicillium citrinum, surface growth of Aspergillus and Penicillium occurred but penetration by Stemphylium was prevented. In all cases, softening of the material was slowed down, (the fungicidal effect of stabilizers measured by the conventional method was found to be negligible).
A number of British firms supplied polyurethane samples containing fungicides alone or in combination with a stabilizer. The nature of the fungicides was not disclosed. 20 different samples with addition of "protecting agents" were tested and showed various degrees of improvement. However, none of the treatments gave complete protection against fungal attack.
In search for a more effective preservative which would give satisfactory protection against microbial attacks, the following requirements had to be considered:- I) the fungicide should be soluble in the polyester; 2) it should be stable at the curing temperature (100-IIO'C); 3) it should not interfere with the isocyanate reaction during manufacture. Among the various preservatives screened were:- orthophenylphenol, parachlorrnetaxylenol, Panacide, mercaptobenzthiazole, pentachlornitrobenzene, hexachlorbenzene, copper-8-hydroxyquinoline, 8-hydroxyquinoline. Only 8-hydroxyquinoline proved successful and achieved complete resistance of the cured material against fungal attack. So far, after 3 years storage, no deterioration of the polyurethane which had an addition of 2% of the fungicide to the compounding materials, has occurred. During this period, samples were intermittently subjected to inoculation with the isolates from damaged polyurethane, but showed complete immunity to mould attack.
The use of 8-hydroxyquinoline as preservative for polyurethane is governed by Patent (Degener U.S. Patent 1963) in the U.S.A., but not in Britain.
References
Evans, D. M. and Levisohn, I. (1966). Fungal growth on polyurethane printing rollers. PATRA Printing Lab. Report 71.
Ross, S. H. (1963). Fungus resistance of silicone rubber potted firing modules. Memorandum Report M. 64-17-1; U.S. Frankford Arsenal.
Leeflang, K. W. H. (1963). J. Am. Water Works Ass., 55, (12), 1523.
Improvements in polyurethane rubber Genthane-S. (1964). Plastics and Rubber Weekly, (19), 12.
Brown, A. E. (1946). The problem of fungal growth. Modern Plastics (Technical section), 189-195; 254-256.
Biodeterioration of polyester-based polyurethane. Dorothy M. Evans and I. Levisohn
Berk, S. et al. (1957). Utilization of plasticisers and related organic compounds by fungi. Industrial and Engineering Chern., 49, (7) 1115-1124.,
Klausmeier, R. E. and Jones, W. A. (1961). Microbial degradation of plasticisers. Developments in Industrial Microbiology, vol. II, Plenum Press, New York (47-53).
91
Levisohn, I. et al. (1963) The preservation of fountain solutions based on carboxymethylcellulose and gum arabic. P ATRA Printing Lab. Report 52.
Scott, J. (1920). A rubber micro-fungus. The India Rubber J., 410-412.
Degener U.S. Patent 3, 085, 984, April 16th, 1963.
Biodeterioration of polyester-based polyurethane. Dorothy M. Evans and I. Levisohn
Plate I A piece of polyurethane stripped from an old roller, showing patches of mould growth in what would otherwise be a clear transparent compound.
Plate II A magnified view ( X 5) of a mouldy area of polyurethane showing the tunnels formed by the fungal hyphae which result in the roller becoming soft in patches.
92
1:
I: II
·'l
Costa, C. and Pacheco, H. Int. Biodetn Bull., 4, (2), 93-100, (1968). Etude de !'influence de differents facteurs sur Ia croissance de Trichoderma viride et son activite cellulolytique.
ETUDE DE L'INFLUENCE DE DIFFERENTS FACTEURS SUR LA CROISSANCE DE TRICHODERMA VIR/DE ET SON ACTIVITE
CELLULOLYTIQUE C. Costa*' et H. Pacheco'
Resume Aprc!s avoir precise les conditions les plus favorables a Ia croissance de Trichoderma viride et a son
activite cellulolytique: agitation-aeration-concentration en cellulose SOLKAFLOC .BW 200-age et volume de Ia preculture servant a l'ensemencement, les auteurs ont sui-vi !'evolution du pH et Ia consommation des ions. (K+- NH,+- NO,-) pendant Ia croissance du mycelium. Si le pH est ajuste a 6,3 au bout du quatrieme jour de Ia culture, Ia vitesse de croissance et le poids du mycelium, ainsi que son activite cellulolytique ont ete nettement ameliores.
Summary After having specified the most favourable conditions for the growth of Trichoderma viride and the
production of its cellulolytic activity (shaking, aeration, concentration of cellulose [Solkafloc BW 200], age and volume of the subculture used for inoculation), the authors have followed the pH change and consumption of ions (K+, NH4+, NO,-) during the growth of the mycelium. If the ,pH was adjusted to 6.3 after four days' growth, the speed of growth and the weight of mycelium, as well as the cellulolytic activity were distinctly increased.
Introduction
Beaucoup de travaux ont deja ete consacres a Ia recherche des meilleures conditions de culture des myceliums et des facteurs qui influencent Ia production et l'activite des cellulases (Gascoigne et Gascoigne 1960; Reese, 1962), mais pour une souche determinee, il n'y a pas eu d'etude systematique et les resultats obtenus par differents auteurs soot difficiles a com parer.
De telles etudes ont un interet scientifique pur et pratique. La production de solutions sucrees a partir de celluloses de recuperation (bois-pailles etc ... ) interesse les industries des fermentations. Comme !'hydrolyse de Ia cellulose par les acides exige une trop grande depense d'energie et pose des problemes techniques, Ia degradation par les cellulases fongiques a deja retenu !'attention des chercheurs. Cette solution rencontre cependant des difficultes:
-le mycelium, pendant son developpement, consomme Ia majeure partie du glucose qu'il a libere a partir de Ia cellulose.
-Ia croissance du mycelium et Ia production de cellulases son! lentes (une quinzaine de jours pour atteindre un palier). C'est pourquoi, !'utilisation pratique d'un mycelium exige:
-d'augmenter Ia vitesse de croissance et son activite cellulolytique
-d'eliminer a un moment donne le mycelium du milieu de culture ou d'inhiber sa croissance, pour qu'il ne consomme pas le glucose produit par les enzymes extracellulaires qu'il a secretees et qui participent a Ia cellulolyse.
Parmi les microorganismes cellulolytiques, nous avons choisi un mycelium: Trichoderma viride, dont l'activiteparaissait Ia plus elevee(Reese, 1956, Toyama; 1952), pour etudier les principaux facteurs qui agissent sur sa croissance et sa production de cellulases et essayer de les ameliorer. En conservant Ia cellulose SOLKAFLOC BW 200 comme unique source carbonee dans les milieux des precultures et des cultures, nous avons cherche a etablir !'influence: -de !'agitation et de !'aeration-de Ia concentration en cellulose-de Ia preculture-des ions mineraux et dupH.
Resultats
!-Agitation et aeration
Des essais comparatifs portant sur Jes conditions d'agitation et d'aeration (par barbotage d'air-a !'aide d'un appareil imprimant aux recipients un mouvement alternatif rectiligne-a !'aide d'un agitateur magnetique) et sur le rapport: volume du milieu de culture f volume du recipient, nous ont amene a realiser Jes cultures de preference dans des erlenmeyers d'un litre, contenant 800 ml de milieu
'Service de Chimie Biologique, Institut National des Sciences Appliquees, 20, Avenue Einstein, 69, Villeurbanne, France. (*)These de docteur-ingenieur, no 238, 1966, Lyon. Recherches subventionnees par Ia Societe S.A.R.B. Decines,
Isere, France. (Copy received 29th February, 1968)
93
Etude de !'influence de differents facteurs sur Ia croissance de Trichoderma viride et son activite cellulolytique. C. Costa, et H. Pacheco,
liquide, agitees par un barreau aimante (Fig no I). Dans ces conditions, Ia croissance de Trichoderma viride est plus rapide que celle obtenue par NORKRANS (1963).
2-Inlluence de Ia concentration en cellulose
Quelques travaux avaient deja ete consacres a !'etude de ce parametre. Mais les resultats des essais, effectues sur divers types de cellulose, sont diflicilement comparables (Norkrans 1963; Toyama, 1958; Hanstein, 1960; Gilligan et Reese, 1954).
Nous avons ete obliges de reprendre cette etude avec Ia cellulose SOLKAFLOC BW 200, afin de mettre en evidence !'influence d'autres facteurs. La croissance du mycelium (evaluee apres 14 jours de culture) atteint sensiblement un palier a partir d'une concentration en cellulose de 25 a 30 g I litre (Fig no 2). L'activite cellulolytique des filtrats de culture est maxima quand Ia culture a ete faite sur un milieu contenant 25 g I litre de cellulose (Fig no 3).
Inlluence de Ia precuiture
La concentration en cellulose dans le milieu de preculture (entre lOg et 20 gflitre) n'affecte pas Ia culture, mais !'age et le volume de Ia preculture ont une influence notable sur Ia croissance du mycelium et l'activite cellulolytique (Fig no 4-5 et 6). Les meilleurs resultats ont ete obtenus: -avec un volume de preculture correspondant a I % du volume de Ia culture -avec une preculture dont l'age est compris entre 9 et 12 jours. Pour ensemencer les cultures ulterieures, nous avons choisi un temps de preculture de I I jours.
Inlluence des ions mineraux du pH
L'infiuence du pH jnitial du milieu de culture sur Ia croissance de Trichoderma viride avait deja ete etudiee (Norkrans, 1963; Hanstein, 1960; Toyama, 1952). Nons avons choisi un pH initial de 5,5 Jegerement plus acide, afin d'eviter une contamination bacterienne et parce que cette valeur est proche du pH optimum des cellulases secretees par Trichoderma (Toyama, 1953).
L'acidification du milieu, dans Ia premiere phase de Ia culture, avait ete observee. Mais it semble que personne n'ait eu Ia curiosite de suivre !'evolution du pH et Ia consommation des ions pendant toute Ia croissance du mycelium. Nous avons observe une acidification importante du milieu qui atteint un maximum trois jours aprcls le debut de Ia culture, smvie d'une remontee du pH qui arrive aprcls le huitieme jour, a depasser le pH d'origine et atteint un palier (Fig no 7). L'acidification est provoquee surtout par Ia consommation de Ia presque totalite des ions ammoniums; les ions nitrates soot utilises seulement lorsque lesions NH, + ont presque disparus (Fig no 7). Ces resultats nous ont conduits a realiser des experiences dans lesquelles !'acidification du milieu de culture est compensee. Si le pH est ajuste a sa valeur initiale, 5,5, par addition d'ions NH, + pendant toute Ia periode correspondant a !'acidification naturelle, Ia croissance du mycelium et Ia produc-
94
tion de cellulases ne sont pas ameliorees. Mais si le pH est ajuste a 6,3, 4 jours apnls le debut de Ia culture, it y a une amelioration nette de Ia vitesse de croissance et de Ia production du mycelium ainsi que de l'activite cellulolytique des filtrats de cultures (Fig no 8 et 9). Cette amelioration n'est constatee que lorsque le pH est ajuste a 6,3, a !'aide d'une solution de soude, d'ammoniaque ou une solution mixte: soude + potasse dans laquelle le rapport~· = 15; l'ajustement du pH a !'aide d'une solution de potasse n'est pas favorable (Fig no 8 et 9).
Discussion et conclusion
Les resultats de nos experiences apportent des precisions qui concernent en particulier le role important du pH et des cations sur Ia croissance et l'activite cellulolytique de Trichoderma viride. L'acidification du milieu par le mycelium est un phenomclne indispensable qui parait lie a Ia synthclse d'une nitrate reductase necessaire a !'utilisation des ions nitrates; it reste a savoir si ces observations inedites sont valables seulement pour Trichoderma viride ou bien pour tous les myceliums possedant une activite cellulolytique.
Partie experimentale Les precultures et les cultures ont ete faites sur le
milieu mineral de WHITAKER (1951) ajuste a pH 5,5 a !'aide d'une solution de HCI N-(solution A).
Precultures
Volume de !'erlenmeyer 250 ml Volume de Ia solution A 100 ml Cellulose SOLKAFLOC BW 200 I g Autolysat de levure !Omg Temperature d'incubation (obscurite) 30°C Agitation magnetique, a !'aide d'un barreau aimante, enrobe de teflon (40 X 8 mm), tournant a Ia vitesse de 3 tis. Ensemencement a !'aide d'un prelclvement sur une culture de 3 jours faite sur gelose glucosee, en tube.
Cultures
Volume de !'erlenmeyer I l Volume de Ia solution A 800 ml Cellulose SOLKAFLOC BW 200 20 g Temperature d'incubation ( obscurite) 30°C Volume de preculture (11 jours) servant a l'ensemencement 8 ml Agitation magnetique, a !'aide d'un barreau aimante, enrobe de Teflon (60 X 10 mm), tournant a Ia vitesse de 5 tis.
Mesure de Ia croissance du mycelium dans les precultures et les cultures
Des prelclvements homogenes de 10 ml sont effectues. Aprcls centrifugation (6000 tlmn-20 mn), le culot est lave 3 fois a l'eau puis secbe a l00°C pendant 10 h. La quantile d'azote est determinee pour chaque prelclvement, sur ce residu sec, apres mineralisation, seton Ia methode de Kjedahl. Comme le mycelium pur, recolte sur gelose et seche, a un taux, d'azote de 12%, en multipliant Ia quantile d'azote trouvee par
I I
l
' Etude de !'influence de differents facteurs sur Ia croissance de Trichoderma viride et son activite cellulolytique. C. Costa et H. Pacheco
:<;<>. on obtient Ia quantile de mycelium (poids sec) pour chaque prelevement. La croissance du mycelium est exprimee en grammes de poids sec par litre de culture.
Mesure de l'activite cellulolytique des filtrats de culture
10 ml de cultures sont preleves et centrifuges. 5 ml de surnageant sont mis dans un erlenmeyer de 100 mi. Le pH est ajuste a 5 soit avec 2 ml d'une solution d'acide citrique M/5 ou de phosphate disodique M/5. On ajoute 500 mg de cellulose SOLKAFLOC BW 200 (100 g/1) et IOOpg de merthiolate. Le recipient, bouche hermetiquement, est abandonne 48 h a 40'C, sans agitation. Une serie d'experiences nous a montre que ces conditions etaient les meilleures pour Ia cellulolyse qui atteint presque un palier apnls 48 h.
La methode d'Hagedorn et Jensen (1923) permet de doser le pouvoir reducteur global qui est traduit, dans un but de simplification, en quantile de glucose. La valeur reelle de !'activit<! cellulolytique des filtrats de culture exprimee en grammes de glucose libere en 48 h par litre de solution, est obtenue en deduisant de Ia quantile totale de sucres reducteurs doses apres !'action enzymatique des filtrats, Ia valeur trouvee avant !'action enzymatique et correspondant aux sucres libreres pendant Ia culture.
La chromatographic sur papier a permis de constater qu'en plus du glucose et du cellobiose liberes dans Ia proportion approximative 3-1 en poids, it apparait des traces de xylose.
Mesure de Ia consommation des ions: NH4 + -NO,
-K+ La consommation des ions NH,+ - NO,- -
K + a ete sui vie en dosant les ions restants dans le milieu de culture.
Dosage des ions ammonium Des prelevements de 10 ml sont centrifuges. Les
ions NH, + soot doses sur 8 ml du surnageant par Ia methode de Kjedahl, sans mineralisation.
Dosage des ions nitrates
La methode utilisee est celle de J. Cotte et E. Kahane (1946): reduction des nitrates en ammonium par le sulfate ferreux en milieu alcalin, suivie d'un entrainement de l'ammoniaque qui est recueillie dans HCI N/100. Les dosages soot effectues sur 5 m1 de filtrat de culture. La quantile d'ions ammoniums presents dans le milieu avant Ia reduction est retranchee de Ia quantile trouvee apres reduction.
Dosage du potassium Par spectrometric de Hamme (Robinson, Newman
et Schoeb, 1950).
Bibliographie
Cotte J. et Kahane E. (1946), Nouvelle methode de reduction pour Ia determination des nitrates: Bul. Soc. chim. France, 542-544.
95
Gascoigne J. A. et. Gascoigne M. M. (1960), Biological degradation of cellulose, Butterworth ed. London 264 p.
Gilligan W. et Reese E. T. (1954), Evidence for multiple components in microbial cellulases: Can. J. Microbial,. 1, 90-107
Hagedorn H. C. et Jensen B. N. (1923) Biochem. Z., 135, 46
Hanstein E. (1960), Cellulose decomposing enzymes of Impex /acteus and Trichoderma viride: Ber. Schweiz. Botan. Ges., 70, 314-351
Norkrans B. (1963), Influence of some cultural conditions on fungal cellulase production: Physiol. Plant., 16, 11-19
Reese E. T. (1956), Enzymic hydrolysis of cellulose: Appl. Microbial., 4, 39-45
Reese E. T. (1962), Advances in enzymic hydrolysis of cellulose and related materials, Pergamon Press ed. 290 p.
Robinson A. R., Newman K. J. et Schoeb E. J. (1950), Mineral analysis of biological material by flame spectroscopy. Apparatus and application: Anal. Chern., 22, 1026-1028
Toyama N. (1952), Cellulose assimilation of molds: J. Fermentation Techno/., 30, 409-414, in C.A. 47, 5679 c (1953)
Toyama N. (1952), Cellulose assimilation of molds: J. Fermentation Techno/., 30, 89-93, in C.A. 47, 5679 c, (1953)
Toyama N. (1953), Cellulose decomposition by Trichoderma koningi J. Fermentation Techno/., 31, 315-320, in C.A. 48, 6114 h (1954)
Toyama N. (1958), Cellulolytic activities of Trichoderma /eoningi and their application: Bull. Faculty Agric. University of Miyazaki, no. 4, 40-58 in C.A. 53, 22239 c (1959)
Whitaker D. R. (1951), Purification of the cellulase of Hyrothecium verrucaria: Nature, 168, 1070-1071
Ugendes des Figures
Fig. no I: Croissance de Trichoderma viride sur cellulose SOLKAFLOC BW 200 (25 g/1).
Fig. no 2: Influence de Ia concentration en cellulose SOLKAFLOC BW 200 dans le milieu de culture sur Ia production de mycelium. (evaluee apn!s 14j)
Fig. no 3: Influence de Ia concentration en cellulose SOLKAFLOC BW 200 dans le milieu de culture sur le pouvoir cellulolytique des filtrats de cultures.
Fig. no 4: Influence du volume de preculture ensemence sur Ia culture de Trichoderma viride et sur l'activite cellulolytique des filtrats de cultures. En trait continu: production du mycelium En trait discontinu: activit<! cellulolytique
!!. culture ensemencee avec 8 ml de preculture (1 %) 0 culture ensemencee avec 12,5 ml de preculture
(1,5%) 0 culture ensemencee avec 16 ml de preculture (2 %) e culture ensemencee avec 80 ml de preculture
(10%)
Etude de !'influence de differents facteurs sur Ia croissance de Trichoderma viride et son activite cellulolytique. C. Costa et H. Pacheco
Fig. no 5: Influence de !'age de Ia preculture sur Ia culture de Trichoderma viride
• - -• culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 2 jours
~ culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee 4 jours
.. -- .o culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 6 jours
0- - -0 culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 9 jours
b.--b. culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 12 jours
e e culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 15 jours
Fig. no 6: Influence de !'age de Ia preculture sur l'activite cellulolytique des filtrats de cultures de Trichoderma viride.
•- - -• culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 2 jours
~ culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 4 jours
.. --.o culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 6 jours
0- - -0 culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 9 jours
b.--b. culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 12 jours
e e culture ensemencee avec une preculture agee de 15 jours
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Influence de l'ajustement du pH a 6,3 apres Ia periode acidification naturelle (4 jours) a !'aide de solutions alcalines normales. culture temoin ajustement du pH avec NaOH N ajustement du pH avec KOH N ajustement du pH avec NH.OH N ajustement du pH avec un melange N de NaOH et KOH dans lequelle rapport est:
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Influence de l'ajustement du pH a 6,3 sur l'activite cellulolytique des filtrats de culture de Trichoderma viride culture temoin ajustement du pH avec NaOH N ajustement du pH avec KOH N ajistement du pH avec NH.OH N ajustement du pH avec un melange N de NaOH et KOH dans lequel le rapport
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Novakowska-Waszczuk, Anna, Lasota-Dulkowska, Ewa and Jakubowska, Jadwiga. Int. Biodetn Bull., 4, (2), 101-103, (1968). A note on microbial spoilage of toilet soaps and their protection.
A NOTE ON MICROBIAL SPOILAGE OF TOILET SOAPS AND THEIR PROTECTION
Anna Nowakowska-Waszczuk,' Ewa Lasota-Dulkowska,1 Jadwiga Jakubowska.t
Summary The toilet soaps are shown to be contaminated with living cocci and bacilli. Among the moulds
Pu/lularia pu/lulans, Stachybotrys atra, Scopu/ariopsis brevicaulis and Trichoderma viride can also develop on the soaps. Cu-8-hydroxyquinolinolate and malachite and brilliant greens at concentration of 0.01 % are proposed as antiseptics to the paper packages of soaps. ·
Soaps are generally known to be resistant to the action of microorganisms, due mainly to the low water content not exceeding 30%, the high pH level to 8.5, and the antiseptic character of the long-chain fatty acids.
In spite of their antiseptic properties, soaps stored under humid conditions are susceptible to microbial deterioration, and, Hollo and Gorog (1952) observed the development of aerobic micrococci on toilet soa,ps during a wet and warm summer. Micrococci were also isolated from soaps by Burnes and King (1956). The aerobic species capable of utilizing the long-chain fatty acids as a sole carbon and energy source are widely distributed in nature, principally those belonging to the Pseudomonas, Serratia, Sarcina groups and moulds. The fatty acids are metabolized by oxidation (Waltman and Rittenberg 1954) and bacterial oxidative activity has been found to be higher than that of moulds. Serratia marcescens was found to be capable of oxidizing all saturated fatty acids to 18 carbons, however, the 17 and 18 carbon acids were oxidized slowly (Bishop and Stilll961).
To prevent the microbial deterioration during a prolonged exposure to moist atmospheres the soaps or their wrapping paper should be treated with antiseptics. This problem is important especially in tropical regions. Antiseptic treatment of soaps may be un-. desirable from certain specific aspects, but paper treated with antiseptics can be used without any contra-indications.
The subject of this paper is to examine whether the commercial toilet soaps are contaminated with the living microorganisms which are able to spoil them and whether such soaps may be deteriorated by moulds as a result of contamination arising from their paper packages. Also to examine the effectiveness of some antiseptics such as 8-hydroxyquinolinol, Cu-8-hydroxyquinolinolate and two arylmethane basic dyesmalachite and brilliant green against microorganisms isolated from soaps and their wrapping paper.
To demonstrate actual contamination of soaps• small soap blocks were placed in sterile Petri dishes
with 2 ml sterile water and incubated at 30•. The contamination of paper packages (including trade mark papers, thin papers) was estimated on CzapekDox medium and on agar broth and malt agar: the pieces of paper about 10 em' were put on the solid surface of the media and then incubated for four to ten days at 30°. The moulds isolated from paper were tested for cellulose decomposition on mineral agar medium with cellulose added and for their ability to grow on the soaps. 8-hydroxyquinolinol, Cu-8-hydroxyquinolinolate, brilliant green and malachite green were used at concentrations: 0.01 and 0.0001% in aqueous solutions. All these compounds were in the pure form commercially available. Antiseptic effectiveness was determined by the paper filter disk method and the zone of the growth inhibition indicated an antimicrobial activity. Filter paper disks 1 em diameter were dipped into the antiseptic solution, allowed to dry and placed on agar medium previously inoculated with either bacteria or moulds. The bacteriostatic test was performed on the agar broth with 30% yeast extract solution and 0.5% glucose added; the antifungal test was made on the malt agar and on cellulose mineral agar medium. Duplicate plates were incubated at 25' and 32° for suitable periods of time depending on the organism being tested.
After ten days of incubation the development of many bacterial colonies was observed about 10 per cm2, on the surface of all the soaps. White and yellow convex glistening colonies of micrococci were present mainly 1 to 2 rom in diameter, and some larger colonies up to 5 mm, together with a number of transparent and slimy colonies of aerobic sporeforming bacilli. (Table 1).
The predominant contamination of paper packages were moulds, from 20 to 130 spores per 100 em'. There were mostly Penicillia then Aspergilli and some species belonging to Fungi impeifecti. According to Thoro and Raper (1945), Raper and Thorn (1949) and Smith (1960) the following species were determined: Penicillium citrinum, P. oxalicum, P. commune series, Aspergillus versico/our, A. fumigatus, A. clavatus, Pullularia pullu/ans, Scopu/ariopsis brevicaulis, Stachy-
'Department of Industrial Microbiology, Technical University, Lodz, Poland. (Copy received 14th May, 1968)
101
A note on microbial spoilage of toilet soaps and their protection. Anna Novakowska-Waszczuk, Ewa Lasota-Dulkowska and Jadwiga Jakubowska
botrys atra and Trichoderma viride. All the moulds were found capable of decomposing cellulose, although some grew only on the coloured trade mark papers, namely, A.fumigatus, Scopu/ariopsis, Pullularia and Stachybotrys. Pullularia pu//u/ans, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis were able to grow on the soaps and, in the presence of bacterial colonies, two other strains also grew: Stachybotrys atra and Trichoderma viride. In contrast to the abundant bacterial development observed on soaps, mould growth was comparatively little. For example, Pu//u/aria formed after several weeks small and compact colonies typically black and leathery in appearance. Scopulariopsis colonies were strongly convex and compact and those of Trichoderma and Stachybotrys extremely restricted. In spite of the scanty growth all the moulds were able to form spores.
As shown in table 2, all the antiseptics tested were active at 0.01% concentration although bacteria appeared to be more resistant than moulds. Cu-8-bydroxyquinolinolate was more effective than 8-bydroxyquinolinol and malachite green a little more than brilliant green.
It is obvious that the storage of soaps in as dry an atmosphere as possible is the best protection against microbial spoilage, but if exposure to moisture is extended the application of suitable antiseptics seems to be necessary. 8-bydroxyquinolinol, especially its copper chelate, and arylmetbane basic dyes i.e. malachite and brilliant greens may be used for a paper treatment. These antiseptics are known as active antimicrobial agents Block (1956), Crandall (1955), Richardson and Ogilvy (1955) Weaver et a/. (1959).
Crandall (1955) proposed the application of antiseptics at the stage of paper production when it is nearly dry, and this was found to be the most economical treatment. The antiseptics applied at this point are limited to those which are water soluble or water dispersible. Arylmethane dyes-water soluble and quinolinol compounds which are water dispersible could be successfully used. It must be pointed out that the paper treated will retain the colour of the added antiseptics but at concentration of O.ot % it is quite
102
light and may even be considered decorative. On the other band the paper treated with 8-hydroxyquinolinol or Cu-8-hydroxyquinolinol may discolour or may form coloured salts with some dyestuffs. For these reasons the antiseptics should preferably be used for this treatment of thin paper contacting directly with the soaps.
References
Bishop, D. C. and Still, J. L. (1961). Fatty acids metabolism in Serratia marcescens. J. Bacteriol., 82, 370.
Block, S. S. (1956). Examination of the activity of 8-bydroxyqilinolinol to fungi. Appl. Microbiol., 4, 183.
Burnes, A. T. H. and King, H. K. (1956). Bacterial oxidation of fatty acids at alkaline pH. Biochem. J., 64, 25.
Crandall, H. C. (1955). Microbiological process report. Fungus proofing of paper and paperboard. Appl. Microbiol., 3, 89.
Hollo, J. and Giirog, J. (1952). Vizsgiilatok a szappan mikrobiologiai rolasanak felderitesere. Year Book' of the Inst. of Agricult. Chern. Techn. University of Technical Science, Budapest.
Raper, K. and Thorn. C. (1949). A manual of the Penicillia, Baltimore, The Williams a. Wilkins Comp.
Richardson, J. H. and Ogilvy, W. S. (1955). Antimicrobial penetrants sealers. Appl. Microbio/., 3, 277.
Smith, C. (1960). An introduction to industrial mycology, London Edward Arnold Ltd.
Thorn, C. and Raper, K. (1945). A manual of Aspergilli, Baltimore, the Williams a. Wilkins Comp.
Waltman, J. M. and Rittenberg, S. C. (1954). Studies on the aerobic oxidation of fatty acids by bacteria. J. Bacterial., 68, 585.
Weaver, J. W., Jeroski, E. B. and Goldstein, I. S. (1959). Toxicity of dyes and related compounds to wood destroying fungi. Appl. Microbiol., 7, 145.
A note on microbial spoilage of toilet soaps and their protection. Anna Novakowska-Waszczuk, Ewa Lasota-Dulkowska and Jadwiga Jakubowska
TABLE 1-8ome characteristics of bacteria isolated from toilet soaps
TYPES Gram stain catalase gelatin nitrite presence Iiquefac. reduction
Bacilli + + + micrococci-white colonies + + micrococci-yellow colonies + + +
TABLE 2-Eifcctiveness of antiseptics against microorganisms
isolated from toilet soaps and their wrapping paper
zone of inhibition in mm
strain 8-hydroxyquinolinol Cu-8 bydroxyquin. brilliant green
c 0 n c e n t r a t i o n % 0.01 0.001 0.01 0.001 O.ot 0.001
Pullu/aria pullulans 11 0 20 12 12 3
Trichoderma viride 5 3 10 5 10 5
Stachybotrys atra 12 3 12 5 12 3
Scopulariopsis brev. 5 0 13 9 6 1
Penicillium citrinum 5 1 10 2 3 0
Aspergillus fumigatus 1 0 5 3 10 1
Aspergillus clavatus 1 0 10 3 10 1
Aspergillus versicol. 5 1 10 2 6 2
Micrococcus/white col. 2 0 2 0 2 1
Bacillus sp. 2 0 2 0 2 1
103
glucose acidific.
weakly
weakly
malachite green
O.ot 0.001
17 9
11 5
15 4
6 1
5 0
5 0
5 0
9 3
5 3
5 2
REPORTS OF MEETINGS
1st INTERNATIONAL BIODETERIORATION SYMPOSIUM
SOUTHAMPTON
9th-14th SEPTEMBER, 1968
It is hoped to publish abstracts of the papers read at this Symposium in the International Biodeterioration Bulletin, volume 5, number I.
PRESERVATION OF WOOD IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
A meeting of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Group on the Preservation of Wood in the Marine Environment was held on the 4th and 5th April, 1968, immediately following a successful 'Workshop' on wood, held at the Portsmouth College of Technology from the 27th March to the 3rd April.
1. Preservation of wood in the Marine Environment 'Workshop'
The principal aim of the 'workshop' was to bring together those people from the member countries who would be concerned with carrying out the immersions, inspection and evaluation of the wood test blocks of the co-operative research programme. Lectures were devoted to such topics as fouling of submerged surfaces by bacteria, Polyzoa, Annelids, Cirripedes and Algae and the effect of hydrological factors on these organisms. Practical demonstrations were provided so that participants could handle, dissect and observe representatives of each of the groups. Later lectures were devoted to the biology and identifica. tion of Molluscan and Crustacean borers and marine fungi. Again practical demonstrations were laid out in which delegates could participate. Lectures were also delivered on marine borer resistance tests in the tropics.
The proceedings of the Workshop will be published by O.E.C.D. and should be available early in 1969.
In addition delegates were entertained by the City of Portsmouth, the College of Technology, the British Wood Preservation Association and several interesting trips were organised.
' 2. Report from member countries concerning develop
ing programmes in basic and applied research
Canada Dr. Trussell stated that his laboratory had been
carrying out work on applied and basic research for over 20 years. Work at present was confined to the West coasts of Canada and the U.S.A. but this was being extended to the East coasts and possibly to Europe. The British Columbia Research Council has 84 monitoring stations on the Pacific coast where monthly evaluations are carried out from the surface down to 20 - 30 feet. Their
105
interests cover the logging industry, dry docks, ferry boat installations etc. Sodium arsenite had been developed for the protection of logs against marine borer attack. A sonic method for the examination of marine piles has been developed Walden and Trussell (1965).
Compounds used to impregnate timber against borer attack developed by industrial firms as well as those developed by B.C.R.C. were tested and it was in this sphere that Dr. Trussell saw the possibility of a co-operative programme being drawn up. He stated that Bankia setacea had been studied for some years as this was the most active borer from the commercial point of view on the Pacific North West coast of the American continent. The current programme included studies of the digestive metabolism of this borer with emphasis on the various stages of wood transformation.
Recently the Council had become interested in the pollution abatement programmes, currently being carried out in America. This work includes prediction of borer activity when pollution is no longer present. As a result of this work interest has been shown in the techniques for impregnating timber in situ.
The annual investment for research and control work for this laboratory was 175,000 dollars most of which was contributed by industry. A number of papers were distributed which are listed at the end of this article.
Germany
Dr. Kuhne said that his Institute was concerned with testing for marine borers, but the work had declined somewhat as industrial firms were testing their preservatives in tropical waters. Laboratory testing of wood preservatives against Limnoria tripunctata was carried out and the durability of three species of wood. This work was soon to be published. It was hoped that work on fungi, bacteria/marine borer relationships and their nitrogen metabolism would be started in the near future.
United Kingdom
Dr. Levi said that there was little work undertaken at present in Britain on the preservation of wood in the marine environment and the break-
down of wood in the sea. Some work was being carried out at his laboratory with Limnoria tripunctata and some tests were being carried out in tropical waters. The British Wood Preserving Association were carrying out service testing for natural durability of certain woods and were also testing certain wood preservatives.
Dr. Gareth Jones reported that his research work was concerned with the physiology of marine fungi. He was interested in the question, "What is a marine fungus?". Terrestrial and freshwater fungi were grown at different salinities and the reproduction observed. For certain terrestrial Ascomycetes the asci and ascospores are malformed when grown in 60-70% sea water, at higher salinities no asci or ascospores are formed but perithecia are still produced. In 80-90% sea water perithecial production stops. Future work will be directed to the fine structure of the ascospores to see if there are any internal structural changes taking place. Work is in hand on the germination of spores of both marine and terrestrial fungi kept at different conditions of temperature and salinity. Attention was drawn to a number of published papers which are listed at the end of this article.
Nonvay
Mr. Ullevalseter said that little work was being done in Norway, his own work was of an applied nature and was especially concerned with fishing vessels. His present interest was in the commercial use of new species of wood in the marine environment, especially aspen and in improving its resistance. It was easy to treat by pressure techniques since it has only a small amount of heartwood.
France
Dr. Deschamps stated that in La Rochelle fundamental and applied research were undertaken. Besides certain tests on treatments developed by industry his research on boring organisms was mainly concentrated on non toxic coatings and ecological problems. Research was carried out in the field and in the laboratory under conditions of running seawater.
Mr. F ougerousse summarised the research he was carrying out in Madagascar on the natural resistance of timbers to marine borers.
Greece
Dr. Georgopoulos said that there was no research being carried out on marine borers in Greece but he hoped that the co-operative research programme would stimulate work in this field.
United States
Dr. Ruth Turner stated that work on the digestion and development in Teredo was only just starting that she could in fact add nothing to what she had already said in the workshop. She stated that further work on the preservation of wood against
106
Teredo and marine fungi would be the subject of a joint research programme with the United Kingdom delegates.
Work by Dr. S. P. Meyers and his workers has been largely on the growth and reproduction of marine fungi (see list at the end of this article) and studies of marine fungal/nematode associations. Dr. Meyers is actively working on the cellulolytic activity of marine fungi and should be publishing a number of papers on the subject in the near future.
Dr. Jan Kohlmeyer continues with his taxonomic work of marine fungi and a list of his recent publications appears in the list at the end of this article.
References
Trussell, P.C., C. C. Walden & I.U.F. Allen. (1966). Protection of wood against borer damage with sodium arsenate. Materials Protection, No. 5, 67, PP 3-ll.
Townsley, P. M., R. A. Richy & P. C. Trussell (1966). The laboratory rearing of the shipworm Bankia setacea (Tyron). Proceedings of the National Shellfisheries Association, 56, pp 49-52.
Walden, C. C. & P. C. Trussell, (1965). Sonic examination of marine piles. Dock and Harbour Authority, XLVI, No. 535.
Report of Current Marine Borer Activity at the British Columbia Research Council, Vancouver, Canada. 2nd November, 1967 (contains a list of 27 B.C.R.C. publications in the field of marine borers).
Hall, G. S., (1967). Incidence of marine borers round Britain's coasts. Timber Research and Development Association, No. S.T. 146.
Saunders, R. G. & G. S. Hall, (1967). Marine borer resistance to timbers. Timber Research and Development Association, No. S.T. 147.
Oliver, A. C. (1963). Timber for marine and freshwater construction. Timber Research and Development Association.
Kohlmeyer, J. (1968). Marine fungi from the tropics. Mycologia 60, 252-270.
Meyers, S. P. (1966). Variability in growth and reproduction of the marine fungus Lulworthia jforidana. He/go/. Wiss. Meeresunters 13, 436-443.
Meyers, S. P. and Hopper, B. E. (1967). Studies on marine fungal/nematode associations and plant degradation. He/go/. Wiss. Meeresunters 15, 270-281.
Meyers, S. P. and Scott, E. (1967). Thalassiomycetes X. Variation in growth and reproduction of two isolates of Corollospora maritima, Mycologia, 59, 446-455.
Meyers, S. P. and Simms, J. (1967). Th3:lass~omyce.tes IX. Comparative studies of reproduction m marme Ascomycetes. Bull. Mar. Sci., 17. 133-148.
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List of Participants
*Delivered Papers tMembers of the group on the Preservation of Wood in the Marine environment.
Dr. R. F. Acker*, E. Adams, J. B. Arnold, Prof. G. Becker*t, J. Bletchley, P. Board, B. Callamet, M. Chabot, A. Clark, P. Deschamps*t, Dr. P. Deschamps, Miss S. Dudbridge, J. R. De Palma, Dr. S. K. Eltringham*t, W. J. Evans, Dr. G. D. Floodgate*. Fougerousse*, Dr. S. G. Georgopoulost, D. R. Houghton*, E. A. Hilditch, Dr. G. S. Hall, Dr. B.
Henningsson, C. D. Hawick, Dr. M. Hodkinson, F. J. Jennings, Dr. H. Kiihne*t, S. Klersen, Prof. W. E. Kershaw, T. Lovegrove, M. Lutley, Dr. M. P. Levit, Prof. S. P. Meyers*, S. McQuire, Prof. E. Mor, N. Mathews, D. S. Morton, Dr. A. Nelson-Smith*, Miss K. Palmer, Dr. G. Russell*, Mrs. C. E. Skinner, Dr. Ruth Turner*t, S. T. Talbot, Dr. P. Trussellt, R. Ullevalsetert, Dr. H. J. Wichers, Mlle. M. M. Gillet.
E. B. Gareth-Janes, Technical Secretary of the Group.
COLLOQUIUM ON MICROBIOLOGICAL DETERIORATION OF MATERIAlS IN WARSAW, POLAND
On 29th of March, 1968 the Colloquim on Microbiological Deterioration of Materials, organized by the Commission for Industrial Microbiology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, was held under the chairmanship of Professor Dr. J. Jakubowska in the Institute of Industrial Organic Chemistry in Warsaw. Over 60 persons from the universities, industrial institutes and authorities interested in microbiological deterioration participated and altogether twelve papers, dealing with the results of investigations in the microbiological deterioration of paper, bookbinding materials, cotton textiles, natural and synthetic fibres, leather, soap, lubricants and PVC conveyor belting were read.
R. Kowalik, Institute oflndustrial Organic Chemistry, Warsaw, gave a general outlook on microbiological deterioration and presented the results of his own investigations in the deterioration of different materials by microorganisms and methods of protection, realized during the last 20 years at the Institute. H. Stefaniak, Institute oflndustrial Organic Chemistry, Warsaw, discussed the methods of testing fungicides used for protecting materials. M. Maciejowska, Sea Fishing Institute, Gdynia, gave the results of microbiological deterioration of fishing yarn, made of natural fibres, in the environments of the bay of Gdansk. Z. Pawlowska, Centre Labor Protection Institute, Warsaw, discussed the influence of resins fixing microbicides on textiles on their microbiological resistance in the soil burial test.
B. J. Zyska, Centra!J.Mining Institute, Katowice,
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presented the results of investigations into the protection of PVC cotton conveyor belting against microbiological deterioration. B. Zalicka and A. Nowakowska-Waszczuk, Department of Technical Microbiology, Technical University, L6dz, discussed the microbiological infection of knitted textiles of synthetic-polymer fibres by bacteria, yeasts and fungi. L. Liwkowicz, Central Labor Protection Institute, Warsaw, presented the results of using some thinacetanilide derivatives as rot-proofing agents in cotton textiles. H. Stefaniak, Institute of Industrial Organic Chemistry, Warsaw, dealt with investigations done in the Institute on the protection of textiles against microbial damage. A. Nowakowska-Waszczuk and S. Walisch, Department of Technical Microbiology, Technical University, Lodi, presented investigations into the bacterial infection of leather preserved wet in salt. A. Nowakowska-Waszczuk, E. LasotaDulkowska, and J. Jaknbowska from the same Department discussed the tests on the microbiological infection of toilet soaps and methods of their protection. D. Lipsohn, I. Sadurska, and R. Kowalik, Institute of Industrial Organic Chemistry, Warsaw, presented the results of preliminary investigations of protecting anticorrosion lubricants from the deteriorating microorganisms. B. J. Zyska and B. Rytych dealt with the evaluation of inhibiting action of microbicides to soil microorganisms in the War burg apparatus. The papers are to be published in the journal "Post~py Mikrobiologii".
B. J. Zyska
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BOOK REVIEWS
THE MICROBIOLOGY OF FABRICATED MATERIALS
J. N. Turner
(J. & A. Churchill Ltd., London, 1967. v + 296pp. Price 42s.)
This volume represents the first general treatise on the subject to be published in this country, and as such it is very welcome. For far too long problems of biodeterioration were considered piecemeal, despite the fact that the same organisms and the same environmental factors could affect widely differing commodities.
Such a book has been needed for some time, but the date of its appearance is perhaps a fortunate one, since here in a convenient form is a readable and well illustrated summary of the relevant literature (over llOO references are quoted) up to the time when the Biodeterioration Information Centre began to issue its reference indexes.
Two chapters deal with timber deterioration; and there are individual chapters on wood-pulp, paper, textiles, leather, plastics, rubber and paints. All are well presented, and give a compact summary of the author's views and of existing literature.
Mis-prints are commendably few, and the only error noted is the statement on p.131 that "Raw wool will support fungal growth at a lower relative humidity than does cotton". This appears to be due to a misunderstanding of the reference quoted. Incidentally, for "A scoured cloth ... " some lines earlier, one should read "A scoured woollen cloth ..... ".
There are also, of course, occasional statements that not all readers will agree with e.g. the statement on p.278 that fungal spores cannot germinate on glass. This brings one to the inherent difficulty in compiling a balanced summary of published information on biodeterioration, where references vary enourmously in value, and in many cases contradict one another. The Compiler no doubt exerts a considerable degree of selection, but can hardly preface each statement by a phrase such as "It has been reported that ..... ". The reader must in consequence take each statement cwn grano sa/is, unless he combines sufficient experience both of microbiology and of the material under discussion -its manufacture and the specifications it must meet in use-to assess the value for himself.
The final chapter deals with miscellaneous matters. Deterioration of adhesives, building materials, glass, oil emulsions, and cosmetics is discussed briefly. There are also sections on surface sterilisation, and on vapour-phase "fumigation"-a term here used, rather unsuitably, to cover both sterilisation e.g. by propylene oxide, and inhibition of deterioration during storage e.g. by diphenyl.
Since this book is only of interest to readers already possessing a fair knowledge of microbiology' the brief introductory chapters on micro-organisms could be omitted without loss. If one might presume to offer a suggestion for future editions of this useful book, it would be for an alternative introductory chapter dealing with the moisture relationships of micro-organisms, and the application of these principles to the prevention of deterioration in storage, in buildings subject to condensation, and during conditions of shipment.
COOLING TOWERS--PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
W. Stanford and G. B. Hill
L. D. Galloway N.J. Butler
(Carter Thermal Engineering Limited, Redhill Road, Hay Mills, Birmingham 25, 1967, 153pp., 16s.)
This small book of 153 pages has been written by two engineers whose main concern is physical and engineering principle. The comments which follow relate solely to the 4! pages or so which relate to the biology of the water cooling tower.
The main aspects of cooling tower biology are mentioned in the text though some have not been indexed. The broad framework outlined is substantially correct but there are a sufficient number of inaccuracies of detail and statements based on misconceptions to prevent the use of the book as a source of accurate biological information. This is unfortunate firstly because authorities such as CEGB, TRADA and FPRL could have been consulted and secondly because there are no easily available accounts of cooling tower biology.
J. G. Savory
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BIOLOGY AND THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Edited by M. Brook
(Institute of Biology Symposium No. 16 Academic Press, London & New York, 1967, xxii + 165 pp. Price 45s.)
The volume under review is the proceedings of the 1966 Institute of Biology symposium. Previous symposia have covered many biological topics of global importance but this is the first to explore the ramifications of biology in industry.
The symposium comprised fourteen contributions grouped into four sessions titled The Economics of Biological Production, Industrial Benefits of Biological Studies, Biology and the Consumer and The Role of Biologists in Industry. The volume is intended to indicate the scope of biology in industry and the contributions are general in nature. In the second session three papers dealt with topics that are directly related to biodeterioration. These contributions were concerned with power station design, waste treatment, and some "case histories" of industrial deterioration problems.
I would recommend this volume for general reading to scientists and industrialists in general as well as to the specialist biologist. It will reveal to the specialist something about the continents and oceans that surround his own little island.
N.J. Butler
A SURVEY AND ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE OF THE TEREDINIDAE
Roth D. Turner
(Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., 1966,
x + 265pp., Price $8.00)
For those interested in the biodeterioration of marine timbers it is important to understand the nature and manner of attack by shipworms. In the introduction to her book Dr. Ruth Turner explains this concisely and later she gives a more extended treatment to the soft anatomy, functional morphology, physiology and life history of these molluscs. The important point is made that anatomical and physiological differences may well reflect variations in the ability of teredines to live under different and adverse conditions. To what extent these animals rely solely upon wood for their food, and how far plankton filtered from the water is critical to development, are questions that can be significant for the technologists seeking to control their depredations in various parts of the world.
Dr. Turner's work on the soft anatomy prepares the way for more critical physiological work on feeding and digestion in the different genera and species. Figures illustrating the soft anatomy include nealry all the 14 genera. Although of high quality these diagrams suffer slightly .from an excessive reduction in printing, so that some details require very close examination.
Taking the details of anatomy and development, together with the characters of shells and pallets, Dr. Turner has grouped the Teredinidae of the world into 14 genera and has proposed a scheme of possible evolutionary trends that will be of interest to biological theorists. For the practical identification of shipworms we are shown that characteristics of the shells and pallets are essential. The author has collected information on the growth stages and environmental variations in the pallets, including changes that are due to different methods of preservation. This serves to emphasise that at least a small range of specimens is desirable from one environment to prevent variations due to age and accident from confusing the identification. From her material of shells and pallets Dr. Turner has devoted more than half the volume to 63 plates of a very high quality. They have been specially drawn for this work and are listed under the names of their original description, but grouped to reflect the author's conclusions of synonymy, thus making comparisons very convenient. In the catalogue, arranged alphabetically, any name that has been applied to a teredine can be traced, and Dr. Turner has spared no pains to unravel the tangled synonymy. With the simple key to genera, specific descriptions and the illustrations, the task of knowing their material will be much simpler for all future workers in this field.
Dr. Turner is to be congratulated on the production of a volume that not only gathers and clarifies information that has been scattered and confused, but also points the way to further work of biological importance.
Arthur R. Hockley
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INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD R. H. Davidson and L. M. Peairs
(Sixth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, London and Sydney, ix + 675 pp. Price 164s.) ~
Previous editions of this book have been widely used by economic entomologists, argonomists and horticulturists and also as a college text for courses in economic entomology.
Although the title indicates that the work deals with insects, other pests, such as mites, ticks, slugs, snails and symphalids, are also covered. In addition to the pests of farm, garden and orchard, the pests of public health importance are included.
The organization of the subject matter is essentially the same as that of previous editions. There is a series of chapters dealing with general entomology-the importance of insects to man, structure, metamorphosis and taxonomy. The chapters on principles of pest management have been expanded considerably to give the reader more recent concepts of insect control. Each of the major chapters deals with the insect pests of a specific crop or economic groups, such as grasses and cereals, legumes, cotton, shade trees, small fruits, stored products, etc.
The book is profusely illustrated and in general, the illustrations are good. Unfortunately there are some pictures of poor quality; for example, Fig. 125 on page 160, Fig. 136 on page 171, Fig. 177 on page 214, Fig. 191 on page 230, and Fig. 385 on page 442.
Information on control measure, especially those involving chemicals, has been brought up to date. However, the trap here is that the use of insecticides changes so rapidly that recommendations for the use of specific chemicals is often out of date before a book like this is off the press.
Chapter 22, Insects Injurious to Stored-Products and Household Goods, is 33 pages of helpful information on pest identification. There is also information on control; however, the reader should obtain local expert advice and recommendations for the use of fumigants, protectants, and other chemicals rather than rely on the recommendations given in this chapter.
References, most U. S., are listed after each section of each chapter. In spite of the limitations of some poor illustrations and soon-to-be-obsolete chemical control
recommendations, the book is a useful reference and guide to those who are called up to diagnose and control insect problems.
John A. Lofgren
DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER IN BUILDING G. A. Scott
(Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., London, 1968, xii + 148pp. Price 25s.)
As the title indicates this book deals generally with deterioration and preservation of building timbers. The first section is concerned with wood as such and is followed in turn by a section on fungal attack of timber, conditions conducive to fungal attack and building techniques to avoid these conditions, treatment of decay in buildings, insect pests and their eradication and then pre-treatment of timber with preservatives, giving in various sections details of some of the wood preservatives in common use.
The chapters (4-7) which deal with the means whereby moisture (the root cause of decay) finds its way into buildings and how this can be avoided by sound building practice is excellent. These important features are frequently relegated a sparse final section in most books on this topic so that on this count the book is well worth reading.
The remainder of the book is not regrettably of a uniform standard, the first three chapters dealing with timber and fungal decay are sparse in detail and do no more than serve as an introduction, although the latter section on insects (chapter II) deals more adequately with these pests.
The chapters (10, 12, 14, 15, and 17) dealing with wood preservatives give a very incomplete view of todays wood preservation industry. Only a few products are included. On these there is a wealth of details, this is so commercially phrased that the publicity departments of the firms whose products are mentioned would do well to copy. More important however are the omissions. The most extensively used of the water borne salts in the U.K. is not mentioned and whole groups of products such as those organic solvent preservatives which are used for pretreatment of timber only get a very short sentence and no commercial products in this group are mentioned.
Metric equivalents to the basic British measurements are given throughout, the conversion having been made with a peculiar exactness-the carpenter who must remove between 457.2 and 609.6 mm of timber (Page 68) is to be pitied. Unfortunately this is likely to be found also in many other texts during the period of conversion to metric systems.
Overall this book is a useful addition to the literature on the subject since few others are written, as this is, from the building end of the problem.
E. A. Hilditch
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BIOCHEMISTRY OF SOME FOODBORNE MICROBIAL TOXINS
Edited by Richard I. Mateles and Gerald N. Wogan
(The M.I.T. Press, London, 1967, 171pp. Price 60s.)
This volume presents a series of ten papers on microbial toxins which are associated with foods and feedingstuffs. All the papers were previously presented at a symposium on microbial toxins during the annual meeting of the American Chemical Society on September 12th 1966. These papers provide a useful supplement to a previous collection of papers "Mycotoxins in Foodstuffs."
The book is divided into two parts, part I deals with Bacterial and Algal Toxins and part II deals with Fungal Toxins.
The first paper gives a review of the Enterotoxins of the Staphylococci and the Endotoxins of the anaerobe Clostridium botulinum. The preparations, bioassays and serological properties of these toxic proteins are reviewed together with the current work on their amino acid composition and structures.
A good review on the Bongkrek Toxins of Pseudomonas cocovenenans by van Veen concludes the section on bacterial toxins. In this paper the isolation of the toxic antibiotic Toxoflavin and Bongkrek acid is described together with the recent work on their structures. These investigations illustrate the dangers of contaminated fermented products from coconut press cake, such as "Tempeh" and "Semaji", as prepared by the village industries of Indonesia.
The fourth, and last paper of part I, deals with the toxic peptides of the poisonous marine and freshwater algae, the dinoflagellates, the bluegreen, and the golden brown algae, which have caused illness and death in humans through the food chain in fish and shellfish, as illustrated by shellfish poisonings. Such poisonings are of importance today since the worlds food chains can be severely affected as shown by the massive loss of fish off the Florida coast of the U.S.A. Doubtless we shall see more papers on this subject.
Part II of the book deals with the mycotoxins and an extensive and detailed paper on the Sporidesmins and related compounds starts this section. In it Dr. Taylor reviews the chemistry, biochemistry and toxicology of the Sporidesmins, the metabolites of Pithomyces chartarum, which are responsible for Facial Eczema disease in sheep. This disease has caused large losses of sheep in New Zealand for over 50 years and the disease has only recently been checked.
The phototoxic Furocoumarins are review by Scheel. Two of these compounds, 4, 5, 8-Tri. methylpsoralen and 8-Methoxypsoralen, are produced by the fungus Sc/erotinia sclerotiorum on celery plants and are responsible for dermatitis among celery harvesters. Two typographical errors occur on page 111, where the formulae for psoralen and Isopsoralen have been reversed or interchanged.
An interesting paper on the Estrogenic metabolite of Fusarium graminearum by Mirocha, Christensen and Nelson deals with the isolation, identification and structural elucidation of a metabolite which has caused an estrogenic condition in swine for over 40 years.
The production of fluorescent metabolites by fungi of the A.jfavus-Oryzae group, which are chromatographically similar to the Afiatoxins is discussed in a paper on Fluorescent Compounds in Japanese Industrial Moulds. This clearly shows the necessity of complete isolation and characterisation of fluorescent metabolites, which are suspected of being toxic, and illustrates the inherent danger of depending upon chromatographic and fluorescence phenomena as criteria for the identification of toxic metabolites.
Finally the toxic metabolites of Aspergillus ochraceous are reviewed in the last two papers, which deal with the toxicological and microbiological aspects of Ochratoxin and its production by Aspergillus ochraceous. On pages 164 and 166 there are two typographical errors.
In conclusion this book will be of value to toxicologists and chemists, who are working in the field of microbial toxins, for the references it provides as well as the variety of techniques it presents.
For those unfamiliar with the field of microbial toxins it is a difficult book to read. The style and treatment of the references within the texts breaks the continuity of the discussion and detracts from the learning process of the reader. It is a pity that the numerical method of reference presentation has not been adopted in this book.
In spite of these difficulties it is a valuable addition to the review literature.
R. J. Townsend
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