LECT. 1. BTE2410Lec1Basics1

8/3/2019 LECT. 1. BTE2410Lec1Basics1

1/60

BTE 2440 (Intro. Micro.) Sem. I. 2011/12

Instructor

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ismail Abdul Karim Tel: 603-6196-4573

E-mail: akismail @iiu.edu.my

Office hours

Rm. E5-212.7

Lecture period: Mon. 2.00 pm3.20 pmWed. 2.00 pm3.20 pm

Room: ENG-LRM (E2.3.8) Sem. I 2011/12.


2/60

Welcome to BTE 2440

Introductory Microbiology: Types of

Microorganisms.

T4 phage

-Virus

Fungal wood degrader

Cyanobacteria:Partnership between

fungi and algae (has green

pigment/involve in phytosynthesis). E.g.Blue green algae and bacteria


3/60

AlgaeCocconeis pediculus

Mushroom

ProtozoaEntamoeba histolytica


4/60

Other Category of Microbes found:

Parasitic wormdivision of eucaryokes

Lichens/Fungi

Main Category of Microoganisms: Bacteria , Yeastsand Fungi found abundant in the environment.


5/60

Parasitic worm e.g. tapeworms, nematodes

Parasitic worms or helminths are a division of eukaroyticparasitesl that liveinside their host. They are worm-like organismsthat live and feed off living hosts,

receiving nourishment and protection while disrupting their hosts' nutrientabsorption, causing weakness and disease. Those that live inside the digestive tractare called intestinal parasites. They can live inside humans as well as otheranimals. Helminthology is the study of parasitic worms and their effect on theirhosts. Diseases caused in humans by helminth infection include ascariasis,dracunculiasis, elephantiasis, hookworm, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis,schistosomiasis, and trichuriasis.

Hookworms attached to the intestinal

mucosa
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nourishmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_tracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_parasitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helminthologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascariasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracunculiasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephantiasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hookwormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onchocerciasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosomiasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichuriasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hookwormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucous_membranehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucous_membranehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hookwormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichuriasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosomiasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onchocerciasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hookwormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephantiasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracunculiasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascariasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helminthologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_parasitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_tracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nourishmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasites


6/60

Lichens/Fungi A lichen is not a single organism, but the result of a partnership (mutualistic

symbiosis) between a fungus and an alga or cyanobacteria.The algal and/or

cyanobacterial partner(s) possess the green pigment chlorophyll, enabling them

to use sunlights energy to make their own food from water and carbon dioxide

through photosynthesis.

The thallus, or lichen body, comes in four shapes:Foliose: flat leaf-like lichens.Crustose: crust-like lichens that may be buried in tree bark, or even between the crystals ofrocks.

Fruticose: miniature shrub-like lichens.one lichen of this type is the famous "reindeer moss" of

Lapland.Squamulose: scaly lichens made of numerous small rounded lobes, intermediate betweenfoliose and crustose lichens.

Foliose Crustose Fruticose Squamulose


7/60

Course Outline

Introduction to the biology of bacteria, eukarya

(big cell) and archaea (resistant to extremeconditions), and prokaryotes organisms (small

cell).

Topics includestress on:

Microbial history, classification, diversity,

systematics

Microbial nutrition, growth & control

Microbial metabolism & genetics Microbial ecology & symbiosis

Industrial and applied microbiology


8/60

Course Objectives

Significant roles of microorganisms in nature and

industry

Basic knowledge of microbiology

- Biological Applications

- Industrial and Engineering applications

- Human diseases

Foundation for further courses and research anddevelopment in biological and biotechnology

engineering


9/60

Biotechnology IndustryTraditional biotechnologystarted with the fermentation industry

many food products are made from microorganisms.

Some application are found in the agricultural and environmental

industrybio-control agent, increase soil fertility, nitrogen fixation,

carbon recycling, environmental pollution control.

Modern biotechnology discovery of DNA (Watson and Creek,

1953) and cloning of Dolly sheep DNA recombinant technology,

human genome project, etc . breakthrough in genetic engineering

revolutionize the biotechnology industry especially with use of

microorganisms for the production of goods and services becomes a

reality. Many biochemical and biotechnology products are producedthrough fermentation.

Recombinant Technology- become evident and play major role in

biotechnology, transfer of genes between cells become evident here.


10/60

Biotechnology Engineering

Application of engineering principles, design

and application of bioreactor in scaling upoperation in biotechnology industry becomes

important in the new century globally.

Fermentation and bioprocess engineering in themanufacture of industrial and pharmaceutical

products are evident now.

Application in food, bioenvironmental andbiomolecular engineering becomes important too.

Upstream and Downstream processing.


11/60

Evaluation method

Mid-term examination 40%

Materials week 1-7

Quizzes 15% (5/6 total)3% each quiz.

Final examination 45%

TOTAL 100%


12/60

Texts

Required Prescott, L.M., Harley, J.P., and Klein, D.A.

2008. Microbiology (7th. Ed.). Mc Graw Hill.

Now 8th Edition available (2010).


13/60

Recommended

1. Madigan, M.T., Martinko, J.M., and Parker, J. 2000.Brock Biology of Microorganism (9th. Ed.) Prentice Hall.

2. Talaro, K.P. and Talaro, A. 2002. Foundations inMicrobiology: Basic Principles (4th. ed.) Mc Graw Hill.

3. Tortora, C.J. 2000. Lab Experiments in Microbiology.Benjamin Cummings Pub.


14/60

Biology?

Greek Bios = life + Logos = reckoning

What is Biology? Study of life

What is life for a biologist?

Life is a combination of all characteristicscommon to all living things and absent fromnon living things

Site where life exists is cell Cell is the simplest small functioning unit of

life


15/60

Characteristics of living things

microbial cell.

Respiration-gaseous exchange, aerobic, anerobic.

Nutrition-inorganic and organic nutrients

Metabolism-anabolism, catabolism

Excretion-waste product transport

Sensitivity-stimulus, receptor, effectoraffected

by surrounding environment.

Locomotion-movement. Reproduction-sexual and asexual

Growth-development

Microbial metabolites


16/60

Hallmarks of Cellular Life


17/60


18/60

Microbes

Good guys vs. bad guys?

Bacillus anthracis Lactobacillus

Neiserria gonorhrrea Escherichia coli


19/60

Microbiology?

Micro (Greek mikros) = small Organism = living body

Science or biology of microscopic

organisms (very small, unicellular,multicellular organisms) too small to be

seen with our naked eye.

The discipline is just over a century old(relatively new)

Foundation for Molecular biology and

Biotechnology


20/60

Microbial HistoryMajor events and figures:

Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek layu-wen-hook(Dutch)-discovered first powerful microscopeobserved livingcells (living algae) difficult to be seen by our naked eye.

Louis PasteurDispelled Spontaneous generation

theory (Decayed matter could produce living matter).He disapprove this theory. Cell need nutrients to grow.Cannot grow automatically on decayed matter alone.

Robert Koch (German)Kochs postulate disease

caused by germs. Joseph Listerintroduce antiseptic agent. Sterilize

surface of humans with antiseptic agent can killmicrobes.


21/60

Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek:(discover use of microscope to see

microorganisms/green algae)Prior, Robert Hooke (England)

described fruiting structure of molds

in 1664 utilizing compound

microscope. (Eukaryote-bigger size)

Size enlargement 20-30 times

Jan Swammerdam (Dutch) worked on

compound microscope.Various technical difficulties

Wrote illustrated bookMicrographia

which inspired Leeuwenhoek


22/60

Compound light microscope


23/60

Dutch amateur builder,

Leeuwenhoek- saw prokaryotes-

smaller size in 1684. Discovered

first bacteria (Green algae)

Made over 500 microscopes-

essentially magnifying glass

Excellent lenses grinding, acuteeyesight and lighting adjustment-

enlargement 200 times

Could only view microbes but notechniques available to study them

until later in 19th century.


24/60

Spontaneous generation theory

Originated from Roman up to Middle Ages

Life form spontaneously arose from non-living

matter (decayed materials) e.g. microbial cell do

live on decayed organic/non organic matter but

will grow if expose to water/availability of

nutrients.

Eg. 1. Mixture of hay and water will produce

microbes after few days incubation.

Eg. 2. Dust carry microbes. Media in petri dish if

expose to air, can support growth of microbes.


25/60

Louis Pasteur (French)Co-founder of modern bacteriology

Dispelled Spontaneous generation theory- doesnot grow automatically but cell need nutrientsand does not grow or remain dormant if withoutnutrients.

Pasteurs work with Pasteur flask

Sterilization technique Pasteurization

Heat liquid (wine) 55OC for few minutes, killspoilage microorganisms but not good microbes.

Attenuation (weakened virus) of virulent (active)

microbes

Vaccination development for anthrax, fowl cholera,rabbies

Discovered indirectly rabbies virus-agent so

small cannot be seen under microscope


26/60

Copyright TheMcGraw-Hill

26

Industrial Microbiology and

Microbial Ecology Louis Pasteur

demonstrated that alcohol fermentations and

other fermentations were the result of microbialactivity. Yeasts is involved here.

developed the process of pasteurization to

preserve wine during storage


27/60

Redis experiment

proved contamination cause

microbial growth.

1668 Francesco Redi-proposed

maggots develop from eggslaid by fliescontamination

must take place here.

Meat in jars-open, closed,

closed with gauze. Maggots

developed only in open flask.

Utilized control.

1.

2.

3.


28/60

Needhams exp.

1745 John Needham conducted definitive exp.Boiled chicken broth in flask

Let it cool (being exposed before beingsealed)

Sealed flask.

Microbes grew

Concluded that exp. did not support (dispelled)spontaneous generation theoryshow presence of

nutrients support growth of microbial cells..


29/60

Spallanzanis exp. proved besides

nutrients bacteria needs air too.

Lazzaro Spallanzani-suggested microbes

entered from air after boiling media butbefore sealing the flask.

Flask 1 was left open

Flask 2 was sealed

Flask 3 was boiled and then left open Flask 4 was boiled and then sealed

Place broth in flask, boiled, drew air out,

create vacuum, sealed, no microbesgrewIn case of flask 4.

Critics-Spallanzani only proved thatspontaneous generation could not occurwithout air. ( Need air besides nutrients)

1.

2.

3. 4.


30/60

Pasteurs exp.

Louis Pasteur-boiled broth in flask,heated the neck of flask, and bend itinto swan shape (this draw oxygenout and create vacumn). Left flaskand no microbial growth found inbroth.

Air entered flask but microbes settledin neck of flask, could not entered

into broth, found no growth in broth. If allowed the broth to touch with the

dust in swans neck of flask,microbes are found to grow in the

media).


31/60

PasteurizationOntario, Canada Pasteurization Regulations for Milk

63 C for not less than 30 min.,

72 C for not less than 16 sec., kill spoilage microbes.Can destroy spoilage microbes only. Continuous Pasteurizer


32/60

Robert Koch (German)

Co-founder of modern bacteriology

Koch works on germ theory ofdisease.

Any disease has a causative agent.

- must be infected with thecausitive pathogn.

Discovered endospore in

Bacillus anthracis in sheep blood.

Able to be transferred

in blood stream


33/60

Robert Koch-cont.Purification of mixed

bacterial populationmust

isolate the pure culture.

Pioneered usage of solid

nutrient media


34/60

Staining techniques

with various dyes

Endospore stain - Schaeffer-

Fulton endospore stain method(all 100X oil immersion)


35/60

Robert Koch-cont.

Steam sterilization technique Sterilization parameter:

Autoclave at 121O C at 1.05

kg/cm2 (15 psi) for 30minutes

Sterilization temp. is at

1210C/15psi/15min.- can

kill all microorganisms. Commonly use to sterilize

all microbial media.


36/60

Kochs Postulates

Kochs postulate states:

1. Pathogen presents in all pathogenic infectedcases and absent in healthy organism.

2. Suspected pathogen grown in pure culture.

3. Suspected pathogen from pure cultureshould cause disease in healthy organism.

4. Pathogen should be re-isolated in infected

organism and be the same with the originalcausitive pathogen.

5. Disease is caused by pathogenic organisms

has to infect people/animal.

J h Li


37/60

Joseph ListerSolved hospital disease (operative sepsis)-

open wounds caused by infection of

microorganisms.

Postulated that sepsis (wound) caused by

pollen like dust from the air (the dust carrymicrobes).

Clean and dress wound using carbolic acid

Clean wound with alcohol, can kill microbe

too.

Formulated antiseptic method for medical

operation


38/60

Copyright TheMcGraw-Hill 38

Immunological Studies

Edward Jenner (ca. 1798)

used a vaccination procedure to protect

individuals from smallpox

NOTE: this preceded the work establishing the role of

microorganisms in disease.

- Smallpox vaccine evolved.


39/60

Microbial studyneed to know:

Need to catogorize type of microbes:

Bacteriology, virology, mycology, viruses , etc.

Role of microbes: Microbial ecologyaffecting

growth. Its application in Medical, Industrial,

Environmental, Food and Agriculture sector. Techniques utilized:

characterization/Classification and application

using Molecular or microbial genetics is more

accurate compared to traditional methods.

Purpose of study: Need to understand basic and

applied microbiology and its application in

engineering.


40/60

What are Microbes?Within 5 Kingdoms, Microbes are categorise into 1,2,3

1. Monera-Eubacteria and Archaebacteria

2. Protista

-animal like (protozoa)-Paramecium, Amoeba,

-plant like protists (euglenoids, diatoms)

3. Fungi: unicellular-yeast, multicellular-mushroom (spores spread by wind, etc.

4. Animalia-Coelenterates, Flatworms, Molluscs, Annelids, Arthropods,Echinoderms, Chordates

5. PlantaeBrown algae & red algae, green algae, mosses, liverworts, vascular plants.

Note: 1,2,3difficult to see with our naked eyes.

** Robert Whittakers five-kingdom scheme proposed based on physical structure & metabolic properties

(visual-phenotype) in 1959.


41/60

What are Microbes?-cont.


42/60

Universal tree

** Carl Woeses domains proposed based on genetic

material similarity representing evolutionary line in 1990.


43/60

Phylogenic tree

Base on evolutionary development of microbes.

Determination of their 16s RNA and G+Ccontent of cellGenus and sp. relationship can

be determine (able to group them here).Grouping of their closeness and relationshipcan be drawn then.

Many new species can then be evolved if

mutation occurs and also if new discovery arefound.


44/60

Domain-detail branches


45/60


46/60

Prokaryotes are evolutionarily ancient, for billions of years the

only form of life.

Prokaryotes were the first type of cell to evolve, and unlike

eukaryotic cells, still lack a membrane bound nucleus. Their

genetic material is naked within the cytoplasm, ribosomes their

only type of organelle.

Prokaryotes are most always single-celled, except when they exist

in colonies. These ancestral cells, now represented by members of

the domains Archaea and Eubacteria, reproduce by means ofbinary fission, duplicating their genetic material and then

essentially splitting to form two daughter cells identical to the

parent.
http://microbiology.suite101.com/article.cfm/prokaryotic_and_eukaryotic_cellshttp://microbiology.suite101.com/article.cfm/prokaryotic_and_eukaryotic_cellshttp://microbiology.suite101.com/article.cfm/prokaryotic_and_eukaryotic_cellshttp://microbiology.suite101.com/article.cfm/prokaryotic_and_eukaryotic_cells


47/60

Ribosomesprotein synthesis.

Ribosomeinvolve in protein synthesis,

has mRNA (acting as blue print, transfer

genetic information) Procaryotic ribosomeshave sedimentation

value of 70S.

Eucaryotic ribosomeshave sedimentationvalue of 80S.


48/60

Taxanomy-cont.SuperKingdoms:

1.Prokaryote (organisms without membrane boundnuclei)

- Monera only

2.Eukaryote (organisms with a separate membranebound nucleus)

- Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

3. Archaelive in extreme conditions (high saline,

temp., pressure, pH conditions)(cell wall having

long chains of hydrocarbons attached to glycerol

rather than fatty acids and connected by ester

links), also lack peptidoglycan


49/60

Taxanomy-cont.

Yeast Human

Superkingdom Eukaryote Eukaryote

Kingdom Mycota Animalia

Phylum Ascomycota Chordata

Class Hemiascomyceti

dae

Mammalia

Order Endomycetales PrimateFamily Saccharomyces Hominidae

Genus Saccharomyces Homo

Species cerevisiae sapiens


50/60

asexual


51/60

Microbial Diversity Microbial Taxonomy & Phylogeny.

Summary- diversity of organisms-best to group similarorganisms together.

Procaryotic gps. (Archaea, Bacteria/Procaryote) first to be

developed, followed by eucaryotes. Found 5 Kingdomshave 3 Classes/Domain.-

Bacteria,Archae,Eucarya.

Classificationpossible evolutionary relationships(phenetic classification, taxanomy and physiologicalrelationship)resently phylogenetic classification becomeimportant- based on comparison of ribosomal RNAstructure and chromosome sequencefound treelikediagrams called dendrograms.

Cilli d Fl ll hi lik d i ll


52/60

Cillia and Flagellawhip-like appendages in cell

that are associted motility of cell.

Cillia5 to 20 ug (microns) in length.

Flagella100200 ug in length.

Golgi apparatussac-like materials (stack of

cisternae) found in cell - helps in development of

cell membranes and packaging of cell products.


53/60

Prokaryotes

Classification based on cell structure:

Small in size-1 to 5 um long

Lack of membrane enclosed nucleus

Lack of complex internal structures

Some differences in mechanisms of

replication, transcription, translation,

genetic transfer from eukaryotes


54/60

Eukaryotes

Classification based on cell structure:

Bigger in size-More than 5 um long

Possesses membrane enclosed nucleus and

internal structures

Possesses complex internal structures


55/60

There are big differences between eukaryotic and

prokaryotic cells, but they do have some things incommon:

Both have DNA as their genetic material.

Both are encased in cell membranes. The membranes

of Prokaryotic cells and of some eukaryotic cells are

surrounded by a strong cellwall.

Both have a similar basic metabolism (the word

metabolism refers to the formation and break down

of chemicals in the body).


56/60

The major difference is that eukaryotes have a nucleus and

prokaryotes do not.

Also, eukaryotic cells contain a wide variety of organelles (tiny

"organs" or structures inside the cell) that perform various

functions. Some of the most important organelles are mitochondria,

chloroplasts, lysosomes and ribosomes

Eukaryotic cells are, on average, ten times as large as prokaryotic

cells. Their DNA is more complex and is formed into

chromosomes. And their organelles enable them to do more

complex jobs.

Mitosis and Meiosis


57/60

Mitosis and Meiosis. MitosisMitosis (Asexual reproduction)is the process by which a eukaryotic

cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in twonuclei. Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in differentways in different species. For example, animals undergo an "open" mitosis,where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate,while fungi such asAspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast)undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cellnucleus

Two diploid cells

.

Chromosomes is reduce by half (from diploid to haploid state, daughter cell

receiving one complete set of chromosomes). Haploid cell which act as gametesmay fuse with other cell to form diploid cell.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_envelopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus_nidulanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus_nidulanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_envelopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotic


58/60

Meiosisis essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in alleukaryotes (including single-celled organisms) that reproduce sexually. is

essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all eukaryotes

(including single-celled organisms) that reproduce sexually.

Homologous Meiosis I Meiosis II

Chromosomes Daughter I Daughter II

Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote


59/60

y , , y p y

fission. Binary fission, or prokaryotic fission, is the form ofasexual

reproduction and cell division used by all prokaryotes, some protozoa, and

some organelles within eukaryotic organisms. This process results in the

reproduction of a living prokaryotic cell by division into two parts whicheach have the potential to grow to the size of the original cell.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_divisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryoteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Binary_fission.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryoteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_divisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote


60/60

Documents

LECT. 1. BTE2410Lec1Basics1