E. Strouhal

L'état actuel des études anthropologiques dans l'ancienneEgypte et en Nubie (en anglais)In: Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris, XIII° Série, tome 8 fascicule 3, 1981. pp. 231-249.

Citer ce document / Cite this document :

Strouhal E. L'état actuel des études anthropologiques dans l'ancienne Egypte et en Nubie (en anglais). In: Bulletins et Mémoiresde la Société d'anthropologie de Paris, XIII° Série, tome 8 fascicule 3, 1981. pp. 231-249.

doi : 10.3406/bmsap.1981.3825

http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bmsap_0037-8984_1981_num_8_3_3825

AbstractThe International Campaign for Safeguarding Nubian Monuments of UNESCO revived not only Nubianarchaeology, but also activity in the field of the study of human remains. Important series wereunearthed by some Expeditions especially in the Wadi Haifa and the Batn el Hajar regions. Lessmaterial was acquired in Lower Nubia and research to the south of the Dal cataract — apart from a fewdata — has still to be carried out. Activity in Egypt proper increased in the past decade following theclose of the Nubian campaign, but most series have been published only in preliminary reports or awaittheir publication. Together with the accumulation of new materials, new methods have been pioneeredby some authors. Moreover, a profound change has occurred also in the interpretation of the results,where new concepts have appeared. Current research of cemeteries is being assisted by qualifiedanthropologists in the case of some foreing expeditions. In spite of the growing activity of a few youngEgyptian anthropologists, the of anthropological in Egypt and Sudan is stressed.

RésuméLa campagne internationale de sauvetage des monuments de Nubie de l'UNESCO a fait revivre nonseulement l'archéologie nubienne mais aussi l'activité dans le domaine de l'étude des restes humains.D'importantes séries squelettiques ont été exhumées dans les régions de Ouadi Haifa et Batn el Hajar,mais beaucoup moins dans la Basse Nubie et presque pas malheureusement dans la région au sud dela cataracte de Dal. L'activité en Egypte s'est développée, quant à elle, au cours des dix années qui ontsuivi la clôture de la campagne nubienne, mais la majorité des séries squelettiques recueillies n'a étépubliée que sous forme de rapports préliminaires lorsqu'elle l'a été. Au fur et à mesure de cetterecherche, de nouvelles méthodes ont été proposées, et un profond changement a affectél'interprétation des résultats, laissant apparaître des concepts nouveaux. La fouille des cimetières estmaintenant réalisée, dans la plupart des missions étrangères, par des anthropologues qualifiés.L'Anthropologie physique se développe également en Egypte mais il n'en demeure pas moinsnécessaire d'accroître encore l'enseignement anthropologique en Egypte et au Soudan.

Bull, et Mém. de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, t. 8, série XIII, 1981, p. 231-249.

CURRENT STATE OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDIES ON ANCIENT EGYPT AND NUBIA

by E. Strouhal (*)

Summary. — The International Campaign for Safeguarding Nubian Monuments of UNESCO revived not only Nubian archaeology, but also activity in the field of the study of human remains. Important series were unearthed by some Expeditions especially in the Wadi Haifa and the Batn el Hajar regions. Less material was acquired in Lower Nubia and research to the south of the Dal cataract — apart from a few data — has still to be carried out. Activity in Egypt proper increased in the past decade following the close of the Nubian campaign, but most series have been published only in preliminary reports or await their publication. Together with the accumulation of new materials, new methods have been pioneered by some authors. Moreover, a profound change has occurred also in the interpretation of the results, where new concepts have appeared. Current research of cemeteries is being assisted by qualified anthropologists in the case of some foreing expeditions. In spite of the growing activity of a few young Egyptian anthropologists, the necessity of developing anthropological teaching in Egypt and Sudan is stressed.

Key-words : Material basis, New methods, Interpretations and concepts, Outlook.

L'ETAT ACTUEL DES ETUDES ANTHROPOLOGIQUES DANS L'ANCIENNE EGYPTE ET EN NUBIE

Résumé. — La campagne internationale de sauvetage des monuments de Nubie de l'UNESCO a fait revivre non seulement l'archéologie nubienne mais aussi l'activité dans le domaine de l'étude des restes humains. D'importantes séries squelettiques ont été exhumées dans les régions de Ouadi Haifa et Batn el Hajar, mais beaucoup moins dans la Basse Nubie et presque pas malheureusement dans la région au sud de la cataracte de Dal. L'activité en Egypte s'est développée, quant à elle, au cours des dix années qui ont suivi la clôture de la campagne nubienne, mais la majorité des séries squelettiques recueillies n'a été publiée que sous forme de rapports préliminaires lorsqu'elle l'a été. Au fur et à mesure de cette recherche, de nouvelles méthodes ont été proposées, et un profond changement a affecté l'interprétation des résultats, laissant apparaître des concepts nouveaux. La fouille des cimetières est maintenant réalisée, dans la plupart des missions étrangères, par des anthropologues qualifiés. L'Anthropologie physique se développe également en Egypte mais il n'en demeure pas moins nécessaire d'accroître encore l'enseignement anthropologique en Egypte et au Soudan.

Mots-clés : Base matérielle, nouvelles méthodes, interprétation et concepts, perspective.

Physical anthropology, recently called anthropobiology or human biology in some countries, has been closely associated with Egyptological studies since their beginnings at the time of the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt, and cooperation between these two disciplines has been realized more or less successfully for almost two centuries (Strouhal, 1978c). The last decade was marked,

(*) National Museum, Prague, Czechoslovakia.

232 SOCIÉTÉ D'ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS

however, by the growing interest of anthropologists in study of human skeletal series found in the Nile Valley on one hand, and by the anticipation of Egyptologists to gain important new conclusions from anthropologists on the other hand.

The reasons for this development are complex : 1) The emphasis placed by modern osteo-anthropological studies on biostatistic methods requiring large series of well preserved material can be easily met in view of the favourable climatic and paedological conditions along the Nile Valley. This area was characterised as " one of the biggest cemeteries of the world " because of its fecundity, allowing high density of human population since the 4th millennium B.C. until recent times. 2) The splendour of one of the world's earliest civilisations attracts scientists to ascertain its impact on various biological and pathological characteristics in skeletal material. 3) As a practical impetus, the International Campaign for Safeguarding Nubian Monuments of the UNESCO in 1960-1970 called apart from archaeologists also for physical anthropologists to collaborate in the unearthing of human remains from several investigated cemeteries (unfortunately, not from all of them). 4) At the same time, modern archaeology, which is an important part of Egyptology, is aware that more profound knowledge can be gained by combining its methods with those of the modern sciences of natural history, including physical anthropology. Therefore, most field directors welcome the collaboration of anthropologists allowing them not only to study the excavated material, but sometimes also inviting them to co-operate in field research.

I. _ INCREASE IN MATERIAL BASIS

The result of this development is an increasing amount of recently published or just finished anthropological papers, usually following the reports of archaeologists. Lower Nubia and the Batn el Hajar region (between the Second and the Dal Cataracts) are gradually becoming two of the best-known regions of the world, not only from the archaeological, but also from the anthropological viewpoint. Important Late Paleolithic/Early Mesolithic series from the Wadi Haifa region and vicinity of Toshka were analysed by Anderson (1968), Greene and Armelagos (1972, 1976a), and Greene, Ewing and Arme- lagos (1967), the results affording in idea of the physical appearance of the hunters/gatherers population adapted to life on the banks of the Nile. Its relation to the following agricultural populations of the same area was expressed in terms of adaptive evolution of the masticatory system associated with changes in diet by Greene and Armelagos (1976b) and further elaborated by Carlson and Van Gerven (1977) ; this concept will be discussed later.

The Wadi Haifa region also yielded a fluent succession of chronological series representing the individual developmental phases from the A-Group to the Christian periods. They were unearthed by the Scandinavian Joint Expedition on the east bank of the Nile and elaborated by Vagn Nielsen (1970, 1973). Radiographs of the same series were analysed by Carlson (1976a, b) in terms of the mentioned masticatory-and-dietary hypothesis. Another succès-

E. STROUHAL. — ANCIENT EGYPT AND NUBIA 233

sion of Meroitic, X-Group and Christian series was gained on the west bank of the Nile in the same region by the Colorado Expedition and analysed by Van Gerven, Armelagos and Rohr (1977). A general pattern of morphological continuity, consistent with the archaeological evidence for in situ development, was found. This agrees well with the previous analysis of the dentition of the three series by Greene (1966, 1967) which showed their basic genetic unity. Another Meroitic series excavated by the French expedition at Aksha was treated by Chamla (1967).

In the region south of Wadi Haifa an important Middle Kingdom- Second Intermediary Period series from the Egyptian fortress at Mirgissa was discovered by the French expedition and found by Billy (1976) to be of intrusive Egyptian origin. Important Meroitic, X-Group and Christian series from Semna-South, excavated by the Chicago Oriental Institute, are currently being analysed by Charles Merbs and his collaborators at the Arizona State University at Tempe. An interesting study on their hair has already appeared (Hrdy, 1978). Two series of Christian population from site 16-О-4, excavated by the Sudan Antiquity Service at Duweishat, and from site 16-J-7, unearthed by the Dutch expedition at Attiri, were published by Knip (1970). Another large Late Christian series (1050-1300 A.D.) from the Sudan Antiquity Service research at Meinarti has hitherto been analysed only from the demographical aspect (Green, Green and Armelagos, 1974). Another two Christian village cemeteries, excavated by the Universities of Colorado and Kentucky at Kolub- narti in 1979, yielded the remains of about 400 individuals in an excellent state of preservation (Allen, 1979 ; Van Gerven, 1979).

In comparison with the previous areas, only little anthropological information has been gained from the region between the Sudanese-Egyptian border and the southern limit of the Dodecaschoinos at Maharaqqa. This is actually the region of the Second Nubian survey which yielded the material basis for Batrawi's (1935, 1945, 1946) classical studies. Important new series were excavated by the Austrian expedition immediately to the south of Maharaqqa, at Sayala (Ehgartner, 1965, 1967 ; Ehgartner and Jungwirth, 1966 ; Strouhal and Jungwirth, 1971). Of these, the C-Group series and the most valuable Pan-Grave material, are now being printed (Strouhal and Jungwirth, 1982). Preliminary reports on the five Late Roman-Early Byzantine cemeteries have been presented from different points of view (Strouhal and Jungwirth, 1979 ; Strouhal, 1979a; Strouhal and Jungwirth, 1980, 1981 ; Strouhal and Neuwirth, 1981) ; their full publication is under preparation. New Meroitic and X-Group material from Egyptian research at Qustul has been studied by Strouhal, Gaballah and Badawy and will appear soon. Comprehensive Meroitic, X-Group and Christian series from Millet's excavation at Gebel Adda is currently being analysed by Strouhal. Christian remains from Faras were published by Dzierzy- kray-Rogalski (1965, 1966 a, b,c) and Prominska (1966).

In Dodecaschoinos, the northernmost part of Nubia, the Czechoslovak expedition investigated some New Kingdom rock tombs at Naga el Farik, which were anthropologically analysed by Strouhal (1972). A few individuals of the Roman period were found near the fortress at Qertassi (Strouhal, 1975). As

234 SOCIÉTÉ D'ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS

regards the important series of Late Roman-Early Byzantine date unearthed at Wadi Qitna and Kalabsha-South, an analysis of long bone dimensions (Strouhal, 1968a) and preliminary reports (Strouhal, 1971a, b, 1979c) were published; the full publication, based on the Ph. D. thesis (Strouhal, 1968b) will appear in print after the archaeological report has been published (Strouhal, 1983).

With regard to the Asswan area, the ancient gate to Nubia, some Pre- dynastic individuals found at the Island of Elephantine were published by Rosing (1970). An important new series from the University of Bonn excavations at Qubbet el Hawa (Aswan Gharb) comprises 1176 individuals, mostly dated in the 6th Dynasty. So far, preliminary reports have appeared (Rosing, 1971, 1975), the final publication being prepared by Rôsing.

The remaining part of Upper Nubia to the south of the Dal Cataract up to the 5 th Cataract yielded anthropological series only exceptionally, the reason for this lying in the fact that — apart from a few important sites investigated in last decade — systematic archaeological research has been started only recently in French-Sudanese co-operation. Moreover, anthropological series have so far not been published or only partially published. For example, a rare Kerma and a Christian series, dated 6th-7th cent. A.D., excavated at the Sai Island near Soleb, were treated by De Geeter (1974) in his M.D. Thesis. An important New Kingdom series from Sesebi was published by Lisowski (1954) only from the aspect of the male subsample. Important material dated in the New Kingdom and Meroitic periods has come from the cemeteries at Soleb ; hitherto, however, only descriptions of individual skeletons by Chamla (in Giorgini, 1971) are available. About 400 skulls from the French excavations of the Meroitic, X-Group and Christian cemeteries at Abri-Missiminia are being studied by Ginette Billy.

Similar situation of the dawn of anthropological knowledge is characteristic of the vast area of the Sudanese heartland from the 5 th Cataract southwards. Of the greatest importance are the new Polish discoveries at Kadero (18 km north-northeast of Khartoum) where 42 tombs yielded determinable remains of 28 individuals from the Khartoum Neolithic period (dated originally 3,-3.200 B.C., more recently about 4,000 B.C.) (Krzyzaniak, 1976 ; Dzierzykray-Rogalski and Prominska, 1976 ; Dzierzykray-Rogalski, 1977, 1978a, b ; Dzierzykray-Rogalski and Krzyzaniak, 1978). The same site also provided the first evidence of Meroitic skeletons from the Meroitic heartland, but these have not yet been described. So far only fragmentary information about the people of the Khartoum Neolithic has existed in a few unfortunately very badly preserved individuals from Gebel Shaqadud (Grimm and Zuhrt, 1968 ; Grimm and Hildebrandt, 1972 ; Rottstock, 1977). Leaving aside an earlier publication of the Jebel Moya series (1st millennium B.C.) by Mukherjee, Rao and Trevor (1955), the only new fragmentary evidence dating from the Postmeroitic period was unearthed at Musawwarat es Sufra (Strouhal, 1971c). A new Late Meroitic- Christian series from Sarubab near Omdurman was rescued by the Institute of Archaeology of the Sudan University in Khartoum, but not yet published. The remains of 21 individuals buried in churches at Old Dongola were examined by Prominska (1978).

E. STROUHAL. — ANCIENT EGYPT AND NUBIA 235

Physical anthropological activity in Egypt proper was carried out only to a small extent during the Nubian Campaign, but since then it has increased in accordance with the development of archaeological projects in various parts of the country. Several studies were devoted to the predynastic Gebelein and Middle Kingdom Assiut series from the G. Marro collection at Turin (Chiarelli, 1966; Masali, 1967, 1972; Chiarelli, Masali and Davide, 1966; Masali, Davide and Grilletto, 1968 ; Masali and Chiarelli, 1972). Recent excavations (1978, 1979) of the Munich State Collection of Egyptian Arts at Minshat Abu Omar in eastern Delta yielded human remains from 66 First Dynasty and 172 Late Roman graves, unfortunately in a bad state of preservation, as communicated in a letter from G. Ziegelmayer, who has started their anthropological evaluation together with E. Heine. An Old Kingdom series from Reisner's excavations under the pyramids of Giza was recently studied by Hussien and Shabaan (1979). Research of mastabas and tombs at Balaat in the Dakhla Oasis was recently iniciated by the IF АО and it has yielded series of human remains from the Vlth and XXVIth Dynasties as well as from the Ptolemaic period. These are currently being studied by T. Dzierzykray- Rogalski and E. Prominska. Predynastic and Middle Kingdom series from Naga ed-Deir, Naga el-Hai (near Kena) and Lisht as well as a Pan Grave series from Mostagedda have been prepared for publication by the reviewer. Report on human remains unearthed by the German Archaeological Institute in the brick- pyramid of Amenemhet III at Dahshur have been published (Strouhal, 1979b), its continuation being in print. Important discoveries of the Austrian Archaeological Institute at Tell ed-Dabba in eastern Delta, the site of Awaris, the capital of the Hyksos Kingdom, comprise also human remains which were, unfortunately, greatly damaged by moisture and pressure of the overlying layers of soil (Jungwirth, 1969, 1970). The Late Period-Ptolemaic series from secondary burials in the Mastaba of Ptahshepses at Abusir, investigated by the Czechoslovak Institute of Egyptology, was introduced in a preliminary report (Strouhal, 1976a) and it is under study now. Another series from the same period from secondary burials in the Memphite Tomb of Haremheb at Saqqara, investigated by the E.E.S. of London, has been studied by the reviewer and is now being processed statistically. A new Roman Period series of the 3rd cent. A.D. was excavated by the Rome University Expedition at Antinoë near Minia and has been treated and reported on by Grilletto (1979). An analysis of the Ancient Coptic skulls, dating arround 500 A.D., from El-Barsha, compared with the Arab skulls from Fostat in Cairo (9th - 1 lth cent. A.D.) and a few skulls from Kom ed-Dikka in Alexandria (14th cent. A.D.) was submitted for Ph.D. by Gaballah (1970). A new series from the Coptic cemetery of the 4th - 5th cent. A.D. at Saqqara-North, excavated by the E.E.S. of London, was published in a preliminary report by Jeffreys and Strouhal (1980). The Kom ed-Dikka mediaeval Arab necropolis in Alexandria yielded quantities of human remains which were analysed by Dzierzykray-Rogalski (1962, 1963, 1966d, e, 1968, 1969, 1970), Dzierzykray-Rogalski and Prominska (1968, 1970) and Prominska (1968, 1976).

As regards the geographical distribution of the accumulated anthropological material considered together with the data contained in publications of

236 SOCIÉTÉ D'ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS

earlier origin, it should be stressed that a great deal of work is necessary in Upper Nubia (with the exception of the Batn el Hajar region), in Central Sudan, in the Egyptian Delta and in both the Eastern and the Western Deserts. In spite of the fact that we got relatively good knowledge on the ancient Egyptians and Nubians, we should widen our notions on other ethnics appearing in the Nile valley during Egyptian history - the Kerma and the Pan-Grave peoples, the Hyksos, the Libyans, the Persians, the Karians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Blemmyes (Bedja), the Arabs, the Turcs and other ethnics brought by them to Egypt.

Closing this part of the survey, it is necessary to state that the rather specialised line of anthropological, paleopathological, and cultural historical research of Egyptian mummies has been left out. The number of new publications dealing with mummies is growing so quickly that even a list of them cannot be included in this report. I should therefore like to draw attention to the most recent reviews by David (1979) or Strouhal and Vyhnánek (1979).

II. — CHANGES IN METHODS

The current state of Egyptian anthropology is characterised not only by the rapid accumulation of new materials, but also by a change in the methods and aims of the investigation. This coincides with the profound shift in anthropological theory from the more or less ethnographical viewpoint to the basis of human genetics.

Simultaneously, the structure of an analysed series is changing. In the past, a series representing a certain archaeological period was constituted by chance combining human remains from tombs of the given period regardless of their geographical situation. As a result, the heterogeneity of the sample increased and it was not representing real population. Taking into account the relative isolation of ancient communities, it is clear that the research must start with local breeding units and ascertain their mutual spatial differences on a common chronological level as well as their microevolution. Only in this way we can hope to reconstruct concrete developmental processes and to determine the dependence of individual features on factors exerting selective pressure.

As regards methods, the set of traditionally used standard anthropométrie measurements should be enlarged with procedures which express the vertical as well as the horizontal profilation of the face. In other words, it is necessary to add a new dimension to the height and breadth measurements of the facial skeleton, i.e. its depth. Here we can detect features discriminating the Supra- and Sub-Saharan populations of Africa. This has already been realised by Woo and Morant (1934) who proposed a set of valuable measurements, followed in Egyptian anthropology by Strouhal (1974) and Strouhal and Jung- wirth (1971, 1981). Another method was introduced by Howells (1973) which involves measurements from the transmeatal axis.

E. STROUHAL. — ANCIENT EGYPT AND NUBIA . 237

Apart from metrics, some simple non-metric features, which were occasionally mentioned in papers but which were not used to determine the relation between populations, were found to be determined genetically by Berry and Berry (1967). Their set of 30 (or less) non-metric (epigenetic) features was applied also for the study of mutual relationship of various Egyptian and Nubian samples (Berry, Berry and Ucko, 1967 ; Vagn Nielsen, 1970 ; Knip, 1970; Reggio, Masali and Chiarelli, 1969; Berry and Berry, 1972). Non- metric morphological features of the teeth were used similarily for tracing genetical relationship by Greene (1966, 1967, 1972).

Another methodical innovation consists in the inclusion of the postcranial skeleton in the study process. In the past, almost all analyses were concerned only with skulls. But skull is only one part of a whole body. Determination of sex, age, stature, robusticity and muscular development, development of features influenced by genetics, environment, or behaviour, as well as paleopathological changes can be followed with greater reliability or in a greater extent on the post-cranial skeleton.

At the same time it became clear that morphological studies do not exhaust the documentary value of ancient skeletal material and new approaches leading to understanding of their biological value were sought and found. These new procedures represent a valuable contribution not only for general biology, but also for populational studies. In this respect demographical analyses began to receive attention after the revealing studies of Nemeskéri et al. (1960) and Acsádi and Nemeskéri (1970). We may quote papers on Egyptian themes by Nemeskéri (1972), Masali and Chiarelly (1972), Green, Green and Aarmlagos (1974), or Strouhal (1979a), and basic demographical data are included in most anthropological publications. Studies on the ontogenetical course of the femoral cortical bone loss (Dewey et al., 1969a, b) and of the trabecular involution in femoral heads (Mielke et al, 1972) were sumed up in a study on bone growth and development in Nubian populations by Armelagos et al. (1972).

The interest which has recently revived paleopathology not only enriches general medical theory and the history of different diseases, but also furnishes evidence of importance for population genetics (congenital diseases) and human ecology (aquired diseases), reflecting the interaction between biology and culture, behaviour and environmental conditions. This trend found its - expression in the creation of the Paleopathology Society in Detroit in 1973, following the autopsy of an Egyptian mummy (PUM II). Since then the contents of the Paleopathology Newsletter, edited by E. Cockburn, have been so widely devoted to Egyptian themes that it is not possible even to quote them here. Of other important contributions in this respect there is the survey on Nubian paleopathology by Armelagos (1969), the unfortunately prematurely ended contribution of the late Satinoff (1968, 1972a, b), and papers by El-Rakhawy et al. (1971), Bourke (1972), Angel (1972), Sandison (1969, 1972), Race et al. (1972), Carlson, Armelagos and Van Gerven (1974), Strouhal (1976b, 1978a, b) and Strouhal and Jungwirth (1977, 1980, 1981). Many more paleopathological papers based on the study of mummies exist, but they are not the subject of

238 SOCIÉTÉ D'ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS

this review (see David, 1979 or Strouhal and Vyhnánek, 1979). A special line of paleopathological research deals with pathological changes in dentition of Egyptian samples (Leek, 1972, 1975 ; Grilletto, 1972 ; Saffirio, 1972).

As regards the methodological aspect, there is a new tendency to proceed from macroscopical measurements and observations to the sphere of microscopy and micromethods. Histology, electron microscopy, histochemistry, chemistry, biochemistry, serology, immunology, radiology, computerized tomography and other branches of modern science offer their specific methods in order to acquire better knowledge of the biology and pathology of the Nile valley people. As examples can be quoted the papers written by Harris et al. (1966), Rabino Massa and Chiarelli (1972), Race et al. (1972), Borgognini-Tarli and Paoli (1972) or Paoli (1972). Other studies were based on mummified material (see David, 1979 or Strouhal and Vyhnánek, 1979).

III. — INTERPRETATIONS AND CONCEPTS

A profound change has occurred also in the interpretation of accumulated data. The formerly widespread concept of individual typology is recently used by only a limited number of scholars (e. g. Chamla, 1967 ; Wiercinski, 1962, 1978). More authors accept the populational concept of race (e.g Buraor and Harris, 1968 ; Crichton, 1966, Strouhal and Jungwirth, 1971 ; Rósing, 1977). In the meantime, however, several American authors have come forward with a statement on the non-existence of human races (Montagu, 1964). According to their concept, the variability of single features is regarded as clinal and mutually independent. Human diversity has been expressed as the distance between different population samples, using e.g. the Mahalanobis D2, the delta distance of Hiernaux, the Penrose shape and size method and other procedures. Also other modern statistical methods have been applied, e.g. multiple discriminant analysis, factor analysis, principal component analysis, etc...

A critical review of racial interpretations in the study of Nubian population was presented by Van Gerven et al. (1973) and Carlson and Van Gerven (1979).

Recently, discussion between the partisans of the racial interpretation and the supporters of the non-racial approach has started with vigorous vehemency in interpreting the appartnance of the Khartoum-Neolithic finds from Kadero to the Negro (Black) variety. The arguments put forward by Robertson and Bradley (1978, 1979), Armelagos and Greene (1978), and Robertson (1979) concentrated on prognathism which was taken as evidence of the mentioned diagnosis by Dzyerzykray-Rogalski and Prominska (1976), Dzierzykray-Rogalski (1977, 1978a) and Dzierzykray-Rogalski and Krzyzaniak (1978). In view of the concept of Brace (1964 : 126-9) and Greene and Armelagos (1972 : 25) prognathism with relatively large jaws and teeth are considered merely as the result of heavy masticatory stress. This was without any doubt the mechanism of the development of these features which, in the same time, became ones of the hereditarily fixed traits of the Negro variety.

E. STROUHAL. — ANCIENT EGYPT ANO NUBIA 239

Another argument was that skeletal research cannot determine race (Anderson, 1968 : 1028 ; Carlson et al, 1973 : 555). This statement, however, contradicts the whole theory and practice of American anthropology and legal medicine currently dealing with race determination in the cases of suspect finds of human bodies. Many racial features are present on the skeleton, but some of them are not easily measurable.

The final argument was that the concept of genetically " mixed " groups implies a complementary concept of genetically " pure " groups (homozygous for genetically controlled traits) which have never existed. The term " mixed form " is also meaningless on the genetic level, because the make-up of an individual is a selection of available genes, not a mixture of them ; different populations do not possess different genes, but different frequencies of the same genes. The term " intermediate form " or " clinal population " would be more fitting. The idea put forward that there have never been barriers preventing the gene flow in the Nile valley seems to be acceptable but still more evidence for it has to be accumulated.

Another conceptual framework is bound with this question. In contradistinction to Egypt, where populational continuity has been apparent since the studies of Chantre (1904), Morant (1925) and others, in Nubia the archaeological sequence of " groups ", labeled with letters by Reisner (1910) has been interpreted by some investigators as a discontinuous sequence of populations whose structure changed at the beginning of almost every new period through an influx of immigrants (e.g. Smith and Wood Jones, 1910).

Even before archaeologists became aware of the continuous development of cultural features throughout the Nubian history (Adams and Nordstrom, 1963 ; Adams, 1967), some physical anthropologists began to realise continuous development of Nubian population (Batrawi, 1945 ; Mukherjee et al., 1955). This idea was further supported by the analysis of non-metric features (Berry, Berry and Ucko, 1967), teeth traits (Greene, 1967) and other arguments (Burnor and Harris, 1968). Using a graphic method, different diachronic trends were found in Middle Egypt, Upper Egypt, and Lower Nubia by Strouhal (1973).

The recent study on the development of Nubian population by Billy (1975) interpreted it somewhat too simple as merely the result of population " streams " entering Nubia from the North (Egyptians) and from the South (Negroes). This idea seems to be basically correct ; the various diachronic changes were, however, not only the result of migrations, but also of genetical developmental processes (e.g. selective adaptation, random genetic drift, etc.). And moreover, there were population groups entering the Nubian Nile valley also from other directions (e.g. the Pan-grave people and the Blemmyes from the Eastern Desert).

Another developmental conception of Nubian population was based, on the other hand, only on processes of natural selection and physiological adaptation. Analysing the material of the Scandinavian Expedition from the Wadi Haifa area by means of a discriminant analysis of radiographie cephalogramms,

240 SOCIÉTÉ D'ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS

Carlson (1976a) concluded that the single Nubian population groups (except the New Kingdom one) are parts of a continuum developing in a common morphological trend composed of three relatively independent patterns : the trend from a relatively elongated and low cranial vault with a more prognathic lower face to a shorter and higher (more globular) vault and less prognathic lower face, located more inferiorly-posteriorly with respect to the vault. The reduction of die robusticity of the masticatory muscles and the posterior shift of their insertions is connected with this. The said trend was also followed by Carlson and Van Gerven (1977) using the same method in the case of the Wadi Haifa mesolithic series excavated by the Colorado Expedition. The idea of the gradual diminishing of the masticatory stress after the transition from the gathering/hunting to the agricultural subsistence pattern is well-known from several previous observations in other parts of the world. In Nubia, it was demonstrated by the dental and frontal sinus evidence by Greene (1967), Greene and Armelagos (1972) and Greene and Scott (1973). It is a general trend in the evolution of the modern human skull (Carlson and Van Gerven, 1977 : 482). A new finding, however, is the evidence of the continuation of the said trend during the historical period which may have been connected with the improvement of agricultural methods.

An inspection of Carlson's (1976a) data suggests, however, that this basic trend was not the only one taking part in the play in Nubia. Thus e.g. the differences between the successive A- and C-Group series, shown in the plots of the mean spatial coordinates of the cephalometric reference points are mostly of the same direction and magnitude as the differences between the more than three thousand years distant A- and X-Group series (see Carlson, 1976a : 477, 480, fig. 4A, 6A). The only exception lies in the greater development of the masticatory muscles and their more anterior insertion in the C-Group series compared with the A-Group. If only the above mentioned developmental trend should be involved, we would expect exactly the reverse. At the same time, a gread similarity was found between the C-Group, Meroitic, and X-Group series respectively (Carlson. 1976a, 481, fig. 6B). This recalls the same result published by Batrawi (1946). This finding is very interesting taking into account the fact that the C-Group and Meroitic peoples were separated by a two thousand-year gap and by shifts of population : during the New Kingdom, Egyptians settled in certain Nubian regions, at the end of the same period an exodus of Nubian population began and more than one thousand years later Nubians immigrated back from the south (Adams, 1977). It seems most probable that people of basically identical stock arrived at least twice in Lower Nubia, may be from Upper Nubia.

It can therefore be concluded that both development and migration have to be taken into account. Many factors were at play, viz, time, space, subsistence pattern and nutrition, social organisation, behaviour and living habits, epidemic and parasitic diseases, etc. In comparison with Upper Egypt with a dense, mostly homogeneous population living for whole millennia under similar ecological, economical and social conditions in a well organized state preventing foreign invasions, the relatively sparse population in the very long and extremely narrow valley of Nubia, whose ties with Egypt were often lossened or broken,

E. STROUHAL. — ANCIENT EGYPT AND NUBIA 241

was more sensitive to changes. Invasions, even of small groups affecting only limited, isolated areas, could have had a far greater influence on the structure of local Nubian settlements.

Yet another interesting new approach in the evaluation of anthropological data was adopted by Rosing (1975, and a personal communication), who divided the material from Qubbet el-Hawa at Aswan according to the social status of the deceased. Bodies from the burial chambers proper represent the top stratum, bodies from the filling of the shafts the medium stratum, and bodies from sand burials or cult chapels the lowest stratum. In his preliminary report, for example, he drew attention to longer bones with smaller circumferences among the members of the top stratum.

IV. — OUTLOOK

The aim of the present paper has been to show the considerable recent development of physical anthropological studies of Ancient Egypt and Nubia. At the same time, however, the present situation does not give cause for complete satisfaction and it must be said that all the possibilities offered by Egyptian archaeology are far from being adequately exploited by physical anthropologists. Certain foreing expeditions working in Egypt, e.g. the Polish, French, Italian, German, Czechoslovak, English and Austrian, are being assisted by qualified anthropologists. Nevertheless, there are still excavations of cemeteries without any regard being paid to human skeletal remains. Valuable series are lost in course of every season.

The almost tragic discontinuation of the Egyptian physical anthropology after the death of Professor Batrawi in 1964 was prevented by the training of a group of young Egyptian anthropologists who gained valuable field experience during the Arab-Polish and Arab-Czechoslovak expeditions. They were instructed by Professor T. Dzierzykray-Rogalski (Warsaw) and Professor J.A. Valšík with the cooperation of the present author. In spite of their growing activity, which is very important, they cannot assist in all excavations of the Egyptian Antiquity Organisation in view of their numbering only three. The occasionnai teaching of foreign visiting professors of anthropology cannot compensate the need of the establishment of a department of anthropology at an Egyptian university and the need of founding a départaient of anthropology in Sudan, where no local physical anthropologist can be found.

A great amount of human skeletal material is unearthed daily in the favourable climatic conditions of Egypt and Sudan, preventing its decay. , All excavators should be aware that human remains are of at least the same value as cultural ones. Every part of a skeleton should be excavated with the use of modern methods and if possible under the supervision of a physical anthropologist. At least, the excavated remains should be submitted to a physical anthropologist for the purpose of a scientific analysis. There still exists a wealth of evidence which should not be lost to science.

24Ž Société d'anthropologie de paris

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Acsadi (Gy.) and Nemeskéri (J.), 1970. History of Human Life Span and Mortality. Akademiai Kiadó, Budapest.

Adams (W.Y.), 1967. Continuity and Change in Nubian Culture History. Sudan Notes and Records, v. 48, p. 1-32.

Adams (W.Y.), 1977. Nubia, Corridor to Africa. Allen Lane, Penguin Books Ltd. Adams (W.Y.) and Nordstrom (H.A.), 1963. The Archaeological Survey on the West

Bank of the Nile: Third Season. Kush, v. 11, p. 10-46. Allen (R.C.), 1979. The 1979 Colorado-Kentucky Expedition to Kulubnarti, Democratic

Republic of Sudan. Nyame Akuma, v. 15, p. 51-53. Anderson (J.E.), 1968. Late Paleolithic Skeletal Remains from Nubia. In: Wendorf (F.),

The Prehistory of Nubia, vol. 2, p. 996-1040. Fort Burgwin Research Center and Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Texas.

Angel (J.L.), 1972. Biological Relations of Egyptian and Eastern Mediterranean Populations during Рге-dynastic and Dynastic Times. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 307-313.

Armelagos (G.J.), 1969. Disease in Ancient Nubia. Science, v. 163, p. 255-259. Armelagos (G.J.) and Greene (D.L.), 1978. On the interpretation of the Kadero (Sudan)

Neolithic Population. Current Anthropology, v. 19, p. 411-412. Armelagos (G.J.), Mielke (J.H.), Owen (K.H.), Van Gerven (D.P.), Dewey (J.R.) and

Mahler (P.E.), 1972. Bone Growth and Development in Prehistoric Populations from Sudanese Nubia. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 89-119.

Batrawi (A.M.), 1935. Report on the Human Remains. Mission Archéologique de Nubie 1929-1934, Cairo.

Batrawi (A.M.), 1945. The Racial History of Egypt and Nubia. Part I. The Craniology of Lower Nubia from Predynastic Times to the Sixth Century A.D. Journal of the Royal Anthrop. Inst., v. 75, p. 81-101.

Batrawi (A.M.), 1946. The Racial History of Egypt and Nubia. Part II. The Racial Relationship of the Ancient and Modern Populations of Egypt and Nubia. Journal of the Royal Anthrop Inst., v. 76, p. 131-156.

Berry (A.C.) and Berry (R.J.), 1967. Epigenetic Variation in the Human Cranium. Journal of Anatomy, v. 101, p. 361-379.

Berry (A.C.) and Berry (R.J.), 1972. Origins and Relationships of the Ancient Egyptians Based on a Study of non-metrical Variations in the Skull. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 199-208.

Berry (A.C), Berry (R.J.) and Ucko (P.J.), 1967. Genetical Change in Ancient Egypt. Man, v. 2, p. 551-568.

Billy (G.), • 1975. Les grands courants du peuplement égypto-nubien jusqu'à l'époque romaine. L'Anthropologie, v. 79, p. 629-657.

Billy (G.), 1976. Etudes anthropologiques. La population de la forteresse de Mirgissa. In : Vercoutter (J.), Mirgissa III. Les nécropoles. Geuther, Paris.

Borgognini-Tarli (S.M.) and Paoli (G.). 1972. Biochemical and Immunological Investigation on Early Egyptian Remains. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 281-287.

Bourke (J.B.). 1972. Trauma and Degenerative Diseases in Ancient Egypt and Nubia. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 225-232.

Brace (CL.). A Non-racial Approach towards the Understanding of Human Diversity. In : The Concept of Race. Edited by A. Montagu. Free Press, New- York.

Burnor (D.R.) and Harris (J.E.). 1968. Racial Continuity in Lower Nubia : 12.000 B.C. to the Present. Proceeding of the Indiana Academy of Sciences, v. 77/ p. 113-121.

E. STROUHAL. — ANCIENT EGYPT AND NUBIA 243

Carlson (D.S.), 1976. Temporal Variation in Prehistoric Nubian Crania. American Journal . of Phys. Anthr., v. 45, p. 467-484.

Carlson (D.S.), Armelagos (G.J.) and Van Gerven (D.P.). 1974. Factors Influencing the Etiology of Cribra Orbitalia in Prehistoric Nubia. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 3, p. 405-410.

Carlson (D.S.) and Van Gerven (D.P.) 1977. Masticatory Function and Post-Pleistocene Evolution in Nubia. Amer. J. Phys. Anthr op., v. 46, p. 495-506.

Carlson (D.S.) and Van Gerven (D.P.), 1979. Diffusion, Biological Determinism, and Bio- cultural Adaptation in the Nubian Corridor. American Anthropologist, v. 81, p. 561-580.

Chamla (M.C.). 1967. La population du cimetière méroïtique. Etude anthropologique. In : Aksha, v. 3, Firmin Didot, Paris.

Chantre E. (1904). Recherches anthropologiques dans l'Afrique orientale. Egypte. Lyon. Chiarelli (В.), 1966. Osteological Specimens in Turin. Man, N.S., v. 1, p. 400. Chiarelli (В.), Masali (M.) and Davide (D.), 1966. Ricerche sulle collegioni antropo-

logiche egiziane delPIstituto di Antropologia di Torino. Rivista di antropologia, v. 53, p. 61-69.

Crichton (J.M.), 1966. A Multiple Discriminant Analysis of Egyptian and African Negro . Crania. Craniometry and Multivariate Analysis. Paper of the Peabody Museum, v. 57, p. 45-67.

David (A.R., editor), 1979. Manchester Museum Mummy Project. A Multidisciplinary Research on Ancient Egyptian Mummified Remains. Manchester Museum.

De Geeter (Y.), 1974. Etude craniométrique sur la Nubie (portant sur 58 crânes). Thèse pour le Doctorat en Médecine, Lille.

Dewey (J.R.), Bartley (M.H. Jr) and Armelagos (G.J.), 1969a. Rates of Femoral Cortical Bone Loss in Two Nubian Populations. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, v. 65, p. 61-66.

Dewey (J.R.), Armelagos (G.J.) and Bartley (M.H.). 1969b. Femoral Cortical Involution in Three Nubian Archaeological Populations. Human Biology, v. 41, p. 13-28.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.). 1962. Sprawozdanie z wstepnych badán kosci ludzkich z dwóch nekropoli arabskich v Alexandrii. Czlowiek w czasie i przestrzeni, v. 5. p. 83-88.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.). 1963. Wstepne badania kosci ludzkich z Kom el Dikka w Alexandrii. Sprawozdania z prac naukowych Wydzialu Nauk Spolecz. Polské j Akademii Nauk, v. 3, № 25.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.), 1965. Analyse des ossements dans le tombeau de Yoannes. In : Michalowski (K.), Faras. Fouilles polonaises 1961-1962. Polské wydawnictwo naukowe, Warszawa, p. 218-240.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.). 1966a. Szczatki kostne noworodków znalezione w naczyniach glinianych.w Faras, Sudan. Czlowiek w czasie i przestrzeni, v. 2, p. 22.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.). 1966b. Wczesnochrzescianskie cmentarzyska z VI- VII wiek ne. w Faras, Sudan. Czlowiek w czasie i przestrzeni, v. 2, p. 20.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.). 1966c. Remarques sur la typologie anthropologique des fresques de Faras (Pachoras). Mélanges Michalowski, Warszawa, p. 81-88.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.), 1966d. An Anatomical Analysis of Human Skeletal Remains from the Arab Nécropoles at Kom el Dikka. Alexandria (Egypt). Etudes et Travaux du Centre d'Archéologie Méditerranéenne de l'Acad. Polonaise des Sciences, v. 3, p. 20-216.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.), 1966e. Compte rendu de l'examen anthropologique des ossements trouvés dans les nécropoles arabes de Kom el Dik à Alexandrie. Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Egypte, v. 59, p. 193-203

244 SOCIÉTÉ D'ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.). 1968. Human Bones from Trench F and G of the Moslem Nécropoles at Kom el Dikka, Alexandrie (Egypt). Travaux du Centre ď Archéopologie Méditerranéenne de l'Acad. Polonaise des Sciences, v. 6, p. 229-242.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.), 1969. Notices Concerning the Common Graves from the Moslem Necropolis Kom el Dikka in Alexandrie (Egypt). Afričana Bulletin, v. 11, p. 102-107.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.). 1970. Demographic Problems in Studies of Human Bones from Sector MIX of the Moslem Nécropoles at Kom el Dikka in Alexandria (Egypt). Stud. Demogr., Warszawa, v. 22-23, p. 187-191.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.), 1977. Neolithic Skeletons from Kadero, Sudan. Current Anthropology, v. 18. p. 585-586.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.), 1978a. On the Black Variety at Kadero. Sudan. Current Anthropology, v. 19, p. 406-407.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.), 1978b. Etudes préliminaires des ossements humains des IVMII* millénaires av. J.C. à Kadero (Soudan). Etudes nubiennes. Colloque de Chantilly, 1975. L'Inst. franc, d'archéol orient., Le Caire, p. 87-90.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.) and Krzyzaniak (L.). 1978. More on the Kadero Neolithic Human Remains. Current Anthropology, v. 19, p. 634-636.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.), and Prominska (E.), 1968. Studies of Human from Sector M-IX of the Moslem Nécropoles at Kom el Dikka, Alexandria (Egypt). Travaux du Centre d'Archéol. Méditerr. de l'Acad. Polonaise des Sciences, v. 6, p. 173-228.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.) and Prominska (E). 1970. Further Studies of Human Bones from the Moslem Nécropoles at Kom el Dikka, Alexandria (Egypt). Travaux du Centre d'Archéol. Méditerr. de l'Acad. Polonaise des Sciences, v. 10, p. 137-214.

Dzierzykray-Rogalski (T.) and Prominska (E.), 1S76. Etude préliminaire des ossements humains de Kadero. Etudes et Travaux du Centre d'Archéol. Méditerr. de l'Acad. Polonaise des Sciences, v. 9. p. 231-237.

Ehgartner (W.). 1965. Ósterreichische Ausgrabungen in Aegyptisch-Nubien : Anthropo- logische Notizen. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, v. 29, p. 47-58.

Ehgartner (W.), 1967. Pan-Grave Skelette aus Aegyptisch-Nubien. Bericht uber die 9. Tagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Anthropologie 1965, Musterschmidt, Gôttingen, p. 244-246.

Ehgartner (W.) and Jungwirth (J.), 1966. Anthropologische Angaben iiber die Skelette der C-Gruppe und Pan-Gráber aus dem Bezirk Sayala. Agyptisch Nubien. In : Bietak (M.), Ausgrabungen in Sayala - Nubien 1961-65. Denkschriften der ôsterreichischen Akad. d. Wissensch., phil.-hist. KL, v. 92, p. 83-88.

Gaballah (M.F.), 1970. An Anthropological Study of Egyptians in Ancient and Recent Times. Thesis for M.D., Anatomy Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University (MS).

Giorgini (M.S.), 1971. Soleb IL Les nécropoles. Sansoni, Firenze. Green (S.), Green (S.) and Armelagos (G.J.), 1974. Settlement and mortality of the

Christian site (1050 A.D.-1300 A.D.) at Meinarti (Sudan). Journal of Human Evolution, ' v. 3, p. 297-311.

Greene (D.L.). 1966. Dentition and Biological Relationship of Some Meroitic, X-Group and Christian populations from Wadi Haifa. Sudan. Rush, v. 14. p. 284-288.

Greene (D.L.). 1967. Dentition of Meroitic. X-Group and Christian Populations from Wadi Haifa. Sudan. Anthropological Papers, № 85, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

Greene (D.L.), 1972. Dental Anthropology of Early Egypt and Nubia. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 315-324.

Greene (D.L.) and Armelagos (G.), 1972. The Wadi Haifa Mesolithic Population. Research Report, № 11, University of Massachusetts.

E. STROUHAL. — ANCIENT EGYPT AND NUBIA . 245

Greene (D.L.) and Armelagos (G.), 1976a. The Wadi Haifa Population and Rightmire's Interpretation of Later Pleistocene Man in Africa. American Anthropologist, v. 78, p. 98-100.

Greene (D.L.) and Armelagos (G.). 1976b. The Evolution' of the Wadi Haifa Mesolithic Population. Abstract of Paper, 45th Annual Meeting of AAPA, Washington University, Saint Louis, Missouri, 1976. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., v. 44, p. 181-182.

Greene (D.L.) and Scott (L.). 1973. Congenital Frontal Sinus Absence in the Wadi Haifa Mesolithic Population. Man, N S. v. 8, p. 471-474.

Greene (D.L.), Ewing (G.H.) and Armelagos (G.J.). 1967. Dentition of a Mesolithic Population from Wadi Haifa, Sudan. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., v. 27, p. 41-56.

Grilletto (R.), 1972. Caries and Dental Attrition in the Early Egyptians as seen in the Turin Collections. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 325-331.

Grilletto (R.), 1979. Premiers résultats anthropologiques des fouilles de la nécropole d'Antinoé en Egypte. Lecture at the Round Table « Research on Physical Anthropology» at the 2nd International Congress of Egyptology at Grenoble, 1979.

Grimm (H.) and Hildebrandt (H.), 1972. Odontometrischer Beitrag zur Einordnung der Neolithiker vom Djebel Shaqadud (Sudan). Anthropologie (Brno), v. 10, p. 17-20.

Grimm (H.) and Zuhrt (R.), 1968. Die menschlichen Skelettreste aus dem Khartoum- Neolithikum am Jebel Shaqadud, Republik Sudan. Ethnographisch-Archaologische Zeitschr., v. 8, p. 101-118.

Harris (J.H.), Burnor (D.), Loutfy (S.) and Ponitz (P.), 1966. A Field Method for the Cephalometric X-Ray Study of Skulls in Early Nubian Cemeteries. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., v. 24, p. 265-274.

Howells (W.W.), 1973. Cranial Variation in Man. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, № 67, Cambridge, Massachussetts.

Hrdý (D.B.). 1978. Analysis of Hair Samples of Mummies from Semna-South (Sudanese Nubia). Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., v. 49, p. 277-282.

Hussien (F.H.) and Shabaan (M.M.), 1979. Contribution to the Craniology of the Pyramid Builders at Giza. Lecture at the Round Table « Research in Physical Anthropology » at the 2nd International Congress of Egyptology at Grenoble, 1979.

Jeffreys (D.G.) and Strouhal (E.). 1980. North Saqqara 1978-1979. The Coptic Cemetery Site at the Sacred Animal Necropolis : A preliminary Report. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, v. 66, p. 28-35.

Jungwirth (J.). 1969. Die anthropologischen Ergebnisse der Grabungskampagne 1968 in Tell ed Dab'a. Unteràgypten. Annalen d. Naturhist. Museums Wien, v. 73, p. 421-433.

Jungwirth (J.). 1970. Die anthropologischen Ergebnisse der Grabungskampagne 1969 in Tell ed Dab'a, Unteràgypten. Annalen d. Naturhist. Museums Wien, v. 74, p. 1-8.

Knip (A.S.). 1970. Metrical and non-metrical Measurements on the Skeletal Remains of Christian Populations from Two Sites in Sudanese Nubia, I and II. Proceedings, Kon. Nederl. Akadem. Wetensch., v. 73, p. 433-468.

Krzyzaniak (L.). 1976. The Archaeological Site of Kadero. Sudan. Current Anthropology, v. 17, p. 762.

Leek (F.F.), 1972. Bite. Attrition and Associated Oral Conditions as Seen in Ancient Egyptian Skulls. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 289-295.

Leek (F.F.). 1975. The Alexandrian Skulls. Bulletin de la Société Archéol. d'Alexandrie, v. 43, p. 105-112.

LisowsKi (F.P.). 1954. A Report on the Skulls from Excavations at Sesebi (Anglo- Egyptian Sudan). Actes du IVe Congrès internat, des Sciences Anthropol. et Ethnol., Vienne. 1952. v. 1, p. 228-240.

Masali (M.). 1967. Dáti sulla mortalita infantile nell' antico Egitto reperti délia collezione «G. Marro ». Rivista di antropologia, v. 54, p. 171-173.

246 SOCIÉTÉ D'ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS

Masali (M.), 1972. Body Size and Proportions as Revealed by Bone Measurements and their Meaning in Environmental Adaptation. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 187-197.

Masali (M.), Davidf (D.) and Grilletto (R.), 1968. Ricerche sulle collezioni antropo- logiche egiziane dell' Istituto di antropologia dell' Universita di Torino, III/C. Dati suna costituzxone scheletrica degli Egyiziani dinastici e confronti con i predinastici. Rivista di antropologia, v. 55, p. 233-246.

Masali (M.) and Chiarelli (В.). 1966. Risultati preliminari di una indagine sur rapporto sessi sul materiále osteologico delle necropoli di Gebelen e Assiut. Archivio per V antropologia e Vetnologia, v. 98. p. 111-112.

Masvli (M.) and Chiarelli (В.), 1972. Demographic Data on the Remains of Ancient Egyptians. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 161-169.

Mielke (J.H.), Armelagos (G.J.) and VanGerven (D.P.), 1972. Trabecular Involution in Femoral Heads of a Prehistoric (X-Group) Population from Sudanese Nubia. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop., v. 36, p. 39-44.

Montagu (A., editor), 1964. The Concept of Race. Free Press, New York. Morant (G.M.), 1925. A study of Egyptian Craniology from Prehistoric to Roman Times.

Biometrika, v. 1/, p. 1-52. Mukherjee (R.), Rao (C.R.) and Trevor (J.C.), 1955. The Ancient Inhabitants of Jebel

Moya (Sudan). Cambridge. Nemeskéri (J.), 1972. Some Comparisons of Egyptian and Early Eurasian Demographic

Data. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 171-186. Nemeskéri (J.), Harsanyi (L.). and Ascadi (G.), 19C0. Methoden zur Diagnose des

Lebensalters von Skelettfunden. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, v. 24, p. 70-95. Paoli (G.), 1972. Further Biochemical and Immunological Investigations on Early Egyptian

Remains. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 457-466. Prominska (E.). 1956. The Jawbones and Teeth of the Pachoras Bishops Excavated in

1961-1962 in Faras (Sudan). Travaux du Centre d'Archéologie Méditerranéenne de l'Académie Polonaise des Sciences, v. 3, p. 217-222.

Prominska (E.), 1968. Un nouveau secteur de la nécropole arabe de Kom el-Dikka à Alexandrie. Afričana Bulletin, v. 9, p. 75-83.

Prominska (E.) Body Height in the Population of the Mediaeval Alexandria. Afričana Bulletin, v. 25, p. 65-74.

Prominska (E.), 1978. Les ossements des tombes des églises de Dongola. Etudes nubiennes. Colloque de Chantilly, 1975. L'Inst. franc, d'archéol. orient., Le Caire, p. 243-246.

Rabino-Massa (E.) and Chiarelli (В.). 1972. The Histology of Naturally Desiccated and Mummified Bodies. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 259-262.

Race (G.J.), Wendorf (F.). Humphreys (S.B.) and Fry (E.I.), 1972. Paleopathology of Ancient Nubian Human Bones Studied by Chemical and Electron Microscopic Methods. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 263-279.

el-Rakhawy (M.T.), el-Eishi (H.I.), el-Nofely (A.) and Gaballah (M.F.), 1971. A Contribution to the Pathology of Ancient Egyptian Skulls. Anthropologie (Brno), v. 9, p. 71-78.

Reggio (G.), M\sali (M) and Chiarelli (В.). 1969. Caratteri epigenetici del cranio degli antichi egizi e loro interesse etnico. Rivista di Antropologia, v. 56, p. 199-202.

Reisner (GA). 1910. The Archaeological Survey of Nubia. Report for 1907-1908. Archaeological Report. Cairo.

Riquet (R.), 1S79. Caractères anthropologiques des mélano-africains. Soma (Bordeaux), v. 1, p. 32-53.

Robertson (J.H.), 1979. More on Skeletal Analysis and the Race Concept. Current Anthropology, v. 20, p. 617-619.

E. STROUHAL. — ANCIENT EGYPT AND NUBIA 247

Robertson (J.H.) and Bradley (R.J.), 1978. On the Presence of the Negro in the Nile Valley. Current Anthropology, v. 19, p. 171-178.

Robertson (J.H.) and Bradley (R.J.), 1979. On Skeletal Analysis and the Race Concept. Current Anthropology, v. 20, p. 414-415.

Rosino (F.W.), 1970, Pradynastische Menschenreste von der Nilinsel Elephantine vor Aswan (Agypten). Homo, v. 21, p. 210-220.

Rosing (F.W.), 1971. Die Skelettreste aus den Felsengráber der Qubbet el Hawa bei Aswan (Grabungskampagnen 1969 und 1970). Wiesbaden.

Rosing (F.W.), 1975. Demographische und sozialbiologische Ergebnisse iiber das altàgyp- tische Gràberfeld bei Qubbet el Hawa bei Assuan. In : Verhandlungen der Gesell- schaft fur Anthropologie und Humangenetik - 13. Tagung vom lO.bis 13. Oktober 1973 in Giessen. Herausgegeben von U. Schaefer. G. Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, p. 155-156.

Rosing (F.W.), 1977. Europidno-negroidne rasne granice u starom Egiptu prema morfo- loskim i seroloskim odlikami (Die europid-negride Rassengrenze im Alten Reich Agyp- tens nach morphologischen und serologischen Merkmalen). Glasnik Antropoloikog DruStva Jugoslavije, v. 14, p. 109-113.

Rottstock (F.). 1977. Odontometrische Untersuchungen an afrikanischen Schâdeln und ihre Anwendung auf Kieferreste aus dem Khartoum-Neolithikum. Ethnographisch- Archdologtsche Zeitschr., v. 18, p. 445-456.

Saffirio (L.), 1972. Food and Dietary Habits in Ancient Egypt. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 297-305.

Sandison (A.T.), 1969. Diseases in Ancient Egypt. Rivista di antropologia, v. 56, p. 225-228. Sandison (A.T.), 1972. Evidence of Infective Disease. Journal of Human Evolution,

v. 1, p. 213-224. Satinoff (M.I.), 1968. Preliminary Report on the Palaeopathology of a Collection of

Ancient Egyptian Skeletons. Rivista di antropologia, v. 55, p. 41-50. Satinoff (ML), 1972a. Study of the Squatting Facets of the Talus and Tibia in Ancient

Egyptians. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 209-212. Satinoff (ML), 1972b. The Medical Biology of the Early Egyptian Populations from

Asswan, Assyut and Gebelen. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 247-257. Smith (G.E.) and Wood Jones (F.). 1910. Report on the Human Remains. The Archaeol

ogical Survey of Nubia. Report for 1907-1908, vol. II, Cairo. Strouhal (E.), 1968a. Uber die Làngenmasse der langen Gliedmassenknochen der Bevol-

kerung der nubischen Gruppe X. In : Anthropologie und Humangenetik - Festschrift fiir Professor Sailer, Stuttgart, p. 84-92.

Strouhal (E.), 1968b. Antropologická problematika núbijské skupiny X. PhD. Thesis Comenius University, Bratislava (MS.)

Strouhal (E.), 1971a. Physical Anthropology Contribution to the Problems of the Nubian X-Group. In : Anthropological Congress Dedicated to Aleš Hrdlička, edited by V.V. Novotný. Academia, Prague, p. 541-547.

Strouhal (E), 1971b. A remark on the Paleodemography according to the Czechoslovak Research at Wadi Qitna. In : Actes du VIIe Congres Internat, des Sciences Préhistoriques et Protohistoriques, Prague, 1966. Academia, Prague, vol. IL p. 1272-1275.

Strouhal (E.). 1971c. Die menschlichen Skelettreste der nachmeroitischen Zeit aus dem Nordfriedhof in Musawwarat es-sufra. Wissenschaftliche Zeitschr. der Humboldt- Universitàt Berlin (Gesellsch. Sprachwiss. Reihe), v. 20, p. 257-256.

Strouhal (E). 1972. Anthropological Analysis of Skeletal Remains from Rock Tombs at Naga el-Farik in Egyptian Nubia. Anthropologie (Brno), v. 10, p. 97-121. \

248 SOCIÉTÉ D'ANTHROPOLOGIE DE PARIS

Strouhal (E.), 1973. Temporal and Spatial Analysis of Some Craniometric Features in Ancient Egyptians and Nubians . In : Population Biology of the Ancient Egyptians, edited by U.A. Brothwell and B.A. Chiarelli. London and New- York, Academic Press, p. 121-142.

Strouhal (E.), 1974. Využiti metod horizontalni profilace obličejového skeletu u núbijs- kych souboru (The Use of Methods of Horizontal Profilation of the Facial Skeleton in Nubian Series). Anthropologicky archiv, v. 4, p. 165-178.

Strouhal (E.). 1975. Anthropological Analysis of Skeletal Remains from Kertasi, Egyptian Nubia. Anthropologie (Brno), v. 13, p. 63-69.

Strouhal (E.). 1976a. Secondary Burials in the Area of the Mastaba of Ptahshepses at • Abusir. In : Preliminary Report on Czechoslovak Excavations in the Mastaba oj Ptahshepses at Abusir. Charles University, Prague, p. 85-89.

Strouhal (Б,). 1976b. Tumors in the Remains of Ancient Egyptians. Amer. Journal of Phys. Anthrop., v. 45, p. 613-620.

Strouhal (E.), 1978a. Ancient Egyptian Case of Carcinoma. Bulletin of the New-York Academy of Médecine, v. 54, p. 290-302.

Strouhal (E.), 1978b. Two Cases of Polytopic Osteolytic Lesions in the Pyramid Age Egyptians. Ossa. v. 3-4. p. 11-52.

Strouhal (E), 1978c. Gcschichte der anthropologischen Erforschung Agyptens. Homo, v. 29, p. 108-121.

Strouhal (E.), 1979a. Zur Frage der demographischen Spezialisierung von Gràberfeldern. Anthropologie (Brno), v. 17, p. 47-51.

Strouhal (E.), 1979b. Anthropologische Funde aus dem Areál der Pyramide des Kônigs Amenemhet HI in Dahshur (Agypten). Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archáologischen

■ Instituts Kairo, v., 35, p. 323-333. Strouhal (E.). 1979c. Contribution to Archaeology and Anthropology of Egyptian Nubia

in IVth-VIth Centuries A.D. In : Acts of the First International Congress of Egyptology, Cairo. 1979. Schriften zur Geschichte und Kultur des alien Orients, v. 14, Akademie- Verlag. Berlin, p. 609-613.

Strouhal (E.), 1983. Wadi Qitna and Kalabsha-South. Late Roman-Early Byzantine Tumuli Cemeteries in Egyptian Nubia. Vol. I - Archaeology. Publication of the Czechoslovak Institute of Egyptology, Charles University, Prague (in print).

Strouhal (E.), Gaballah (M.F.) and Badawy (Z), 1983. Anthropological Changes in Qustul (Egyptian Nubia) during Five Millennia. Anthropologie (Brno), (in print.).

Strouhal (E) and Jungwirth (J.). 1971. Anthropological Problems of the Middle Empire and. Late Roman Sayala. Mitteilungen der Anthrop. Gesellschaft (Wien), v. 101. p. 10-23.

Strouhal (E.) and Jungwirth (J.), 1977. Ein verkalktes Myoma uteri aus der spàten Rômerzeit in Agyptisch-Nubien. Mitteilungen der Anthrop. Gesellschaft (Wien), v. 107, p. 215-221.

Strouhal (E) and Jungwirth (J.). 1979. Paleogenetics of the Late Roman - Early Byzantine Cemeteries at Sayala, Egyptian Nubia. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 8. p. 699-703.

Strouhal (E.) and Jungwirth (J.), 1980. Paleopathology of the Late Roman - Early Byzantine Cemeteries at Sayala, Egyptian Nubia. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 9. p. 61-70. .

Strouhal (E.) and Jungwirth (J.), 1981. Traumatism in the late Roman - Early Byzantine Cemeteries at Sayala, Egyptian Nubia. In: Second Anthropological Congress of Aleš Hrdlička, Humpolec. 1979. Charles University. Prague (in print).

Strouhal (E.) and Jungwirth (J.), 1982. Anthropologie der C-Gruppen- und Pan-Graber- felder von Sayala, Agyptisch-Nubien. Denkschriften. Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Klasse, Wien (in print).

E. STROUHAL. — ANCIENT EGYPT AND NUBIA 249

Strouhal (E.) and Neuwirth (E.) 1981. Anthropométrie Analysis of the Late Roman- Early Byzantine Burial Complexes at Sayala, Egyptian Nubia. In : Second Anthropological Congress of Aleš Hrdlička, Humpolec, 1979. Charles University, Prague (in print).

Strouhal (E.) and Vyhnanek (L.). 1979. Egyptian Mummies in Czechoslovak Collections. Sborník Národního muzea v Praze - Acta Musei Nationalis Pragae, séries В, v. 35.

VanGerven (D.P.), 1979. The 1979 Kentucky-Colorado Expedition to Kulubnarti, Democratic Republic of the Sudan : The Implications for Physical Anthropology. Nyame Акита, v. 15, p. 53-55.

VanGerven (D.P.), Armelagos (G.) and Rohr (A.L.), 1977. Continuity and Change in Cranial Morphology of Three Nubian Populations. Man, N.S., v. 12, p. 270-277.

VanGerven (D.P.), Carlson (D.S.) and Armelagos (G.J.), 1973. Racial History and Biocultural Adaptation of Nubian Archaeological Populations. Journal of African History, v. 14, p. 555-564.

Vagn Nielsen (O.), 1970. Human Remains. The Scandinavian Joint Expedition to Sudanese Nubia, v. 9, Scandinavian University Books, Odensee.

Vagn Nielsen (O.), 1973. Population Movements and Changes in Ancient Nubia with Special References to the Relationship between C-Group, New Kingdom and Kerma. Journal of Human Evolution, v. 2, p. 31-46.

Wiercinski (A.), 1972. The Racial Analysis of Predynastic Population in Egypt. In : 1" Congr. Sci. Antrop. Etnol. e di Folkl. Torino, 1961. Supplement of Rivista di Antropologia, v. 49, p. 431-440.

Wiercinski (A.), 1978. The Comparative Analysis of Racial Structure of Pre- and Early Dynastic Populations in Egypt. In : Die Anfânge des Neolithikums von Orient bis No;deuropa, Teil VIII b, Anthropologie, 2. Teil, Fundamenta, Reihe B, v. 3, p. 1-15

Woo (TX.) and Murant (G.M.), 1934. A Biométrie Study of the «Flatness» of the Facial Skeleton in Man. Biometrika, v. 26, p. 196-250.