6

THE, SPORT FEDERATIONS'PERSPE,CTIVE,

Etnmanuel BayleISSUL, UNlVllltsl'I'Y OI LAUS/\NNIt, SWI'1 7.ìr.lÌl,ANl)

Introduction'1-lic govcrnurtcc ofrvr>rlcl spot't is thc lcsponsibility of thc Iltcrrreliolrrl ()lyutpic (ìorn¡tittoe (I(Xì)¡rrtl inlct'u¡lioull sport fctlcratious (lF) (scc (.)hrrppclct ,lnd I(iiblcr'-Mabboct 200u, o¡ tlrc I()(1, ¡rrclArciorti arrcl Ìì:rylc 2012,ort lfr$. Thcsc borlics ¡r'c also tirc owrìcrs r¡f thc hlqcst cvc¡ts (Oly¡rpic(ìuncs lc¡r thc IOC antl wot'lcl charrrpionships fr>r' tllc lfr$, which fìrulr thc llc:rlt of'¡llcir eco¡ornicluodcl. 'Witlrirt this irtcr:n¿tiotral systcn of'privucc rrssociativc l¡odicrs, spolt fòclcr-¿rtir>¡s ovcrscc t|corg:tnisatiou, plolrtotiorì, ancl clcvcloptncrrl of onc or lìrorc clisciplirrcs. Ncvcllhclcss, c[a¡gcs irrllrcil clwilotuucrtl:uril spott's itrcrcusccl in.L¡roltutrcc in socicty havc lccl fl'tlcr¡trorrs tr> tlivcr-sify tlrcir¡ctivitics irrto lcisLttr: sport lìlìcl prolcssiorrrl sp()rt, iìrì(l t<> t¡rquuisc llcw typcrì ofcvcrrts.

 llruc rn:1.joriry of courpctitivc spo:'ts cvcnts irr'ù ,.r'g¡uisccl by u¿liourl fcrk:r'¡tious (rr:Lriorrul gov-culins bodics ol N(;lì$ anrl tlrcir c:lubs, Ft¡l' cxruìlplc, tluough thcil uc[wo¡k of clLrbs, Fr.¡lrcc'.s twolat'ucst spot't fc'tlct'atiors lìrarìiìgc two lnilliou tcuttis nratclrcs rtrtd jLrst ovcr. u uril'lion secccr ¡r¿tcþcscvclry yc¡r. lrr Switzcrluld, spolt fcclcratìorrs ¡lrcl tlrcir clul'¡s org.urise rnoLc tll¡u 20,000 spor:ts cvcrrts(Larrrplcclrt û (il. 2o12). Ncarly ;rll thcsc boclics :ìrc r)()t-ft)l'-profìt rrsst¡ciatrons, thc o¡ly cxccptioììsbcirtg thc pr'oft'ssiorrll c;lut¡s rhat cxist in s()1rc sport\. Iu Enropc, thcse s¡ror-ts ¡rc baskctb¿Il, socccr,icc hockcl,, rugby, errrl, wirh :r sliulrtly lcsscr rlcsrcc of profl'ssionalisru, hrrndblll arrtl vollcyball, InNorth Arucrjcu, thc sports conc:cnrc(l ¿rc Arììcricìâ1) ftrotbull, sc>cccr, b¡scLxll, |1skctþ.rll, 1¡cl icchockcy. lìrrvlc: (2007) showr'cl thâr spolt orgrtrtisrtir>rrs lravc l s¡rcciÉìc opclutlru nrotlc clcsig¡crl t<rtlrcct o\cclivcs th¡t ¡t'c l¡oth contratlictory (rssociacivc, coutnlcLci:rl, ptrLrlic) uutl, pared<lxically,colllplctìlcrìta):y fìrr thcir tlcvcloptttcut. -lhis hybrid opclalinu llrc¡tlc lc:xìs kr folrr ¡rej6r tliflcl.c¡ccsbctwcc¡t sPort orgiuìis¡ti<>ns rurcl olhcL' typc-s of olqruris¡tious (conplrics, ptrLrlic boclics): sportorgrtuis:ttitttts havc objcctivcs tlìat ai'c socicty ()r socictrlly Lrascrl, rrrthcr than plofrt basccl; t|cy havcll'tixt-cl stttlt'ccs r¡f fÌn¡ncc (cornrnclcilrl ¡rrcl uon-cornnrclciul pliv:rtc lìrranr:c,, as wcÌ1 ts clitjcct iì1r(li[clirccl pLrblic: subsicìicù; tlrcy rcly ¡¡rc:rtly on voluntecl llulu¿n rcsot]r'ccs; encl tlrcy urc sr-rl-rjcct t<rtr'vo tic:'s of rc!¡uliìcion - supr-.rrratiorrul rcgtrlatiou, vi:r thcir irrtcl'lrtionul antl/or-co¡t.inent;rl (c,u.UIFA fi,r.vrct er) lct[.r..rtiou..rnrl ¡:rti,l¡:rl r.r.s¡l;rtio¡.vi:r rl]cil.(.()¡¡rl.y'\ sysrcrrr lìrr.,,r.H,,,,iri,,grp,,,lt.rllcrc ls 'r l.rlgc tlifli'rcr)('c lrctw('cr) irr.livirltr,rl.rÌr(l t(',ìlrì s[ì(]r'ts. h.lirc.lr'vcl rerulr (onrll(.ti(i(ìl)s.rrc

tntiolrtl lcagrtcs, whicb rnay bc trlrrlcr thc sttpct'vision of t[c rclcv¡rrcEttlopc No::bh Allcric:r. In ir:tlivirhr¿rl spolrs, rìrost clitc-lcvcl cor¡pc-l¡tior¡l of whiclr aLc ttnclcr tlrc cotrtrol of thc IF (c.g. 'fhc l)i¡rrrolcliu)(l sor lrc rì()r (c.g. PC;A'lilrr - P(ìA).

109

Emmanuel Bayle

'lhblc 6.1 Statuses, roles, and challenges ofevent orgarrisation for sport federations

StatusRole-Challcngc

Ou,ncr /ot\atiset/portkipon.t

Ditto hut dalegatingÍhc organisation

Onc-o(J' organ iser /pøilidpant

Participant

Roles of thefederation

- Protect xndorganisethe event

- Optimisesportiltg 1€sults

Lrternalolganisingcolllllrttee

- Monitor theolganiser

- Optirnisesporting restrlts

OrgarrisingcolìI11rttee

- Ilriug togetherprrblic and privatestakeholders in order togairr national coverage

- Meet the specificationEvent owuer (reportingon the specificrtioD)

Optimiseassistance fo¡sPortsPeoplebefore, cluting,ancl afte¡ the eventElite athletes(national team)and their staff

Exploit sportingresrdts

Relationswith the rnostimportantstakeholdersMain challenges - I)urable and

Itrcrativeeco11011llC

model- Exploit

sportin¡¡ results -(in the nredia,socially, andecouonrically)

Erxure the event - Control theis well organised risks involved inObtain a organising ¿n eventsubstantial ofexceptional sizefì¡rancial return - Exploit associ¿tedExploitsporting opportr.rrdtiesrcsnlts (renovation of sports

f,rcilities, links withthe public, etc,)

- Exploit sporting results

In tlús chapter, the term sport federation is usecl to refer to the network of bodies co'rpr.isingthe federation, includirrg the If; NGtss, ancl regional ancl, sometiures, infra-regional bodies, whichare rlade up ofclubs' As a ltrle, each level organises conlpetitions; however, rhey ¡ray also be attrib-uted, r-rsually following a bidding process, lhe organisation of larger-scale competitions. For exam-ple, an NGri ll1ay be attributed the olganisationof a world championship, and a regional body orclr'rb nay organise a national championship. Hence, depending on the event, a sport federation canfind itself in â variety of positions, incl-rding event owner/organiseç everlt owner who wholly orpartially delegatcs the organisation of the evenr, non-owner/olganiser (in the case of a continentalor world championship), or sirnple participant, via the sportspeople ."pr.r",.,ti,rg the fecleration(e'g' olympic Games). Naturally, the uranagement approaches required will difler depencling o'the situation (innovate/control, clelegate/pronlote, etc.). Thble 6.1 summarises a federatio't roles,ltlations with major stakeholdels, ancl main chalienges with respect to event organisation,

Tiris chapter begins by describing the clifferent categories ofevent feclerations ¡ray organiseand those in which they may take part. This is followed by a theoretical analysis, based on thestakeholdef approach, of how organising ancl participating in events impacrs sport federatio'perforDrance, evaltrated with respecl to the six dimensions of performanie iclentifiecl by Bayle!200ob) and to the way federations are steered. The fìnal section preserlts issues and perspectivesfor fr'rture research into how evellt nlanagement affects spor.t fedeìation perfo'rra'ce.

Typ"s of event and their impact on sport federation performanceThe evcnts organised by spolt feclerations can be diviclecl into four categories: r.ecurring officialcorllpetitions, recurriug international events, major one-off competitioni attrib'tecl to a fecler.a-tion (world or colltinental championships, etc.), arr<1 sport-for-all promotional events. Members

110

Parlicipant

Optimiseassistarrce for

r Co spoftsPeoplege before, during,)n anci after the eventq Elite athletes

(national teanr)and thei¡ staff

Exploit sportingresulLs

Its

of bociies comprising:gional bodies, whichey rray also be attrib-lpetitions. For exarn-rd a regional body orr sport federation canwner who wholly orcase ofa continental

:nting the federationdiffer depending on

:s a federation's roles,organisation,tations nlay organisenalysis, based on thercts sport federationidentified by Bayle

,ues and perspeclives

brmancees: recurring ofEcial:¡ibuted to a federa-ral events. Members

T'he sport federøtion{ p er sp ecti've

of the nationai team rrtây participale in any of these four types of event, as well as in competilionsthat are not directly owned or organised by the federation (e.g. organised by a cotmnercial bodyor by a foreign country).

Recur r ing ofi cial co mp etítio n s

Re curring offìcial conpetitions leading to lhe attribution of oflìcial titles (national or regionalcharnpion by category: men, wor11en, youth, etc.) form the heart of a federationt activities.In sonre countries, the federation's monopoly over offìcial colnPelitions is guaranteed by law,

thereby giving it two-fold protection - from the lF (which recognises only one fecleration ineâch country) ancl from the national legislator. Moreover, in sonte countries, any conxllercialevent on the federation's calendar offering prizes exceeding a certain value must, by law, obtainprior approval from the federation.

OfIìcial conr.petirions include both amateur and professional cornpetitions, as well es cot11-

petitions that allow for serni-professionalism or'remunerated' âlxateurisnl (e.g., sorne wouren'selite cinb sports in Europe mix these three statuses, see Williams 2012,on wotlen's football)'Offìcial competitions owned by a federation can be organised clirectþ by the federation (e.g, bythe federation's governing body) or attributed by a bidding process to bodies within the federa-tion's network, in which case the chosen club or regional association usually creates an orgarlisingcommittee to apply the federationt specifìcation.

Cornpetitions in team sports include several stages of professionalisation (Bayle 2000a)'although the federation does not necessârily play a driving role in the professionalisation process,Such sports are usually rnanaged by a national professional league supervised by the federation(e. g. England's Prenrier League and Frânce's Professional Football Leagtte, in soccer). The nacionalleague and NGB usually draw up a cooperation agreement (sornetirnes including fìnancial com-pensation). The most comllton sources of conflict between an NGli ancl a league âre the sPortingcalendar and the proteclion of the nalional team's sporting and econonric interests, For exarnple,in Europe, the conflict between national teams, managed by the NGBs, and professional clubs,managed by the leagues, has led to soccer federations compeusating clubs whose players play forthe national teanr and paying the players'injury insurance. In rugby union, New Zealand's NGBpays national team players a saiary for a certain nutnber ofweeks ofthe year in order lo guaranleethe qualiry of their preparation. Conversely, in France, an intense battle has raged between lhebiggest clubs and the NGB in order to free players to prepare for major conpetitiolls (norably,the VI Nations Tournament and the World Cup).

Recur r ing int er natío nal ev ent s

Major recurring events (generall)r annual) may form part of an IF's calendar or a professionalinte¡national circuit (e.g. Diamond League rneetings in athletics, ATP and'WTA tennis tour-naments). Some such events belong to a federation for historic reasolls (e.g. Grand Slam tennistournaments such as the Australian Open and US Open); others were created in respouse to anopportuniry ancl then recognised by the fecleration (Décanation by the French Athletics Federa-tion, Paris Grand Slarn Judo Tournament by the French Judo Federation, elc,).

For a federation, it is essentiâl to own a'rnajor recurring event'on which it can capitalise topromote the sport, build irs image, obtain financial revenues (a profit), and create a pool of exper-tise in organising events, One of the best-known exâlnples is the French Tennis Federation andRoland Garros (Bayle, 2009). President Chatrier (1972-1993) used Roland Garros, which was

historically owned by the NGB, to build an economic and pronrotional rnodel that would serve

1ll

Emmarutel Bayle

the feder.ation. The huge increase in television, sponsoling, and public relations revelllles nìeans

th¡t the event now has a turnover of ar'ound 160 rnillion er"rros aud prodltces a profit of 70 rnillioneuros. Every year since the early 1980s, a third of these profits has becn given to tl-re regionalleagues to help them develop tennis and trairr future elite players. ,\s a result of this economicrnodel, nearly all of Francet top tenrris players sinceYannick Noah have cotrre through the NGtstsystem, In additior-r,these resources have given France a unique clensity of elite players þetween10 ancl 15 in the ATP top 100 every year for the last 30 year'$, which has allorved France to reachseveral fìn¿ls of the l)avis Ctrp (which they won in I99I,7996,and 2001) and Fed Cup (won in1997 and 2003). Hence, the economic model based rouncl Roland Garros cau be considered lhefotrndation stone of the NGll's sporting perforr-nances aucl of oue of the world's most sportinglyand econonrically powerful NGtss, which boasts urore than a nrillion ülembers' a budgec of 180

million euros, and 350 staff

Maj or o ne- oÍf c offip etitio n s

Major: one-off conrpetitions occLlr ât diflerent intervals, for example, every four years for lheOlympic Games, Football World Cup, and European Football Championship; every two years

for the 'World Championships in Athletics. In ordet' to host a major one-off event, candidatesusually have to enter a bid (see Chappelet2}O6,ancl chapter'2 of this voiune) and go through a

selection proceclure run as a corrpetition between countries. An NGB uray choose olle or lrrorecities with the reqr-rired attribules to present its bid.

Such events will not retllrn to the same host venue within a certain time period (e.g, 15-20years) and are very large compared with the events traclidonally organiseci by NGtss. This impliesa specifìc form of managenlert (legal independence of the fedcration, event oflerr orgauised inpartnership with public bodies: state, local authoritie$. Symbolically, the president of the federa-tion is givcn the role of organising cornlnittee president.

In or.der to be awarded a major non-lecurring corllpelilioll, a federa¡ion urust be able todenlonstrate its ability to olganise this type ofevent, so1l1elil11es âs Part ofa wider strategy by thehost country to attract major events. The interest of these very large events is tl-rat they can helpstrlrctllre and accelerate the constluction and renov¿rtion of a country's sports facilities, ancl thedevelopment of the sport in question (tsarget and Gouguet 2010). Councries lhat havc adoptedsuch strategies include Canacla in 2OO8,r France frotl the mid-l990s, Greât Britain from tire1990s (Robinson2O74),South Korea (Lee 2013), and Qatar since lhe early 2000s (Can'ry 2014)'The issues of the country's image and economic and tourisur benefìts (Charrier and Jourdan2009, Douillet 2010, Fourie and Santana-Gallego 2011) go far beyoncl tire prism of the federationancl its objectives.

P romotionøl sp ort-for- all ev ents

Sport-for.-a1l events, which nley or may not be competitive, corne in tlany forms, iucluding Pro-l-¡ocio¡al tournanents, beach tournarnencs, national festivals of sport, volunteets'festivals, sports

nights, sport for health, and mass-participation events, They are sollelitrtes organised to supportâ cause (e.g. natural disaster, children's charity, national cattse, etc.) and theír nutnber is growingrapictly. Organised alone or in conjunction with public paLtners, noll-goverllnlental organisalions(NGOs such as'W'orld Wildlife Fund and the Red Cros$, charities, or sponsors, they are useil

to advertise and promote sport to new audiences or at specitc l1lolllents. Examples irrclude theUNICEF Geneva marathon and the French Rugby Fedelalion's 'Iieach Rugby Tour', helcl each

sur111lrer since 2003. France's'Fête Nacionale clu Mini Basket', created h 7994, is a series of

1t2

ic relations revelrlles lrreans'duces a profit of 70 millionbeen given to the regionals a restrlt of this econorrúc3 come through the NGBI¡' of elìte players þetweenras allowed France to reach)01) and Fed Cup (won inrros can be cousidered there worldt nlost sportingly:nembers, a budget of 1g0

every fotrr years for therionship; every two yearsrne-off event, candidatesrlurne) and go through auray choose one or nrore

tirne period (e.g. IS-20t by NGtss. This impiies:vent ofleu organisecl inpresidenr of the federa_

)ration n1Llst be able toia wider straregy by thents is that they can helpsports faciliries, and theLtries that have adopted3reat Britain from thely 2000s (Carny 2OI4).(Chamier and Jourdarrprism ofthe federation

forms, irrcluding pro_rnteers' festivals, sports; organised to supportir nulnber is growingnmental organisations,o11So1S, they are usedExamples inciude thergby Tour', held eachr 7994, is a series of

The sport federations' perspectirte

basketball events for 5- to 11-year-old children, organised by each regional basketball commitree.Roland-Garros' chilcLen's chariry day, founclecl ín 1977 and originally called 'Ilenny-Berthetl)ay', has becoure a tradition at the tournament. Held on the Saturday afternoon before thetournânent begins, the best players play a series of single-set exhibi¡ion nr.atches in order to raisefunds for a medical research charity. Entry is free ft¡r children under rhe age of seven. profils areclonatecl to charities. As arrother exalrple, www.econlaniÊsport-r'a.frl presents all the'eco-sportsevents' in the Rhône-Alpes region of France, some of which are organised by feclerations andtheir clubs.

All of these events, whether they are organised by a êderation or whether tl-re federation isjust a participant, afFect the federation's perforrnance in a nurnber of domains.

The effects of events on tlle performance of federationsSeveral researchers have tried to identify ways of categorising and nreasuring the performanceof sporc federations (Madella 1998; Madella et al. 2O}S,Papadimitriou and Täylor 2000, Shilburyancl Moore 2006, .Winand

et al, 2010). Maclella (1998) included a federation's evenr organisationper{ormance (defined in terms of its ability to orgårise events and €fenerate revenues) as one ofseven dimensions conttibuting to overall perforrnance. The present chapter uses the approachcieveloped by Bayle (2000a) to examine the eflects of organising or parricipating in events in thefour calegories described in the previous section. Iiayle used an analysis of the expectations offederations'stakeholders (athletes, lnanagers, sports núnisters, media, sponsors, etc.) to identify sixrypes of perfornl.ance - sporting, economic and financial, organisational, internal social, media, anc-lsocietal - that contribute to a federation's overall performance. Â federationt performance is notjtrst the perfortlance of the NGts, it is the perfonlance of the entire fecle¡al system, thar is, the net-work ofdecentralised ancl devolved regional associations that represent and unite a region's clubs.

Sporting performanceSporting perforlllance is defined as the nunlber of members (c1ubs and registered players) belong-ing to a federation, and whether this nurrber is growing or declining. Ic also includes the sportingresults obtained by national tearns at major cornpetitions. The objective is to understand how theorganisation of events by an NGB ancl the participation of the NGBt national teams in i¡terna-tional competitiorrs influences sporting performance, that is, the national teams'results and theirinfluence on increasing participation in sport.

Research shows that organising events has an impact on the number of people participating insport (for a su1rnlary see tlarget and Gouguel 201.0),and this clynamic is certainly greater whennational teatns do well in major conrpetitions hostecl by their country. Noteworthy exanples ofthis include the success of Jean-Claude Killy and the Goitchel sisters ar the 1968 Grenoble .$/in-ter Olympics, and the victories of the American ice hockey tearn, mostly composed of stuclents,over the USSR at the 1980 Lake Placid Olympics, ofYannick Noah at Roland-Garros in 1983, ofCar'l Lewis at Los Angeles in 1984, of the Souch African rugby team in 1995,of the All Blacksín 2071, of Andy Murray at Wimbledon in 2013, and of tsritish athletes et the 2072 LondonOlympics. As well as resulting in massive media coverage and irnpacting media and organisationalperforurance, successes such as these may increase participation in the sports in question. How-ever, several slttdies contest this point, nlost notâbly with respect to the development of sport inthe LII{ following the London Olympics.2 More generally, if NGBs and their clubs are ro meer rheextra denand to do their sPort generatecl by a major event, they have to have sufficient facilities,qualified educators, managers, and clubs.

Emmanuel Bayle

The SPLISS (Sports Policy Factors Leading lo Internalional Sporting Success 2008) modellists olganising ancl palticipating in international conlpelitíons as the eiglrth piliar, out of nine,of a nation's sporting sllccess. However, the link betwee n the results obtained by elite athletesand their NGts's policy on elite sport is rlot clear, Is sporting success a result of the NGll'ssystem (from detecting talent to providirrg sportspeople with assistance and career guidance)or of a system that is independent of the NGts? Palticularly in individual sports, many elitesportspeople plcpare their careers outside the federal system and âre the product of private,commercial systelns (tennis academies, golf acaclenúes, Anrerican trniversity system, etc.), ratherthan an NGllt systerr.

Economìc ønd financíal performance

In teaur sports, sonle professional leagues contribute nlolley to amateul: sport, often via a levy orrtelevision rights for sports events involving the professional sport (in France, thìs levy is set by lawât 5 pelrent and generales apploximately 50 million euros) or on lolleries (0.36 percent for allgames of chance except sporls betling, and 1 .8 perce rlt of all sports bets placed with La Françaisecles Jeux, i.e. approximately 230 million euros in 2013). In individual sports, the objective is todevelop events lhat generate revenlles and profits that ca¡r be re-injected into the federal system.Grand Slam tennis lournaments are an exanple of this, with Roland Garros helping to fìnancetire FFT by federation. Conversely, the large profits macle by the Tour de France are of no benefitto the French Cycling Federation because the event is ownecl by Amaury Sport Organisation, a

ptivale company with the same owllers as IJEquipe, France's daily sports newspâper. The Tour deFrance is the world's third most popular speclator event after the Olympic Ganes ancl lhe soccerworld ctrp, and has atr estimâted turllover of 150 million euros.3

O r ganí s atio nal p erfo ftnanceOrganising events is both a way to improve an NGBï professionalism (constraints, specificationto draw uplfollow, etc.) and a risk factor (ability to manage key factors in an event'.s success).Although organising events can help increase professionalism, NGBs often fìnd it diflìcult tocapitalise on the expertise they gain by managing cornpetitions (clue to the use of volnnteers, thenrodest size of NGBs, a weak culture of formalizing processes, heterogeneous and fragile profes-sionalisation, etc,). The professionalisation of a sport fecleration can be defined as a "process inwhich amateurism rececles to urake way for greater raliorralisation, effìciency, and project-basedmanagement. This professionalisation does not necessarily mean ernploying paid staff" (Chan-telat,2OOl,7). Research shows thal the incteased professionalism restrlting frour organising eventscan have fìve major consequences:

1 rationalisation ofwork processes leading to a bureaucratisation process;2 change in governance methods;3 transforrnation of objectives ancl organisatiolal values;4 cleation of conflicts betwee n paicl staffand volunteers; and5 inr,pact on performance manâgen1ent.

A str.rdy of Canadian NGBs by Thibault et al. (1991) showed that hiring professional staffincreases levels of specialisation anci formalisation by modiÂ7ing an organis:rtiont structuralarrângernenls. As typological approaches have shown, thìs leads to changes in their organisa-tional structnre (e.g. Kikulis et al,7989,Thibault eú al.799l,Theodoraki ancl Henry 1994). This

tt4

tg Success 2008) nrodeiighth pillaa out of nine,btained by elite athletes¡ a result of the NGB,s:e and career gr-ridance)idual sports, many elitelhe product of private,sity system, etc,), rather

rort, often via a levy on:e, this levy is ser by lawes (0.36 percenr for all.aced with La Françaiseorts, the objective is tonto the federal systenr.'ros helping to financerallce are of no benefit'Sport Organisation, a)wspaper. The Tour deGames and the soccer

nstraints, specifi cationin an eventt success).:n find it diflìcult touse of volunteers, theus and fragile profes-ined as a "process incy, and project-basedLg paid staff" (Chan-om organising events

ts;

ng professional staffnisationì structurals in their organisa-Henry 1994). This

evolution is characterised by a process of bureaucratisation (e.g. Slack 1985, Bernarcleau-Moreau2004)' Arcioni and tsayle (2012) and Kikulis (2000) showed that organisational governance canbe affected by the way the professionalisation process is conducted and the political role some-times played by the federation's CEO or executive director.

Numerous studies of NGtss developing by developed countries have found that profession-alisation leads to the transformation of objectives and organisational values (e.g. Thibault 1991,Horch 1994,2001), which generates paradoxes for the bodies concernecl (Koski and Heikkala1998)' For lhis reason, this ryp€ oforganisation, in which a volunteer cultrlre is deeply institutio'-alised, oflen resists professionalisation, as the risk of cultural deinstitutionalisation can generâteserious conflicts between paid staff and volunreers (Anris e/ al. 1995, Cuskelly et al. ß9ó).

Professionalisation can also have au itnpact on how NGBs manage perfonnance (I3ayle andRobinson 2007)' Welch (1994) showed that paid staffseek to satisÇ eLcted volunreers, some-times to the detriment of efficiency and eflectiveness. A review of the literatnre shows how sportorgauisations try to optinlise efficiency and effectiveness through better managerial practices,and improve the way they function through professionalisation. In this conlext, cha'ge andperformance are interesting dependent variables. Futurc rcsearch should consider change andperfortlance as two means for leveraging the professionalisation processes and, more g.rr.."lly,the manageruent of the risks associated with event organisation.

The sport federations' p erspective

Int ernal s o cí øI p erfo rmanceInternal social performence carl be defìned as the quality of the social clinrate within a'organisation, that is, the absence of conflicts and the qualicy of human relations. Social climateis an extremely important variable for organisalions such as sport federations, which pro¡rotehumanist values. Is organising events an opportunity to develop a greater feeling ofbilongingarnollg an NGB's stakeholders (rnanagers, sportspeople, volunteers, paid staff)? this questiontouches on the issues of organisational culture and the specifìcity of hr-"r, resources man-agement (Taylor and McGraw 2006). Running conlpetitions often means calling upon largenumbers ofvolunteers (see Chapter 4 in this volurre);therefore, organising events is en oppor-tunity for developing volunteer-staff collaboration and atracting (and keeping?) volunteers(Ferrand and Chanavat2006)' More generally, organising sports events is an opportunity forgiving life to the concept of a federation as a family, providing a syrnbol around which difler-ent nlembers of the federation (nranagers, sportspeople, referees, etc.) can be brought together.National ancl international championships can be associated with general assemblies, n ..li¡gr,training courses, etc. They can also provide occasions for uniting the'federation fantily, al. aGstive event.

Media performancePublicising events (via the organiser, sportspeople and their television partners, websites, andsponsors) can raise the profile and improve the irnage of an NGB, especially if the NGII's eliteathletes, its central product, shine at the event. And it can have the same effecl on the sportitself, which is something very different. This double effect can increase the popularity ofthe sport, thereby attracting new pârticipants (if the federation has the facilities to welcornethetl), sponsors, and partners. Conversely, major cornpecitions (worlcl championships andolympic Games) can gerlerate terrible publicity if an NGB's athletes perform ãisastrously orbehave in ways the public consider inappropriate, as was the case for France's soccer team atthe 2010 World Cup in South Africa (the 'Knysna affair', in which a strike by players was

115

Ihnmanuel lSayle

ve::y quickly followecl by the team's elimination from thc conlpetitioll). The reduction in the

,lrl-b.r. of registcrcd players arrd the withdrawal of certain sporlsors led the Freuch soccer

tea'r's and tþe FFFI crlrrent sponsors to in'rpose a balometer of the French team's imageq

(Mignon 2010).

Societøl PerformanceSocietal performance ¡rostly refers to the social, economic, aud euvironmental impact ofor¡¡anising events. Since the pr,rblication of the IOC's Age¡dt 2I in 1999, and sports boclies'

increasccl foc¡s on sustainable clevelopment, the orgarrisation of ancl par:ticipaliou ir spotts

cve'ts has hacl to be seen to be responsible. Societal clitelia also provide llbernative ways forNGtss to evaluate their performance: calbon footprint, social footprint, and t.rew tools such as

a sport's'societal pârlorarnâ'(see lJayle :urd François 2O!7 ott lhe use of these tools by NGtss)

and Switzerland's 'event scorecard' (Clivaz 2006). Dovergue aucl Desbordes (2013) ancl l3ayle

cl. at. (2011) showecl thât events âre tlìe ruain mediutn thlor-rgh which NGBs cau demotrstrate

their. social responsibility; therefor:e, measuring their success in this domain is essential inorcler to assess their societal performance. For example, in 2009, oniy 1 otlt of 100 federations(U'ior-r of the Fe deration of Lay 'Works in Physical Education or UFOLEP) measured its car'-

bon footprint. This figure had iucreased to 15 by 2}t1r lrtt France, UFOLEP iutroclucecl atr

eva¡-ration tool callccl'environmental selÊdiagnosis for responsiblc cveuts' (Aclcres), based on

the ASSER (actions and solutions for eco-r'csponsible eveutst') method. UFOLEP's efforts topromote its practices throughout its netwolk have reslrlted irt four'departmeulal' commiltees

calcularing their carbon foorprints. Thc ISO 20121 international stanclard, inlroduced at the

time of rlìe Lo¡clon Olympics, also provicles a useful fratnework for event organisers such as

spolt fecler:ations.Hence, evcnts are key elements iu a sport federation's pcrfornlance . The next secliou examines

r.esearch issues arrd perspeclives associatecl with events and the mânagetrrent of sport federatio¡

perfort-uancc.

Research issues and perspectives associated with events and the management offederations' performances

Very little rescarch has explicitly examinecl the lirrks between event orgauisation and spott

federarions. Irr ¡rost câses, events belonging to federations (e.g, wor:lci championships, inlerna-tio'aÌ ci¡cr.rirs) have been alalysed independently of their orvners'sttalegies, so relacivcly littleis know' abouc the issues involved ancl the ways in which events äre organised ancl exploited.

I¡ adclition, the numerotts sttlclies investigating strategy' orgltiisaliou, slrllcttll'es, ancl profes-

sio¡alisatio¡, r-¡ostly crr-riecl out by Trevor Slack ancl colleagues, do not direccly exatrrine this

issue; r:rther, they use organisation theory to look at NGlls'capircity (e.g, origir,s, fbr¡rs, and

corlsecìuenccs) to implement organisational change (Kikulis ct al. 1992, Slack ancl Hinings1992,'Ihibattk et ol. 1991,7992,1993, and 7994 ot.l Canadian NGIìs; ,\mis cf al' 1995 on

strrctural co¡flicts i¡ these orgllisations; Couseus and Sl:lck 2005 ou orgauísatioual change

ir professiolal leagues i1 Nort[ America; O'Ilrien and 51¡ck 2003 on English rugby union)'Give¡ thc paucity of previous lcsearch, the present chapter f<¡cttses on the link between events

ancl perfor¡rance rnâIlâgelnent by sport NGIìs. Iclencifying NGBs'roles ancl challenges withr.spe.t to events (Täb1e 6.1) reveals fìve research questions that appear to have bcen largelyoverlooked in the literature'

116

r). The recluction in thes ied the French soccere French tearut imagea

vironmental irtrpact of999, and sports boc.lies'participation irr sportsde altemacive ways for, ancl new tools such asi these tools by Nctss)rrdes (2013) and Bayle{GBs can deltonsttalelomain is essential inout of 100 federations.EP) measured its car_:OLEP introdrrced anrrs' (Aderes), bascd onUFOLEP's effor.rs ro

rrtmenc¡l' conunitteesrrd, introducecl at the:nt organisers such as

nexl sectiolt exarninesLrt of sport federation

e management of

¡anisation and sportupionships, interna-es, so relatively litlerised and exploired.rctut'es, and profes_rectly exaruine thisoligins, forms, andSlack ancl Hiningsntis et al. 1995 on¡anisational changeçlish rugby union).nk between eventsrd challenges withhave been largely

7' he sport feclerations' persp ective

The strategic tnnnøgement of a federation's event portþIioThe organisation of andlor participatiorr in the four types of event identified al¡ove provicle

when thcy build declicatecl events sbrâtegies.rrilt up and Ìrow evellt lrlallagenlent is opti_wolk, which has mostly taken the form of

the wide rangc or evenrs rede¡arions can ",r"iT:jï;,::,'o; "i-ffil,:lï,îäíl",TJäî(international, tlationll, or regional federatiorr), the strategic ¡rix ofeve'ts federatio's chooseis a rich field for research. Maltese (2009) applied the lesource-based view to sports events,ancl this seellls to be a prorrtising approach for analysing che criteria that goverl the successof event-bascd busiuess nrodels. As Guieu et al. (2010) noted, resor,rrce lheory is ¡ow one ofthe lrrost frequerrcly applied theor'ies in the field of strategic managernert, and has allowed thedevelopment of a variety of apploaches to explore fundamental årl..pr, such as knowledgeaud competences' of particular note are the l(nowledge-Based View, presentecl in a specialissue of the strategíc Managen'tent Journal editecl by sp.,ld"r and Granrl1996); rhe Dyna'riccapabilities approach, originally proposed by Teece ct at. (1997) ancl rhe¡ gpdate¿ by Tèece(2007); and Competence-tlasecl Mana¡¡ement, first aclvocatect by Hamel a¡d prahalad (19g9)and replised by Sanchez and Heene it1 numerous books and articies. M¿rltese and Veran (2009japplied this approach to sports evenfs, s.ch as solrre ATP ¡ennis tournamenls, which ¿o norbelong to a sport federation.

OrganisationøI approach as a function of the type of eventAuother key issue in sttategic management is how the organisation of an event should beapproached' Federations can organise events internall¡ or they can partly or completely delegatethe organisation to a third.party. which of thcse oprions is the leastì.isky may differ according tothe rype of event' The'right'way of ura'aging national delegations is olso "n ilteresring quesciorlthat should shed iight on the conditions needed to pronlote sporting success. These qnestiorsimplicidy raise the issue of the professionalisation of the organisatiori of such events, as well asthe larger issue of risk mânaBeulent ('ranaging legal matteÀ, tax issues, control systems, i'sur-auce, etc'), especiaily in the case of very large and'one-off'events for NGtss that are noÈ used tonranaging this lype ofevent (Leopkey and parenr 2OO9a,20O9b).

SocíøI (socíetøI) responsibility and sports eyentsSustainal¡le clevelopment is a key issue fol rnost events. As noted above, sor-ne events have labelleclthemselves eco-events, eco-responsible, or sociaìly responsible (serving a cause). In order to appearresponsible in the eyes of their stakel:olders and the general public, sport federations rxrst tâkell1to account sustainable development when organising events, especially in lhe case of very largeand very iDrportant events. In addition, sport can be a vehicle for promoting changes in p"opl.tbehaviours. To date, few rtsearchers have examined the question of the efficacy of r,r.t .u"rr,slrâtegies in cert1ls of changing behaviours alron€, target groups (sportspeople, spectators, staff,etc'), ptoducing economic benefits, ancl builcling a positive image (Batiat ,,rJ wotf. zooe¡.This qr'restion can also be associated with the growing body of research into'rcsponsible,eventsponsoring (Maltese 2oI1) and cotrsutner impact (Lec and Ferleira 2011). These oppro""lr., ,rrryalso be associated with wider theories encornpassing cause-related marketing, ,, piorr.er.d byVaradarajan and Menon (1988),

r17

Emmanuel Bayle

Mea sur ing and exPlo itíng b enefit s

Since Baadc's seminal work, sports econonliscs have intensively researched the economic belrefìts

to be gained from very iarge sports events (see Ilarget and Gottguet 2010, for a summary). Incontrast, less work has been done to determiue the social and societal benefìts al'ising from these

events, which âre ltlore diflìcult to nleasure even using qtralitative approaches þtlt see the workar.rd tools cleveloped in the field of societ¿l perfomrance). lnterliâIly, the exPloitation of benefìts is

related to associative sport orgarisations'capacities fot organisational learnirrg (Koenig 1997) and

professionalisation (Chantelar 2O0t); excernally, it is relatecl to the legacy left to the host region(preuss 2007) and to the social capital that may be generated by the largest events, organised byinternational feclerations (Misener and Mason 2006).

Learning caqacíty

Organisi¡g events provides NGBs with an opportunity to develop their strategic and organi-sational learning capacity, and to create a virtuous circle around the six lypes of perforlnauce.(Jlderstanding this Iearning rlynarnic opens interestìng research perspectives in terms of strategic

analysis, organisational behaviour, and partnership dynamics.Senge (1990) defined a learning organisation as an organisation that learns from its experi-

ence ancl extr.acls benefits fi'orn the corîpetcllces it acquircs. Heuce, knowledge manage111ent

ancl transmission is a central element in federations' event ll1allagement expertise' The IOC'sOlympic Ga¡res I(nowledge Management (OGKM) progrxm allows future Oiympic host cities

to belefìt from thc latest knowledge and experience gained by recent Gantes' hosts.T Althor'lghthe IOC ser up the OGI(M prograrr cluring preparations for the 2000 Sydney Gantes, very fewsport federations have followcd its lead,

ConclusionThis chapter shows that events are a key element in the nranageurettt of sport federation perfor-¡rance. Based o¡ an eventls status, ancl the roles and challenges it involves for sport federations,spor.I events can be classified into four types: recurring official cotrPetitions, recurring internationalevents, major, one-offevenrs att¡ibuted following a biddirrg process (world or continental champi-onship$, and promotional sport-for-a1l events. An NGllt position with rcspect to the organisationof a¡ event can also differ, as the NGB can be the event owner/organiser, an owner who partlyor elltirely clelegates the organisation; a non-owner organiser (in the case of world or continentalcha¡rpionships);or a simple pârticipant viâ the sportspeopie rcpresenting the NGts. Naturaily, these

cliflere¡t positions result in difleren¡ apploaches to event rnanagenlent. The stakeholder approach

can be used to analyse the impact organising and palticipating in evetrts has on the performance ofsport feclerations and their nunagement. Finally, as relatively few sttrdies have investigated the linksbetween events and sport federation performance, I have outlined fìve possible âvenues for futtlreresearch into how events câr1 contribute to spol't Íèderation perfornlance: strâtegic managetnent ofa federation's eve¡ts portfolio, organisational approaches as a function of the fype of event, social

(societal) responsibiiiry measuriug and exploiting benefits, and learning capa.ciry.

Suggested readingsBayle,E.,Chappelet,J.-L.,Frauçois,A.,andMaltese,L, (2011) SportctRsE,Versunndndgctttctrtresponsable?,

Ilruxelles: De tsoeck Editions.

118

C the economic bencfits110, for a sunrmary), Innefits arising fronr theseaches þtrt see the workxploitation of ber.refits isning (I(oenig 7997) and¡ left to the host region;est events, organisecl by

ir strategic arrd organi-. rypes of perforurance.ves in terms of strategic

learns from its experi-ûowieclge nlanagenlentt expertise, The IOC'srre Olympic host citiesames'hosts,T Althoughydney Games, very few

port federation perfor-rs for sport federations,recurring internationâlor continental champi-rect to the organisationì all owtrer who pardy>f world or continental: NGts. Naturally, thesee stakeholder approachon the performance of¡e investigated the links;ible avenues for futurerategic rrranagernent ofle type of event, socialrciry.

T he sp ort federutions' persp ectitte

Fritz, P, Waller, S., Trendafìlova, E, and LeQuez S. (2012) 'social accoturrability and responsibiliry in sporr:¡{tr exa¡rriuation of the n¿tional collegiate athletic association', Spolf Science Rcview,10: 111-135.doi: 70.247 8 / v10237 4 1 14050-7

Leopkey, ts. and Parcnt, M. M. (2009) 'Risk managerrrent strategies by stakeholders in Canadian ¡rajorsporting events', Eu c tt t Mafi age n cn t | 1 3 : 1 5 3- 17 0.

Notes1 wwwp clr. g c. c¡ / ft a / 1 3 583 47 824597 / 1 3 SB3 4BO2OO292 See wwwplaythegame.orglnews,/detailed/rnega-events-do-not-have-a-trickle-dow¡-eflect-on-sports-

participation-.569 1. htnil3 www econonriematin. frltout-en-chiflres/ì tet'n/5372-c¡ravalle-to11r-de-fiance-etapes-business4 Every uronth siuce the suurmer of 2010, Kantar Média carries otrt an opinion poll for the FFF irr orcler

to assess the public's image of'Les l3leus'. ,tlthough the results of this sui.vey are not intencled for pLrbli-cation, L'Equipe managed to obtain a copy The French tearn is râred out of 10. If their rating is beiween5 and 6.5, their sporlsors pay their usual rates. Ifthis rating drops below 5 (in 2010 it was 2.01!), the fFFreiurburses some of the sponsors'ntoney. Howerær, if their rating is above 6.5, the sponsors pay the FFFa l¡onus.

5 wwwevenemerltresponsable.orgó www3-{.fr / ¡ct¡/Lt-Methode-ASSER7 www olyrnpic.orglnews/ogkm-cirer-les-leco's-de-1-exper ience-acquise / 17 0562

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