REVUE EUROPÉENNE DU DROIT SOCIAL · 8 . Revue europénnee du droit social 8 The court shall order, in accordance with art. 97 2 para. 3 temporary delegation of parental authority

Revista europeană de drept social

1

REVUE EUROPÉENNE

DU

DROIT SOCIAL

Revue europénnee du droit social

2

Maison d’édition Bibliotheca

• Atestée par le Ministère de la Culture et des Cultes avec l’avis no. 4363 / 27.05.1997

• Acreditée par le Conseil National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNCS), 2011-2014

• Membre de l’Association des Editeurs de Roumanie – AER (Romanian Publishers Association - RPA)

N. Radian, KB 2/3, Târgovişte, 130062 tel/fax: 0245.212241 e-mail: [email protected] www.bibliotheca.ro


3

REVUE EUROPÉENNE

DU

DROIT SOCIAL

Volume XXII • ISSUE 1 • Year 2014

Édition Bibliotheca Târgovişte, 2014


4

La Revue est reconnuée par le Conseil National de la Recherche Scientifique

de l‘Enseignement Supérieur (CNCSIS) categorie B+ avec avis no. 828/2007

en évidence BDI Copernicus, CEEOL et EBSCO Publishing

Comite scientifique/ Scientific Board:

1. Antonio Baylos, Professeur de Droit du Travail et de la Sécurité Sociale à l'Université de Castilla La Mancha, Spain

2. Dimitri Uzunidis, Directeur du Laboratoire de Recherche sur l'Industrie et l'Innovation (ULCO, France)

3. Alexandru łiclea, Professeur, Recteur de l’Université Ecologique Bucarest Roumanie 4. Sophie Boutillier, Directrice de recherche au laboratoire Redéploiement industriel

et innovation à l'Université du Littoral-Côte d'Opale, France 5. Ahmed Smahi, Enseignant Chercheur à la Faculté des Sciences Economiques et de

Gestion, Université de Tlemcen, Algérie 6. Ana R. Martín Minguijón, Doyen de la Faculté de droit UNED Madrid, Spain 7. Vlad Barbu, Professeur, Vice-recteur de l’Académie de Police,,Alexandru Ioan

Cuza” Bucarest, Roumanie 8. Rafael Junquera de Estéfani, Vice-doyen de la Faculté de droit UNED Madrid, Spain 9. José Alvarez Pestana, Professeur de Sociologie, UNED Madrid, Spain

10. Edvana Tiri, Charge de cours, Docteur en droit, Université “Sevasti et Parashqevi Qiriazi”, Faculté de Droit, Koder Kamez, Tirana, Albania

11. Kamil TUGEN, Professeur, Président du Département des Finances Publiques Faculté des Sciences Economiques et Administratives de l'Université du “Dokuz Eylul”d’ Izmir Turquie

12. Maria ORLOV, Maitre de conférences : Université d’Etat „Alecu Russo” de BălŃi, Faculté de Droit Présidente de l’Association „Institut de Sciences Administratives de la République de Moldova”

Comite de rédaction/Editorial Board:

Rédacteur en chef / Editor responsible: Dan łop, PhD Executive Editor: Marc S. Richeveaux, PhD Rédacteur en chef adjoint / Editor assistant: Radu Răzvan Popescu, PhD Secrétaire de rédaction / Editorial Secretary: Pedro Fernandez Santiago, PhD

130051, Târgovişte, Aleea Trandafirilor, bl. 10, ap. 46 JudeŃul DâmboviŃa, Roumanie, Tel. 0722.723340 www.RevueEuropéenne_du_DroitSocial.ro

ISSN 1843-679X Copyright@2014


5

SOMMAIRE

SPECIAL RULES FOR THE PROTECTION OF CHILDREN WHOSE PARENTS WORK ABROAD IN ROMANIAN LEGISLATION (Dan łop) / 6 THE RIGHT TO LIFE IN ALBANIA (Edvana Tiri, Kristina Jance) / 10 LE SYSTEME FRANÇAIS DE SELECTION DES EXPERTS JUDICIAIRES (Jeanne-Marie Wailly) / 16 ORGANIZED CRIME AS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL CHALLENGES (Ma. Genada Taho) / 31 LA PARTICIPACIÓN DE LOS TRABAJADORES EN LA GESTION EMPRESARIAL ALCANCES Y PERSPECTIVAS DE UN RETO GLOBAL (Juan Manuel Gómez Rodríguez, Nicoleta Enache) / 40 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LEGISLATION SEEN IN TERMS OF CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY (Alketa Elezi) / 51 RELATIONS BETWEEN NATURAL RESURCES MANAGEMENT (ESPECIALLY LAND USE PLANNING AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT), HUMAN RIGHTS & USTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (Enriko Ceko) / 65 ALTERNATIVE MEASURES OF PUNISHMENT AND THE ROLE OF THE PROBATION SERVICE, FOR THEIR RIGHT IMPLEMENTATION (Adrian Leka) / 81 RÈGLE DE TAYLOR ET POLITIQUE MONÉTAIRE DANS LA ZONE UEMOA (Prao Yao Séraphin) / 96 EU LEGISLATION IN THE FIELD OF ICT AND ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS – FULL IMPLEMENTATION IN ALBANIA (Alketa Mukavelati) / 119 THE ENLARGEMENT OF THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE IMPACT OF ITS CRISES ON THE WESTERN BALKAN COUNTRIES (Erjola Xhuvani) / 131


6

SPECIAL RULES FOR THE PROTECTION

OF CHILDREN WHOSE PARENTS WORK ABROAD IN ROMANIAN LEGISLATION

Dan łOP Associate Professor, Valachia University of Târgovişte

top.dan @ gmail.com Abstract: The Law no. 257/2013 amending and supplementing Law no. 272/2004 on

the protection and promotion of child rights introduced in Chapter VI, Section 31, entitled, „Child protection with parents working abroad”.

According to art. 971 para. 1, single parent exercising parental authority or where the child lives,who is going to work abroad, is required to notify this intention at the public social service at home, at least 40 days before leaving the country. Failure to comply with such an obligation is punishable by a fine.

Keywords: child protection; parental authority; temporary delegation of parental authority

Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted by the Assembly of UNG by

the Resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989, is a complex legal document1 which brings together, in a unified and indivisible system, civil, political, economic, social, cultural and educational rights of the child. It summarizes in a single document, values, principles and fundamental norms grounded in the Charter of Human Rights and basic treaties on human rights adopted in the United Nations system. Romania ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child by the Law 18/19902.

Public authorities, private bodies and individuals and legal persons responsible for child protection are obliged to respect3, promote and ensure children's rights established by the Constitution and law, in accordance with the provisions of the UNG Convention on the Rights of the Child, ratified by Law no. 18/1990, and other international instruments to which Romania is a party.

International obligations assumed by the Romanian state through the signing and ratification of conventions on human rights have generated an attention for vulnerable groups in general and children in particular. It is detectable in developing a regulatory legal and institutional framework and social policies designed to regulate and protect certain rights of the child as Law 272 of 21 June

1 Dan łop Social Security Right, Bibliotheca Publishing House , Târgovişte, 2005 2 Published in the Official Gazette, Part I, no. 109 of 28 September 1990 3 Dan łop Social Policies Right, Bibliotheca Publishing House, Târgovişte, 2008


7

20044 on the protection and promotion of children's rights intended to regulate the legal framework for respecting, promoting and safeguarding the rights of the child.

Given the fact that more and more Romanian citizens, more than two million, due to the economic situation in the country, prefer to work abroad and children born in wedlock or out of it to be left in the care of relatives, usually grandparents, it was imposed to develop a legal framework for the protection of minors in such a situation.

In these circumstances, in the first six months of 2013, the number of children whose parents are working abroad is 81.8915.

So, the Law no. 257/2013 amending and supplementing Law no. 272/2004 on the protection and promotion of child rights6 introduced in Chapter VI, Section 31, entitled,

„Child protection with parents working abroad”. According to art. 971 para. 1, single parent exercising parental authority or

where the child lives,who is going to work abroad, is required to notify this intention at the public social service at home, at least 40 days before leaving the country . Failure to comply with such an obligation is punishable by a fine.

These provisions are considering art. 397 of the Civil Code that provides that „ in the event of divorce, parental authority is exercised jointly, and the only reason the court may exercise it by a parent, the other parent retains the right to supervise the manner of raising and educating child”7 .

The notification shall contain, provides para. 2 of article 971, necessarily designate the person in charge of child support during the absence of parents or guardians.

Confirmation that the person will remain dependent child shall be made by the court trustee in accordance with the provisions of this law.

Provisions are applicable to the guardian, and if both parents are to go to work in another state.

Law no. 257/2013 is not the first initiative of this kind. In 2013, lawmakers have launched a project according to which parents who are temporarily abroad and leave their children at home must nominate a fourth degree relative to care for minors, otherwise, he would be fined up to 10,000 lei. The project was however rejected by MPs8.

The person designated as art. 971 para. 2 must be part of the extended family, have a minimum of 18 years and meet the material and appropriate character bringing up a child.

4 Published in the Official Gazette, Part I, no. 557 of 23 June 2004. 5 Day Event , November 20, 2013 , page 3 6 Published in the Official Gazette, Part I, no. 607 of 30 September 2013 7 Dan łop, Discussion on approval by the court with the divorce, the exercise of parental authority by the parent that the child will live , National Conference ,” The New Romanian Civil Code at two years after entry into force . Theoretical and practical problems ", Romanian Academy, Bucharest, October 9, 2013

8 www.avocatnet.ro


8

The court shall order, in accordance with art. 972 para. 3 temporary delegation of parental authority on the person of the child, during the absence of parents, but not more than one year, the designated person, to express agreement personally before the court.

This measure does not constitute9 a waiver of parental rights and duties, because it does represent the exercise parental authority after divorce and not parental authority as a whole, the judgment is provisional in the sense that it produce effects if circumstances considered by the court remain.

The application shall be settled in court procedures under the Code of Civil Procedure.

Non-contentious procedure10, called and voluntary, administrative or graceful, is governed by the Civil Procedure Code in Book III entitled, „non-contentious

legal proceedings “ and it includes in art.527 - 537 rules that establish general rules to follow for processing an application when it is not invoqued infringement or challenge of a right, forms the common law for non-contentious matters on which the law provides a special procedure .

What distinguishes between the graceful and contentious jurisdiction grace is the absence of a dispute, namely a dispute and an opponent who would have interest to oppose the grant of non-contentious.

Settlement of the delegation of parental rights and responsibilities shall be made within 3 days of its submission. Competent court according to art. 528, paragraph 2 of the Code of Civil Procedure is the court of the domicile of the minor in respect of whom parental authority is delegated .

We believe that if the designated person residing within the jurisdiction of another court in relation to this will determine territorial jurisdiction, although this person is not the defendant11 could not invoke the relative lack of jurisdiction under art . 130 para. 3 of the Code of Civil Procedure.

Judgment application is made in the council chamber, given the specific nature of such an application, meaning that it is not seeking to establish an averse right to another person. Complainant and the person who is delegating parental authority will necessarily be cited according to art. 532 para. 1 of the Code of Civil Procedure.

It is not specified whether or not the prosecutor shall participate with the request,, since being the interests of a person lacking capacity, but by analogy with the situation down exercise parental authority by the court trustee, such participation is not mandatory.

The decision shall include specific mention of the rights and duties are delegated and the period for which delegation occurs. Even if the law uses the expression„ judgment, “the judge will rule according to art. 533 of the Civil

9 Marieta Avram Civil Law . Family, Hamangiu Publishing , Bucharest, 2013 , p.156 10 Ana Butnariu , Non-contentious procedure , wwww . mpublic.ro 11 Mihaela Tăbârcă , Civil Procedural Law , Volume II , published by Universal Legal Publishing, Bucharest, 2013 , p 630


9

Procedure Code by the end, which is also a decision that are following features: it is enforceable, is not res judicata has constitutive character because it creates a new legal situation as regards the exercise of parental authority .

After the court decides delegating parental rights, the person on whose fall are parental care must follow mandatory a counseling program to prevent conflict, inappropriate or negligence in relation to the child.

A copy of the decision will be communicated to the mayor's delegation at the residence of the parents or guardian, and the mayor of residence of the person who is granted delegation of parental authority.

It is not provided that the delegation of parental authority is or not susceptible remedy, but in accordance with art.534 par. 2 of the Code of Civil Procedure, which provides that termination is subject only to appeal, it is the only remedy that can be exercised against the relief granted and the appeal failed . Being a judgment of the court, jurisdiction lies with the court judgment call.

The procedure for monitoring the growth and care of children with parents working abroad, and the services they can benefit shall be determined in accordance with art. 974 by Government decision at the proposal from the Ministry of Labour, Family and Social Protection for the Elderly, in collaboration with the Ministry of Regional Development and Public Administration.

It remains to be seen how it will perform such a work, provided that there will not be reestablished national authority and shortages of staff in the child protection system.

An interesting provision is that of art. 975 according to which public social service and county resource center and educational assistance required to develop specialized counseling services for children who returned home after a stay abroad with their parents longer than one year.

The introduction of these new measures on child protection should not mimic alignment with European standards, but thebe real actions is protection of children deprived more than a year for the care and supervision of their parents.


10

THE RIGHT TO LIFE IN ALBANIA

Edvana TIRI University “Sevasti and Parashqevi Qiriazi”,

Faculty of Law

Kristina JANCE University of Tirana, Faculty of Law

Abstract: The right to life is listed the first right because it is the most basic human

right of all: If any person shall be arbitrarily deprived of his right to life, all other rights become illusory. But if we see the right to life as one of the natural right, the importance of the right to life in practical terms is the same as in the times of the ancient times.

Together with the development of human society have also moved its negative phenomena such as collective rules violations, the fittest violence against the weak, crime, arbitrariness. These phenomena have repeatedly threatened and endangered not only the order but also social order. Crime, organized or not, at different levels in different countries in the world, has been and always will be the main enemy of life. Countless lives, guilty or innocent, have lost anywhere in the world due to this phenomenon which is one of the greatest challenges to society.

Keywords: right to life, constitution, legislation, crime

1. State and civil society, their protection of the right to life Article 2 is the first right laid by the European Convention of Human Rights

and is considered the most basic right of all. Without the right to life all other rights become redundant.

Article 2 primarily provides protection for individuals from the actions or omissions of a State and its agents. However, States are also under an obligation to take appropriate steps to protect individuals right to life in general, which includes to a certain extent, from the actions of other private individuals.1

Everyone is able to do an analysis and to assess how important is for a society to get the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, which certainly have found their reflection in every democratic constitutions state.

All are aware and understand very well that these rights and freedoms are respected and can rejoice without limitation any contact. An absolute protection of the rights in all aspects and generally for every citizen, it would be virtually impossible. Therefore there are limitations to fundamental rights and freedoms of the citizens, that constitutions and international acts have classified the allowable limits. The right to life, is one of these important rights. Life is protected by law. In this way the concept of legal protection of human life is provided in the

1 http://www.childrenslegalcentre.com/userfiles/file/Right%20to%20life%20rich%20text%20format.pdf, accesed 15.09.2013


11

Constitution of the Republic of Albania. This statement expresses clearly and directly the protection of human life, which represents a constitutional value.

The right to life is presented in the Constitution, as a value, from which emanate all the other rights. The basic principles of the protection of life has found full support in these provisions. Life is a right, a fundamental attribute of the human being and when it will be removed, or deal in any way, at the same time the man is eliminated as carriers of rights and obligations.

Chapter of rights and fundamental freedoms is traversed by their concept of inviolable. Rights and fundamental freedoms in accordance with Article 152 of the Constitution, are indivisible, inalienable and inviolable, and constitutional obligation of the State, through its organs is to respect and protect these rights.

Human life, has an unquestionable value and becomes the subject of constitutional protection. The protection of human life at every moment and in all circumstances is the same and it is influenced by a variety of factors, for which the lawmaker approve and designs the predict details that can guarantee this human life

2. The respect for human rights in Albania Totalitarian system in Albania as well as in other countries such as the former

Soviet Union, former Yugoslavia, China, etc, were characterized by disregard of human rights and fundamental freedoms. The individual was seen as a tool in the hands of political power and was nothing but a victim of class struggle. So human rights conceived in the context of the rights of an oppressed class to another class The Albanian state didn’t respect the fundamental freedoms and human rights, but instead, it has systematically violated and in the most brutal way.. During this time was completely abolished the Ministry of Justice. Criminal legislation was inquisitor (according eastern variant), and aimed at the introduction of the original features of Albania under this legislation, by stating that it was the only place that build the true socialism. Justice left the international principles and standards, was relied on political orientations that affect the totalitarian system was so fanatical.

At this time of transition our state was based in a pluralistic system, the attempt to establish a democratic society. This democratic society will be developed under the protection of a state law that protects and respects human rights.

In 1993 was adopted the constitutional provisions for freedoms and human rights that were based on the European Convention on Human Rights In the same year a special law abolished the death penalty for six crimes and accepted punishment life imprisonment for twenty-two serious crimes. Other laws were approved and there were based on international norms, the respect of human rights.

2 Albanian Republic’s Constitution


12

However, the most important step was the abolition of the death penalty in December 1999.3

Although during the transition conditions, many laws were approved, it became part of domestic law many international norms (among the main European Convention of Human Rights), that these rights need already sanctioned, to put on the life and to be respected.

So the next question was how and by whom these fundamental rights would be guaranteed.

Therefore attempts were made in the judicial system to create independent court and impartially. Prosecution as a representative of the state but also of the individuals victims, especially the right to defense counsel (the structure of the National Bar Association). Another important step was the creation of the Constitutional Court as an institution that guarantees respect for human rights in Albania. After the entry into force of the Constitution in 1998, was adopted a new innovation in the context of the promotion and protection of human rights. In the new constitution in the preamble was determined, the rule of law, democratic and social rights and guaranteeing fundamental freedoms.

This constitution brought a modern standard of protection and promotion of human rights and fundamental freedoms in accordance with the basic principles of the European Convention. First steps in this direction were made in 1995 when Albania was admitted member of the Council of Europe. In that time for new members of the Council of Europe was loaded the obligation, the ratification of Protocol No. 6. which entered into force on March 1, 1985. This protocol expressly prohibit the death penalty in peacetime. However, not everything would be so easy for Albania .

For Albania, the issue was raised in two stages. Our country took over the suspension of the death penalty. Council of Europe Albanian put a moratorium on the death penalty in 1996. Albania's commitment for non-execution of the death penalty was observed. According to one estimate made during that period showed that our courts gave the 20 death sentences, which were not executed due to the blockade made by the President of the Republic. After that, it was decided to leave it a term of three years for final accession of Albania to the Council of Europe. This time will be needed to sensitize the society, to remove the punishment, and that this sentence will be removed from our criminal legislation. But unfortunately, the decision on the accession of Albania to the European Council finally, was never contemplated within 3 years. Serious events that occurred in 1997 was accompanied by a rise in crime in the most serious forms of it.. People were influenced by stories of black, ugly crimes that were presented by different media. These people thought the death penalty as the most powerful tool to fight crime in the country.

3 Nr. 65/1999 decision of the Constitutional Court


13

By the end of 1999, the European Council announced that it would review the membership of Albania, if by the end of this year, will not be abolished death penalty. The warning gave result. In December 1999 Constitutional Court was convened to give a decision on the interpretation of the death penalty. It concluded that the death penalty violated democratic principles and spirit of our Constitution, particularly with its Article 2, which qualifies life as a right protected by law. Albania was finally adhered to the Protocol No. 6 in 2000 by decision of the Assembly.

The parliament ratified Protocol No. 6 and repealed sections of the Criminal Code that predicting the death penalty.

However, member states of the Council of Europe were determined to finally abolished in every circumstance and the death penalty. On May 3, 2002 was signed Protocol 13 to the ECHR. by member states of the Council of Europe. This Protocol shall repeal the death penalty under any circumstance. According to its Article 1 –

...... Nobody can be punished with a penalty such or be executed. Finally it should be noted that the abolition of the death penalty is a politically

courageous step to become the policy, but also a fundamental social values that it must protect.

3. The blood feud phenomenon in Albania The basic principles of the protection of life find full support in constitutional

provisions. Life is a right, a fundamental attribute of being human and when it is removed or taken, in any way, the citizen at the same time, is eliminated as carriers of rights and obligations. In this way our legislation is built and this is constitutional and legal meaning which carried the protection of life human. This is the legislation that responds more conditions to a modern society, emancipated and with a solid democracy.

In a democratic society is very important the protection of rights and fundamental freedoms specifically, the right to life, because life is incomparable and irreplaceable with anything else. For this reason the Criminal Code provides criminal and legal protection human right to life, with a forecast range provisions of various types of crime and murder convictions offense for each of them. However this special protection and the reality of Albania is painful, the number of homicides, especially those motivated revenge is great.

The blood feud phenomenon, although it has existed in the lives of Albanians. Including other Balkan peoples of the Mediterranean and a stretch of time after World War II, but in recent years in Albania has risen to frightening proportions. This is because the Albanian society has not fully succeeded in turning a civilized society.


14

The problem of revenge is a very serious wound and inhuman, that has affected regions and significant areas of Albania and especially Northern Albania4. Rebirth of blood feud is associated with the creation of economic conditions and social transition period in Albania. This period created conditions for arbitrary actions that have economic reasons, family emotional, traffic etc.. The main source of blood feud is the heritage and interpretation of the Kanun of Leke Dukagjini, a right in period Middle Ages.

How realizes the state and society itself Civil protection of life, liberty and security of these innocent people, these families that are in revenge?

As long as blood feud in Albania has become a concerning phenomenon by violating the most important human right i.e. life, and because of other related negative consequences, such as confinement of family members regardless of gender and age, by denying several fundamental constitutional rights (e.g. freedom of movement, education, employment, health care, voting, freedom of association, freedom of conscience and its expression, etc.) though with regret, it must be affirmed that this right is not guaranteed by the state institutions.5

In actual terms, the legal instruments that can be used by state against the phenomenon mentioned, are limited. There is not a special law, which refers to the phenomenon of revenge and its consequences. The state can only intervene under the criminal provisions, which regulates offenses against the person's life etc. An important role, along with the state, should also play all social structures, family, educational system and society civil.

Conclusion One of the main aims of constitutional reform in Albania has been the creation

of a strong system of protection of human rights. The legacy of mass violations of these rights had become quite indispensable creating institutional and constitutional guarantees against violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

The 1998 Constitution is the fundamental act of creating the legal and constitutional guarantees on the protection of human rights. The constitutional part of human rights constitutes an elaborate catalog of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, which are based on international standards of human rights.

It is important, at the same time, to increase legal authority and to clarify the illegality of revenge in Albania. In a democracy, people don’t resolve the conflicts. The conflicts are solved by the law.

4 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjakmarrja accesed in 28.09.2013

5 Executive summary of the People's Advocate special report on blood feud April 2013


15

Bibliography

1. Douwe Korff, E drejta e jetes, Manualet per te drejtat e njeriut nr.8, Keshilli i Europes. 2. European human rights: taking a case under the Convention,Luke Clementes,Nuala

Mole,Alan Simpson,Sweet& MAXWELL 1999. 3. International human rights in context, law, politics and morals, Henry J.Steiner, Philip

Alston, Clarendon Press-Oxford 1996. 4. Jordan Daci, Te drejtat e njeriut, Tirane 2008. 5. Konventa Europiane e te Drejtave te Njeriut. 6. Law of the European Convention on Human Rights, D.J Harris, M O’Boyle, C.Warbrick,

Butterworths 1995


16

LE SYSTEME FRANÇAIS DE SELECTION

DES EXPERTS JUDICIAIRES

Jeanne-Marie WAILLY Enseignante en droit ULCO département Gaco Iut Saint Omer

directrice des études ISCID responsable de la licence professionnelle gestion des ressources humaines

Abstract: The decry, for inclusion on the lists of experts, must now be justified. The

control of this motivation, limited to the search for manifest error of assessment. Keywords: inclusion on the lists of experts; the decry for inclusion like expert;

motivation

Récemment la cour de cassation a été saisie de de recours contre des décisions

non motivées1 ou motivées ayant rejeté des demandes d’inscription sur les listes d’expert. Ainsi ont été mis en avant: le fait que la candidature ne répond pas aux besoins actuels des juridictions du ressort2, une expérience professionnelle jugée insuffisante, un manque de diplôme adapté à la spécialité demandée3. Ce qui invite à revenir sur les conditions de sélection des experts judiciaires.

Les décisions d’inscription ou de refus d’inscription sont soumises à certaines conditions (A). Jusqu’à présent ces décrions, du moins pour l’inscription initiale, n’avaient pas à être motivées4 (a), mais pouvaient néanmoins faire l’objet de recours (b). Maintenant elles doivent l’être5 (B). Cependant le contrôle de cette motivation reste minimum6, limité à la recherche de l’erreur manifeste d’appréciation7 (a), et dans des conditions très restrictives (b).

1 Cass. civ., 2 6 juin 2013 pourvoi n° 13-60024 Inéd. 2 cass. civ., 2 6 juin 2013 n° 12-60.077 Inéd. Mme Santiago-Rios 3 Cass. civ., 2 6 juin 2013 pourvoi n° 13-60098 4 Civ. 2e, 16 mai 2012, n° 11-61.219 L. Dargent : Dalloz act. 31 mai 2012otivation du 5 Loi n° 71-498 du 29 juin 1971 relative aux experts judiciaires modifiée L. 27 mars 2012 art 2 III ; Cass. Ch. civ., 2 29 Sept 2011 n° 09-10.605, 1614 Penarroja Fa : Bull civ 2011, II, 180 ; JurisData : 2011-020440 ; Cass. Ch. civ., 2 29 Sept. 2011 n° 09-10.445, 1613 Peñarroja Fa Bull civ 2011, II, 177, JurisData : 2011-020439

6 Cass. 2e civ., 12 juill. 2012 note Marc Dupré : Petites affiches, 18 oct. 2012 n° 209, P. 5 7 Cass. civ., 2 6 juin 2013 n° de pourvoi: 13-60067 ; 13-60004 ; 13-60038 ; 13-60042 ; 13-60002 ; 12-60612


17

A) la sélection des experts judiciaires:

l’inscription sur la liste des experts judiciaires a) l’inscription sur les listes d’experts judiciaires La cour de cassation, tirant les conséquences d’une décision de la cour de justice

de l’union européenne8, à laquelle elle avait posé une question préjudicielle9, avait annulé une décision, non motivée de traducteurs, n’ayant pas d’expérience en France, mais une expérience dans un pays de l’union européenne et renvoyé au législateur le soin d’apprécier l’opportunité d’étendre cette solution à tous les experts10. La loi est intervenue11. La cour de cassation en a fait de nouvelles applications12.

Issues de la nécessité pratique pour les tribunaux de disposer, d'une réserve de professionnels aux compétences reconnues, les listes furent officiellement consacrées par le législateur13. L’inscription devenant un moyen de sélection ce qui explique l’existence de recours en cas de non inscription14. Il existe deux listes d’experts judiciaires. L’une, nationale15, dressée par le bureau de la Cour de cassation, et l'autre dressée par chaque cour d'appel16, selon une nomenclature dressée par le garde des sceaux17 sur lesquelles sont inscrits les experts désignés tant en matière civile qu'en matière pénale. Le fait que les spécialités demandées ne figurent pas dans cette nomenclature permet de justifier un refus d’inscription18. Les conditions d'établissement de ces listes sont réglementées19, y compris en ce qui concerne l'honorariat20.

a) conditions d’inscriptions sur la liste des experts judiciaires Pour les personnes physiques, car il existe aussi des conditions spécifiques aux

personnes morales, les conditions permettant l’inscription sur la liste des experts judiciaires tiennent au respect de certaines qualités.

8 CJUE 17 mars 2011 n° C-372/09 et C-373/09 9 Cass. Ch. civ., 2 29 Sept. 2011 n° 09-10.605, 1614 Penarroja Fa préc. 10 Civ. 2e, 29 sept. 2011, n° 09-10.605, BICC 15 janv. 2012, n° 62 11 L. 27 mars 2012 préc. 12 Cass. Ch. civ., 2 6 Juin 2013 n° 12-60.616, Inédit X / Y M Sedletzki Numéro JurisData : 2013-011383 ; Cass. ch. civ., 2 6 juin 2013 n ° de pourvoi: 13-60024 ; 13-60083 ; 13-60048 ; 13-60067 ; 13-60091 ; 12-60585 ; 12-60626 ; 12-60627 ; 12-60634 ; 13-60004 ; 13-60006 ; 13-60023 ; 13-60059 ; 13-60026 ; 13-60098 ; 13-60101 ; 12-60590 ; 13-60038 ; 13-60042 ; 13-60065 ; 12-60629 ; 13-60002 ; 13-60051 ; 13-60052 ; 12-60612 ; 12-60613 ; 12-60623 ; 13-60061 ; 12-60619 ; 13-60057 ; déjà en ce sens Cass. 2e civ., 12 juill. 2012 note Marc Dupré : Petites affiches, 18 octobre 2012 n° 209, P. 5

13 Loi n° 71-498 du 29 juin 1971 relative aux experts judiciaires modifiée 27 mars 2012 14 D. n° 2004-1463 du 23 décembre 2004 art. 20 15 M. Olivier, La liste nationale des experts, son origine, son établissement, son usage : Gaz. Pal. 1993, 1, doctr. p. 36

16 COJ Article R. 312-43 17 A. 10 juin 2005 : JO 28 Juin 18 Cass. ch. civ., 2 6 juin 2013 n° de pourvoi: 13-60083 19 L. n

o 71-498 du 29 juin 1971 ; D. n° 2004-1463 du 23 décembre 2004

20 art. 33 du D. du 23 décembre 2004


18

– la qualification professionnelle: Le candidat doit justifier de sa qualification21 et de son expérience

professionnelle22. Le candidat doit exercer ou avoir exercé pendant un temps suffisant une profession, ou une activité en rapport avec sa spécialité.

– l'indépendance du technicien, qui ne doit exercer aucune activité incompatible avec l'indépendance nécessaire à l'exercice des missions23: celles de juge, avocat, d'huissier de justice (pour l'expertise et la consultation). Il n'y a plus, d'incompatibilité pour les fonctionnaires en activité et l'autorisation de l'administration n'est pas nécessaire24.

L’inscription sur les listes les techniciens le plus souvent missionnés par les compagnies d'assurances est souvent refusée.

Le code de déontologie des professions médicales25 prescrit aux médecins de ne pas accepter une mission d'expertise dans laquelle sont en jeu les intérêts d'un groupement qui fait habituellement appel à ses services.

Le conflit d'intérêt pouvant exister entre l'exercice de missions d'expertise et l’activité professionnelle d'agent immobilier permet de justifier un refus d’inscription sur la liste26.

– il n'existe pas de condition d'âge minimum, l'âge maximum est, en principe, de soixante-dix ans27. La condition d'âge maximum est impérative28. À titre exceptionnel, le bureau de la Cour de cassation peut inscrire sur la liste nationale un candidat qui n'a pas les conditions d'ancienneté ou d'âge29.

– Il n'y a pas de condition de nationalité ; – il est interdit à un technicien d'être inscrit sur plusieurs listes de cours

d'appel, mais il lui est possible de l'être à la fois sur une liste de cour d'appel et

sur la liste nationale30

.

Les Personnes morales souhaitant être inscrites doivent remplir les mêmes conditions que celles demandées aux personnes physiques31. En outre que la personne morale doit justifier de certaines qualités.

Elle doit produire les statuts et l'indication du nom de chacune des personnes détenant une fraction d'au moins 10 % du capital social. Sauf une exception pour les personnes morales ayant pour objet de réaliser des expertises médico-légales ou

21 Cass. ch. civ., 2 6 juin 2013 n° de pourvoi: 13-60038 22 art. 2, 4o à 5o du décret du 23 décembre 2004 23 art. 2, 6o D. 23 décembre 2004 24 Cass. 1re civ., 2 mai 1984 : Bull. civ. 1984, I, n° 146 ; JCP G 1984, IV, p. 219 ; Gaz. Pal. 1984, 2, pan. jurispr. p. 285. – Cass. 1re civ., 10 juill. 1984: Bull. civ. 1984, I, n° 222; Gaz. Pal. 1985, 1, pan. jurispr. p. 10, note S. Guinchard

25 C. santé pub. art. R. 4127-105 à R. 4127-108 26 Cass. ch. civ., 2 6 juin 2013 n° de pourvoi: 13-60067 27 art. 2, 7o décret 23 déc. 2004 ; Cass. 1re civ., 11 juill. 1978: Bull. civ. 1978, I, n° 266 ; JCP G 1978, IV, p. 293

28 Cass. ch. civ., 2 6 juin 2013 pourvoi n°: 13-60101 29 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 18 30 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 18, al. 3 31 1o, 2o, 3o, et 6o de l'article 2 du décret du 23 décembre 2004


19

des examens, recherches et analyses d'identification par empreintes génétiques32, une personne morale qui se donnerait pour objet principal ou accessoire l'exécution de mission d'expertise ne peut être inscrite sur une liste d'experts judiciaires33.

Le candidat à l'inscription sur la liste nationale doit justifier de son inscription sur une liste dressée par une cour d'appel depuis au moins cinq ans34 ou de compétences reconnues dans un Etat membre de l'Union Européenne autre que la France35. Ce qui rend les conditions d’inscriptions compatibles avec les normes européennes36. Cette condition doit être remplie au 1er janvier de l'année suivant celle de présentation de la demande37.

Le candidat doit aussi remplir les conditions suivantes: 1) ne pas avoir été l'auteur de faits contraires à l'honneur, à la probité ou aux

bonnes mœurs. 2) ne pas avoir été l'auteur de faits ayant donné lieu à une sanction

disciplinaire ou administrative de destitution, radiation, révocation, de retrait d'agrément ou d'autorisation ;

3) n'avoir pas été frappé de faillite personnelle ou d'une autre sanction en application du code de commerce38.

Il existe aussi une condition de résidence. La personne physique, doit exercer son activité professionnelle principale dans le ressort de la cour d'appel, ou, si elle n'a plus d'activité professionnelle, elle doit y avoir sa résidence39.

Une personne morale, doit justifier qu'elle a son siège social, une succursale ou un établissement technique en rapport avec sa spécialité, dans le ressort de la cour d'appel.

La Procédure d'inscription diffère selon qu'il s'agit de la liste de cour d'appel ou de la liste nationale, avec des particularités pour certains experts: experts en diagnostic d'entreprise40, en identification par empreintes génétiques41, en matière de Sécurité sociale42, en accidents médicaux43, en automobile44, en matière agricole: établissement des listes par le ministère de l'agriculture45.

32 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 3 33 art. 3 Décr. 23 déc. 2004 34 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 17. – Cass. 2e civ., 3 juill. 2008, n° 08-11.541 : JurisData n° 2008-044636 ; Bull. civ. 2008, II, n° 162

35 Loi n° 71-498 du 29 juin 1971 Mod. L. n°2012-409 du 27 mars 2012 - art. 9 36 CJCE C-372/09 et C-373/09 37 D. 23 déc. 2004, art. 17 38 art. 2, 1

o à 3

o du décret du 23 décembre 2004 ; C. com., titre II du livre VI

39 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 2. – Cass. 1re civ., 1er juill. 1981: Gaz. Pal. 1982, 1, pan. jurispr. p. 44 40 D. n° 85-1389, 27 déc. 1985 puis C. com., art. R. 811-1 à R. 814-58 41 C. civ., 6-1 et 16-12 de la loi du 29 juin 1971 42 CSS, art. R. 141-1 43 L. n° 2002-303, 4 mars 2002, art. 105 44 L. n° 72-1097, 11 déc. 1972 puis C. route, art. L. 326-1 à L. 326-9 45 Loi n° 72-565 du 5 juillet 1972, mod. L. n° 2001-602 du 9 juill. 2001 d'orientation sur la forêt : J O 11 Juillet 2001


20

En raison de l'intérêt qui s'y attache l'inscription sous une rubrique de spécialité d'une liste d'experts peut éventuellement donner lieu à contentieux46.

Pour être inscrit le technicien doit adresser, avant le 1er mars de chaque année47, une demande au procureur de la République près le tribunal de grande instance dans le ressort duquel il exerce son activité professionnelle ou possède sa résidence. Elle doit être assortie de toutes précisions utiles: indication de la ou des rubriques dans lesquelles l'inscription est demandée: indication des titres ou diplômes du demandeur, de ses travaux scientifiques, techniques et professionnels, des différentes fonctions qu'il a remplies et de la nature de toutes les activités professionnelles qu'il exerce avec, le cas échéant, l'indication du nom et de l'adresse de ses employeurs, la justification de la qualification du demandeur dans sa spécialité, le cas échéant, l'indication des moyens et des installations dont il peut disposer pour effectuer les missions d’expertises judiciaires48.

S'agissant d'une demande d'inscription sur la liste nationale, elle doit être adressée au Procureur général près la Cour de cassation. La date limite pour son dépôt est la même.

Après avoir instruit le dossier, le procureur de la République le transmet, au procureur général qui saisit le premier président de la cour d'appel. Le premier président de la cour d’appel désigne un ou plusieurs magistrats du ressort appartenant au siège pour exercer les fonctions de rapporteur49. Rien n'interdit au premier président de se désigner lui-même pour faire le rapport50.

La procédure d'inscription comprend une phase d'instruction préalable des dossiers par le Parquet, puis une phase de décision. Au cours de la deuxième semaine du mois de septembre, le procureur de la République transmet les candidatures au procureur général qui saisit le premier président de la cour d'appel aux fins d'examen par l'assemblée générale des magistrats du siège de la cour d'appel51. Une commission comprenant des magistrats et des experts52 doit, en amont, émettre un avis motivé sur les candidatures. En cas de partage égal des voix, le président a voix prépondérante53. L'avis n'en est pas moins valable dès lors que chacune des deux catégories est représentée par la moitié de ses membres54. La composition de l'assemblée générale de la cour d'appel est déterminée par les

46 M. Olivier, Les experts en matière de sécurité sociale, Les nouveaux aspects du contentieux de l'inscription sur les listes judiciaires d'experts : Gaz. Pal. 1991, 2, p. 764

47 art. 6, alinéa 1er du décret du 23 décembre 2004 48 D. 23 déc. 2004, art. 6, al. 2 49 D. 23 déc. 2004, art. 8, al. 5 50 Civ. 2e, 21 sept. 2006, no 06-10.668 51 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 7 52 art. 12 du décret 53 art. 14 du même décret 54 Cass. civ., 21 sept. 2006 pourvoi n° 06-11.595


21

textes55. En cas de violation de ceux-ci, la décision de l'assemblée générale de la cour d'appel est nulle56.

Le procureur général près la Cour de cassation instruit les demandes d'inscription sur la liste nationale. Il remplit les mêmes fonctions que le procureur de la République pour les candidatures sur les listes des cours d'appel. Il fait également office de filtre. Il doit recueillir l'avis du premier président et du procureur général près la cour d'appel où l'intéressé est inscrit et transmet les candidatures, avec son avis au bureau de la Cour de cassation57. La décision d'inscription est prise par l'assemblée générale de la cour d'appel avant le 15 novembre de chaque année58 et par le bureau de la Cour de cassation, avant le 15 décembre59. Ces délais ne sont pas prescrits à peine de nullité60. L'assemblée générale de la cour d'appel se prononce après avoir entendu le magistrat chargé du rapport et le ministère public61 le bureau de la Cour de cassation se prononce sur le rapport d'un de ses membres, le procureur général entendu.

L'assemblée générale doit se réunir pour dresser la liste des experts62. Elle se prononce après avoir entendu le magistrat chargé du rapport et le ministère public63. Le procès-verbal doit mentionner la présence du ou des rapporteurs désignés et celle du ministère public, ces mentions emportent présomption qu'ils ont effectivement été entendus64. Le directeur de greffe assiste aux assemblées générales et consigne les décisions prises et les avis émis, sa présence résulte de sa signature du procès-verbal de l'assemblée, et à défaut la délibération est nulle65.

Pendant longtemps, selon une jurisprudence constante, l'assemblée n'avait pas à entendre l'intéressé,66 ni, en matière d'inscription initiale, à motiver sa décision67. Elle doit maintenant l’être68, mais rien n’est changé sur l’audition de l’intéressé au moment de sa première demande d’inscription.

Une fois rendu, l'avis est joint à la décision de réinscription ou de refus de réinscription sur la liste69. L'annulation de la décision de l'assemblée générale ayant

55 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 8 et 9 56 Cass. 1re civ., 14 janv. 1992 : Bull. civ. 1992, I, n° 15 ; Gaz. Pal. 1992, 1, pan. jurispr. p. 127. – Cass. 1re civ., 2 juill. 1991 : Gaz. Pal. 1991, 2, pan. jurispr. p. 326

57 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 17 58 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 8 59 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 18 60 Cass. 1re civ., 19 mars 1980: JCP G 1980, IV, p. 214; Bull. civ. 1980, I, n° 96; Gaz. Pal. 1980, 2, somm. p. 345. – Cass. 1re civ., 6 mai 1981: Bull. civ. 1981, I, n° 152; Gaz. Pal. 1981, 2, somm. p. 351

61 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 8, dernier al. 62 D. 23 déc. 2004, art. 8, al. 1er 63 D. 23 déc. 2004, art. 8, al. 6 64 Civ. 2e, 9 nov. 2006, no 06-11.399, Bull. civ. II, no 312 65 Civ. 2e, 21 sept. 2006, no 06-11.595, Bull. civ. II, no 248; D. 2006. IR 2481; Dr. et proc. 2007. 29, note Norguin 66 Cass. Civ. 2

e, 21 sept. 2006 [quatre arrêts], n

o 05-21.978, Bull. civ. II, n

o 239, et n

os 06-11.725, 05-

22.052 et 06-10.625, D. 2006. IR 2481 ; Dr. et proc. 2007. 29, note Norguin. - 20 mai 2010, nos 10-

60.055 et 09-60.464. - 24 juin 2010, no 10-60.010

67 Civ. 2e, 16 mai 2012, F-P+B, n° 11-61.219 préc. 68 L. n° 71-498 du 29 juin 1971 mod L. 27 mars 2012 69 L. 29 juin 1971, art. 2 et Décr. 23 déc. 2004, art. 15


22

refusé la réinscription ne pourra être évitée si l'avis défavorable de la commission concernant le candidat n'est annexé ni à la délibération motivée de l'assemblée ni à la notification qui lui a été faite de cette décision70.

A compter 1er février 2013 les demandes d'inscription sur les listes d'experts judiciaires sont examinées en tenant compte:

1) des qualifications et de l'expérience professionnelle des candidats, y compris les compétences acquises dans un État membre de l'Union européenne autre que la France;

2) de l'intérêt qu'ils manifestent pour la collaboration au service public de la justice71.

L’assemblée générale qui dresse la liste des experts doit tenir compte des besoins des juridictions dans son ressort pour la spécialité sollicitée72.

L'inscription initiale sur une liste de cour d'appel est faite, dans une rubrique particulière, pour une période probatoire de trois ans73, à l'issue de laquelle sur nouvelle présentation de la candidature, l'expert peut être réinscrit pour une durée de cinq années74, après avis motivé d'une commission associant des représentants des juridictions et des experts75. À cette fin, il est soumis à une évaluation de l'expérience qu'il a acquise des principes directeurs du procès et des règles de procédure applicables aux mesures d'instruction confiées à un technicien. L'inscription initiale sur la liste nationale vaut pour une durée de sept ans76. À l'issue de la période de sept ans en cas d'inscription sur la liste nationale, l'expert doit solliciter sa réinscription, qui si elle est accordée, vaut pour une nouvelle période de sept années. Il n'y a donc pas de renouvellement d'office77. Il n’y a aucun droit à être réinscrit sur une liste78.

L'examen des demandes de réinscription est soumis aux mêmes conditions que la demande d'inscription initiale79. Ainsi, pour la réinscription sur la liste nationale, il faut que le candidat soit toujours inscrit sur une liste de cour d'appel depuis au moins trois années consécutives à la date de sa demande80.

Pour la réinscription sur une liste de cour d'appel, les demandes sont envoyées avant le 1er mars de chaque année au procureur de la République. Le non-respect de cette date rend la demande irrecevable81, même si la demande a été par erreur

70 Cass. civ., 21 sept. 2006 pourvoi n° 06-11.595 pourvoi n° 06-10.053 71 D. no 2004-1463 du 23 déc. 2004, art. 4-1 nouv., créé par D. n° 2012-1451 du 24 déc. 2012, art. 10 72 D. n° 2004-1463 23 déc. 2004 art 8 al. 1 mod D. n° 2012-1451 24 déc 2012 art. 11 73 L. n° 71-498 du 29 juin 1971 Mod. L. n°2012-409 du 27 mars 2012 - art. 9 art 2 II al. 1 74 L. n° 71-498 du 29 juin 1971 Mod. L. n°2012-409 du 27 mars 2012 - art. 9 art 2 II al.2 75 L. n° 71-498 du 29 juin 1971 art. 2 Mod. L. n°2012-409 du 27 mars 2012 - art. 9 art 2 II al.2 76 L. 29 juin 1971, art. 2, III 77 L. 29 juin 1971, art. 2 78 Cass. 21 sept. 2006 pourvoi n° 06-12.007 79 L. 29 juin 1971, art. 2, II 80 Civ. 3e, 3 juill. 2008, no 08-11.541, Bull. civ. II, no 162 81 Civ. 2e, 14 mai 2009, no 09-11.102


23

adressée à la cour d'appel et non au procureur de la République près le tribunal de grande instance82.

La demande doit être assortie de tous documents qui permettent d'évaluer: l'expérience acquise par le candidat, tant et la connaissance qu'il a acquise des principes directeurs du procès et des règles de procédure applicables aux mesures d'instruction confiées à un technicien83.

L'expert inscrit sur la liste nationale conserve le bénéfice de son inscription préalable sur une liste de cour d'appel84.

Le procureur de la République instruit la demande et transmet la candidature à la commission chargée de l’étudier85. Cette commission est composée de manière identique à ce qui est prévu pour la commission qui statue sur l’inscription initiale. L’avis émis par une commission dans laquelle chacune des deux catégories (magistrats et experts) n'est représentée que par la moitié de ses membres est régulier86, mais non celui émis par une commission composée seulement de neuf membres, qui ne représentent pas la moitié de chaque catégorie87. L'absence d'indication relative à la composition de la commission dans le procès-verbal de l'assemblée générale vicie la procédure88. Le secrétariat de la commission est assuré par un magistrat du parquet général89. La signature du procès-verbal par le greffier est par contre une formalité substantielle90.

La commission examine la situation de chaque candidat à la réinscription91 au regard des critères d'évaluation fixés par la loi92. Elle doit s'assurer que le candidat respecte les obligations qui lui sont imposées et s'en acquitte avec ponctualité. Avant le 1er septembre, elle transmet les candidatures avec son avis motivé au procureur général qui saisit le premier président de la cour d'appel aux fins d'examen par l'assemblée générale des magistrats du siège de la cour ou sa commission restreinte ou sa formation restreinte93.

Les magistrats de la cour d'appel également membres de la commission ne participent pas à la délibération portant sur la réinscription des experts94, l'un des membres de la commission peut très bien être désigné, par le premier président de la cour d'appel, comme magistrat rapporteur, pourvu qu'il ne prenne pas part aux

82 Civ. 2e, 20 mai 2010, no 10-60.012 83 D. 23 déc. 2004, art. 1 84 D. 23 déc. 2004, art. 18 85 art. 2, II de la loi du 29 juin 1971 86 Civ. 2e, 21 sept. 2006, no 06-11.595, Bull. civ. II, no 248; R. 2006. 431 ; D. 2006. IR 2481 ; Dr. et proc. 2007. 29, note Norguin ; Gaz. Pal. 6-7 juill. 2007, p. 26, note du Rusquec. - 4 juill. 2007, no 07-11.932. - 26 juin 2008, no 08-10.402

87 Civ. 2e, 20 mai 2010, no 10-60.023 88 Civ. 2e, 24 juin 2010, no 10-60.058 89 D. 23 déc. 2004, art. 12 90 Civ. 2e, 21 sept. 2006, no 06-11.595 91 art 14 du décret 2004 92 al. 2 l'article 2, II L. du 29 juin 1971 93 art. 8 décret du 23 décembre 2004 94 D. 23 déc. 2004, art. 15 ; Cass. civ., 21 sept. 2006 pourvoi n° 06-11.595pourvoi n° 06-10.053


24

délibérations sur la demande de réinscription95. De plus est irrégulière la décision prise alors que le président de la commission qui n'a qu'une voix consultative et qui avait entendu l'expert au cours de l'instruction, a participé à la délibération96, ou s'il est établi que des magistrats de la commission qui n'ont que voix consultative, ont délibéré avec l'assemblée générale97. L'assemblée générale se prononce après avoir entendu le rapporteur et le ministère public. L'avis de la commission est joint à la décision de réinscription ou de refus de réinscription98. L’inobservation de ces règles sera sanctionnée par l'annulation de la décision de l'assemblée générale99. Les pièces du dossier ou le procès-verbal de l'assemblée doivent en porter la trace. Le technicien doit donc être appelé à fournir ses explications avant que la décision relative à sa réinscription ne soit prise.

Aussi, il est admis que si aucune constatation du procès-verbal de l'assemblée générale de la cour d'appel ou mention de la décision établissent que l'expert concerné a été appelé à fournir ses observations au magistrat rapporteur avant la décision de non-réinscription, doit être annulée100. Le directeur de greffe assiste aux assemblées générales et consigne sur le registre des délibérations de la juridiction les décisions prises et les avis101. La délibération de l'assemblée générale fait l'objet d'un procès-verbal, signé par le président et le directeur de greffe, mais il est admis que le directeur de greffe peut valablement déléguer sous sa responsabilité un agent quelconque du greffe102.

La non-réinscription, qui ne doit pas être confondue avec le retrait de la liste103, a simplement pour effet de faire perdre au technicien le titre d'expert judiciaire. Cela n'interdit pas au juge de continuer à lui confier des missions, la liste n'ayant qu'une valeur indicative. Ces décisions sont susceptibles de recours.

Il doit donc être procédé à une réinscription à l'issue de la période probatoire. Il serait plus exact de parler de renouvellement de l'inscription afin de distinguer cette situation de celle dans laquelle un expert qui n'a pas été inscrit pendant une ou plusieurs années demande à être inscrit à nouveau (réinscrit) sur la liste, auquel cas, sa demande est soumise aux règles de l'inscription et notamment, le magistrat rapporteur n'a pas à l'entendre104. Mais l'habitude est de parler ici de réinscription. Ce sont les réinscriptions ultérieures, pour une durée de cinq années, qui sont soumises à l'examen d'une nouvelle candidature.

95 Cass. civ., 21 sept. 2006 pourvoi n° 06-11.595 pourvoi n° 06-12.007 96 Civ. 2e, 14 juin 2007, no 07-11.083, Bull. civ. II, no 161; D. 2007. AJ 1883; JCP 2007. IV. 2490 97 Civ. 4 juill. 2007, no 07-11.932. - 26 juin 2008, no 08-11.763 98 Décr. 23 déc. 2004, art. 15 99 M. Olivier, L'audition de l'expert avant sa non-réinscription sur les listes d'experts judiciaires : Gaz. Pal. 1979, 1, doctr. p. 81 ; Cass. civ., 21 sept. 2006 pourvoi n° 06-11.595 pourvoi n° 06-10.053

100 Civ. 1re, 18 juin 1985, Bull. civ. I, no 190; D. 1986. IR 255, obs. P. Julien; Civ. 2e, 3 juill. 2008, no 08-12.241. -14 mai 2009, no 09-11.095. - 1er oct. 2009, no 09-14.742, Bull. civ. II, no 230

101 COJ art. R. 761-14 102 COJ art. R. 123-7 ; cass. Civ., 2e, 24 juin 2010, no 09-72.372 103 art. 5 L. n° 71-498 du 29 juin 1971 mod. loi n° 2004-130 du 11 février 2004 104 Cass. 1re civ., 21 juill. 1980: Bull. civ. 1980, I, n° 229 ; JCP G 1980, IV, p. 383


25

L'opportunité de la réinscription est appréciée souverainement par l'organisme compétent. Les décisions de réinscription ou de refus de réinscription sont notifiées à l’intéressé105.

Comme la décision relative à l'inscription, la décision relative à la réinscription peut faire l'objet d'un recours devant la Cour de cassation.

b) recours Un recours spécifique106 ouvert devant la Cour de cassation est organisé contre

les décisions prises par l'autorité chargée de l'établissement des listes d'experts judiciaires107. En l'absence de liste d'experts honoraires prévue par les textes, le recours devant la Cour de cassation ne peut être qu'irrecevable108.

1) modalités du recours Un recours peut être formé par l'intéressé dans le délai d'un mois à compter du

jour de la notification de la décision de refus. Il peut également être introduit par le procureur général près la Cour de cassation ou par celui près la cour d'appel. Il doit être fait par déclaration au greffe de la Cour de cassation ou par lettre recommandée avec demande d'avis de réception adressée au greffe de la Cour de cassation. Le procureur général près la cour d'appel est recevable à contester l'inscription d'un expert sur la liste établie par l'assemblée générale de la cour d'appel109. La doctrine lui dénie le caractère suspensif en sorte que chaque organisme compétent peut faire connaître ses décisions relatives à la liste des experts même si un recours est exercé contre elles. Le recours devra être formé auprès du greffe de la Cour de cassation s'il s'agit de discuter la décision prise par le bureau de cette cour, ou, au choix, au greffe de la cour d'appel ou à celui de la Cour de cassation si la décision attaquée émane de l'assemblée générale de la cour d'appel110.

Son auteur doit, sous peine d'irrecevabilité du recours en indiquer, les motifs111. La décision prise sur le recours est notifiée par voie administrative à la diligence du Parquet général de la Cour de cassation. Elle intervient, en pratique, postérieurement à l'établissement de la liste de l'année suivante.

2) Nature du recours de l'article 20 du décret n° 2004-1463 du 23 décembre 200 L'assemblée des magistrats du siège de la cour d'appel décide de l’inscription

des postulants sur la liste des experts judiciaires. Lorsque l'assemblée rejette une demande d’admission sur la liste des experts judiciaires, le postulant dispose d'un recours, effectué devant la Cour de cassation112. Il ne porte pas sur une décision juridictionnelle. Pour la nature, du recours relatif à la décision de refus

105 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 19 106 art. 20 D. 23 décembre 2004 107 COJ article R. 411-5 108 Cass. civ., 21 sept. 2006 pourvoi n° 06-11.595 pourvoi n° 06-10.554 109 Civ. 1re, 6 juin 1988, Bull. civ. I, no 228 110 D. n° 2004-1463, 23 déc. 2004, art. 20 111 Cass. 1re civ., 28 mars 1977: Bull. civ. 1977, I, n° 158 ; JCP G 1977, IV, p. 144 112 D. 23 déc. 2004, art. 7, préc. Cass. 2e civ., 21 sept. 2006, no 06-10852: Bull. civ. II, no 245 – Cass. 2e civ., 14 mai 2009, no 09-10712


26

d’inscription sur la liste des experts judiciaires, il ne s'agit pas d'un pourvoi113 susceptible d'entraîner la cassation de la décision et en conséquence, la représentation par un avocat aux Conseils n'est pas obligatoire114, les dispositions de l'article 700 CPC ne lui sont pas applicables, car il n’y a pas de pas de défendeur ni de dépens115 et en cas d'annulation il n'y a pas lieu à renvoi116, en sorte que rien ne s'oppose à ce qu'une nouvelle décision soit rendue par la même assemblée de magistrats. Il n'est pas non plus édicté que l'intéressé doive être entendu par la Cour de cassation117. L'assemblée générale siégeant en matière administrative, elle n'a pas à indiquer sa composition dans la décision refusant l'inscription initiale d'un candidat sur la liste de la cour d'appel118 ni l'identité du président ni celle de ses membres119. Il ne s'agit pas non plus d'un appel, la chambre de la Cour de cassation qui en est saisie n'a pas le pouvoir de modifier la liste telle qu'elle est établie qui demeure dans son état jusqu'à nouvelle délibération de l'organe qui la dresse, ce dont il est possible de déduire que ce recours n'a pas d'effet suspensif. En cas d'annulation de la décision de l'assemblée générale qui a refusé la réinscription d'un expert, il n'appartient pas à la Cour de cassation de substituer sa propre appréciation à celle de l'assemblée générale de la cour d'appel qui demeure saisie à la suite de l'annulation, il en résulte que l'expert ne peut demander à la Cour de cassation de décider de sa réinscription120. Ces décisions n'entrent pas dans les prévisions de la loi relative à la motivation des actes administratifs121. Cette position étant justifiée par la considération qu'il s'agit d'une mesure prise par la formation collégiale de l'ordre judiciaire et non par un organe administratif122. La « mesure d'administration judiciaire »

123 paraît appropriée pour saisir cette configuration originale, mais ces mesures ne sont sujettes à aucun recours alors que les décisions d'inscription ou de réinscription et de refus d'inscription ou de réinscription, sont susceptibles de recours124. Finalement on peut penser que c'est un recours “sui generis” qui s'apparente au recours pour excès de pouvoir, La Cour de cassation contrôle une décision, qui doit désormais être motivée125, mais refuse

113 cass 21 sept. 2006 114 Civ. 2e, 21 sept. 2006, no 05-21.978, Bull. civ. II, no 239; R. 2006. 431 ; D. 2007. Pan. 1383, obs.

Julien ; Dr. et proc. 2007. 29, note Norguin 115 Cass. civ., 21 sept. 2006 pourvoi n° 06-11.595 pourvoin° 06-10.053 116 CPC art 626 COJ art. L. 431-4 117 Civ. 2e, 24 juin 2010, no 10-60.010 118 Cass. 1re civ., 2 avr. 1979: Bull. civ. 1979, I, n° 106 119 Cass. 1re civ., 6 mai 1981 : Gaz. Pal. 1981, pan. jurispr. p. 351 120 Civ. 2e, 5 avr. 2007, no 06-20.038, Bull. civ. II, no 81 121 L. du 11 juill. 1979 relative à la motivation des actes administratifs ; Cass. 2e civ., 3 juin 2004, no 04-10557 122 R. Genin-Meric, Mesures d'instruction exécutées par un technicien : J.-Cl. Procédure civile 2010, no 30 123 CPC art. 537 ; Cass. 2e civ., 3 juin 2004, n° 04-10.557 : JurisData n° 2004-023908 124 art. 20 décret 125 L. n° 71-498 du 29 juin 1971 mod. L. 27 mars 2012 art 2 III


27

de se prononcer sur son l'opportunité126 et n’apprécie que sa légalité127 et dans des conditions très restrictives.

B) Exigence de motivation des décisions 1) principe de motivation La cour de cassation a longtemps estimé que les textes n'imposaient pas la

motivation des décisions de refus d’inscription initiale128. Elle a donc limitée l'obligation de motivation aux seuls rejets des demandes de réinscription129.. Ceci est pour elle justifié par le fait qu’aucune disposition législative ou règlementaire130 n'impose la motivation des décisions de refus d'inscription initiale sur la liste131 et de dire que de telles décisions ne donne lieu à un acte susceptible de relever de la procédure d'accès aux documents administratifs132, et ne tombent pas sous le coup de la loi imposant leur motivation133. Cela jusqu’à l’intervention de la cour de justice de l’union européenne134. L'intéressé devant pouvoir obtenir connaissance des motifs de la décision prise à son égard. Il s'ensuit que toute décision doit être susceptible d'un recours de nature juridictionnelle permettant de vérifier sa légalité par rapport au droit de l'Union135. Appliquant ce principe général du droit au juge, qui comprend le droit à une décision motivée136, elle rappela l’obligation de motiver les décisions relatives à l’inscription sur les listes d’experts judiciaires137. La cour de cassation annulant celles qui ne le sont pas138. La motivation des décisions de l'assemblée générale des magistrats du siège relative à la demande d’inscription sur la liste des experts judiciaires étant maintenant imposée139, il restait à s'interroger sur son contrôle par la Cour de cassation.

126 Cass. 1re civ., 15 nov. 1989: Gaz. Pal. 1990, 2, somm. p. 357 note S. Guinchard et T. Moussa. –

Cass. 2e civ., 5 juin 2003, n° 02-20.574 : JurisData n° 2003-019371 ; Bull. civ. 2003, II, n° 173 ; Cass. 2e civ., 7 mai 2009, n° 09-10.447 : JurisData n° 2009-048153

127 Cass. 1re civ., 26 avr. 1983 : JCP G 1984, II, 20206, note J.-M. et J.-F. Pansier ; Gaz. Pal. 1983, 2, pan. jurispr. p. 268, obs. S. Guinchard. – Cass. 1re civ., 6 et 14 mai 1985 : Bull. civ. 1985, I, n° 139 et 151 ; Gaz. Pal. 1985, 2, pan. jurispr. p. 303 et 304, obs. S. Guinchard et T. Moussa

128 Cass. Ch. civ., 2 12 Juill. 2012 n° 12-60.077 Inéd. Mme Santiago-Rios ; Cass. 2e civ., 22 mai 2008, n° 07-21.571 ; Civ. 2e, 16 mai 2012, F-P+B, n° 11-61.219 L. Dargent D. act. 31 mai 2012

129 Cass. 2e civ., 21 sept. 2006, no 06-10767 130 L. 29 juin 1971 D. 23 décembre 2004 131 Cass. civ.,2 16 mai 2012 Catherine BERLAUD Gaz pal 28 juin 2012 132 Civ. 2

e, 24 févr. 2005, n

o 03-21.181, Bull. civ. II, n

o 45; D. 2006. Pan. 545, obs. Julien et Fricero. -

1er oct. 2009, n

o 09-10.503 ; Cass. 2e civ., 7 mai 2009, n° 09-10.447 : JurisData n° 2009-048153

133 L. n° 79-587 du 11 juill. 1979 préc. 134 CJCE 17 mars 2011 n° C-372/09 et C-373/09 135 CJUE, 17 mars 2011, nos C-372/09 et C-373/09, Josep Penarroja Fa préc. 136Valérius M. Ciuca., Brice Mankou Marc Richevaux, La justice française de la justice statistique à la

négation de la justice : cahiers ISAM n° 6/2013 137 CJUE, 17 mars 2011, nos C-372/09 et C-373/09, Josep Penarroja Fa préc. 138 Cass. 2e civ., 12 juill. 2012 NOTE Marc DUPRÉ préc. Cass. civ., 6 juin 20132 décisions non

motivées 139 Cass civ., 2 12 juillet 2012


28

b) le contrôle de la cour de cassation et ses limites Le contrôle reste limité et les éléments sur lesquels il s’appuie le sont aussi.

Comme ce recours est un sui generis qui se rapproche d'un recours pour excès de pouvoir. La cour de cassation exerce ici un contrôle qui ne porte pas sur une décision juridictionnelle revêtue de l'autorité de la chose jugée.

1) l’erreur manifeste d’appréciation Comme ce recours, s'apparente au recours pour excès de pouvoir, la Cour de

cassation, s’inspirant des solutions du juge administratif140 ne censure qu'en cas d'inexactitude matérielle, erreur de droit, détournement de pouvoirs ou erreur manifeste d'appréciation141. Tout en admettant le pouvoir discrétionnaire de l'administration, le juge estime qu'il lui appartient de censurer les erreurs très graves, les erreurs évidentes. La cour de cassation veille à ce que la décision n'ait pas été dictée par des considérations étrangères au service de la justice142, tout le problème étant de savoir comment elle peut en avoir connaissance puisque si la décision est maintenant motivée l'intéressé n'a pas communication du procès-verbal de l'organe ayant établi la liste. Ainsi d’une décision annulant le refus d'inscription d'un technicien âgé de moins de soixante-dix ans, au seul motif qu'il est trop âgé143, ce qui serait une discrimination en raison de l’âge qui est interdite144. Son examen semble donc se cantonner à la réalité d'une motivation pour valider la décision de l'assemblée des magistrats du siège. Ne contrôlant pas les qualités du postulant et se contentant d'un contrôle à minima. Cependant elle exige de la part de l'assemblée générale des magistrats du siège une motivation plus poussée lorsqu'il s'agit d'un membre de l'Union européenne faisant valoir leur expérience dans un pays de l’union européenne autre que la France. Cela risque de créer un certain déséquilibre entre les différents postulants. Les Français ne pourront arguer que des manquements les plus graves de l'assemblée générale des magistrats du siège, tandis que les ressortissants de l'Union pourront exiger la prise en compte suffisante de leurs qualités reconnues par un autre État membre.

Si la cour de cassation limite son contrôle à la recherche d’une erreur manifeste d’appréciation145 c’est dans des conditions très restrictives. Elle pourra effectuer son contrôle à partir du procès-verbal d'audition de l'expert dressé par le magistrat rapporteur, l'organisme compétent pour décider un tel refus ne devant en principe, ne prendre en considération que les faits contradictoirement débattus avec l'intéressé. La Cour de cassation vérifie si la décision ne contient pas une erreur manifeste d'appréciation.

140 CHAPUIS droit administratif Montchrestien 141 Cass. civ., 21 sept. 2006 pourvoi n° 06-10.582 : Bull. II n° 245 142 H. SOLUS ET R. PERROT droit judiciaire privé Sirey 143 Civ. 1re, 26 avr. 1983, n° 83-10.759 Bull. civ. I, no 131; JCP 1984. II. 20206 note J.-M. et F.-J. Pansier ; Cass. Ch. civ., 1 26 Avr 1983 n° 83-10.759 JurisData : 1983-701243

144 Dan Top et marc Richevaux les grands principes du droit communautaire du travail L’harmattan 2007 145 Cass. civ., 2 6 juin 2013 pourvoi n°: 13-60067 ; 13-60004 ; 13-60038 ; 13-60042 ; 13-60002 ; 12-60612


29

N'est pas justifié le refus pour le seul motif que l'expert a réalisé des expertises pour le compte de sociétés d'assurances ce qui ne constitue pas en soi une cause de non inscription146, ou au motif qu'il n'a jamais été désigné, alors qu'il justifie de désignations par une juridiction administrative147. En outre, il est de principe que l'appréciation de l'assemblée générale peut prendre en compte des faits ou comportements extérieurs aux travaux de l'expert148 ainsi d'un expert qui a participé à l'occupation du bureau du procureur de la République au cours d'une manifestation149, dans le cas d'inexécution délibérée de décisions de justice rendues contre lui, ce qui constitue un comportement contraire à l'honneur150, en cas de défaillances relevées dans une activité séparée d'administrateur judiciaire151, en cas de procédure disciplinaire ou d'enquête concernant l'expert, l'assemblée n'étant pas tenue d'attendre leur issue dès lors que l'intéressé a été amené à s'expliquer lors de l'instruction de sa demande152, dans le cas où il a été dénoncé par une caisse de sécurité sociale, quand bien même une plainte de cet organisme a fait l'objet d'une ordonnance de non-lieu153. Les motifs de ces décisions se trouvent dans le procès-verbal de l’assemblée qui a pris la décision.

2) les motifs inopérants Les motifs qui ne figurent pas dans le procès-verbal de décision de l'assemblée

générale de la cour ne peuvent être utilement critiqués154. Il a été jugé que la mention d'un motif dans la notification de la décision de non-réinscription est, sans valeur155. Le moyen inopérant est celui qui, à supposer même qu'il soit bien fondé, n'est pas de nature à entraîner la cassation cela en raison de l'erreur de raisonnement qu'il comporte. Il importe peu importe qu'une cour d'appel se fonde sur un motif erroné pour écarter la qualification d’un contrat dès lors qu'elle relève que l'une des conditions d'existence du contrat faisait défaut156. Est également inopérant le moyen pris de ce que la cour d'appel applique une loi, de manière rétroactive, alors que ce texte n'a fait que consacrer une jurisprudence antérieure157. Le moyen critiquant les motifs d'une décision prise par le juge dans l'exercice de son pouvoir discrétionnaire est nécessairement inopérant, le juge n'ayant pas à motiver sa décision. Le recours doit être porté contre le motif indiqué dans le procès-verbal de l’assemblée dont on estime qu’il n’y a pas d’obligation de le

146 Civ. 2e, 22 mai 2008, no 08-10.314, Bull. civ. II, no 122; D. 2008. 2635, note Morlet-Haïdara 147 Civ. 2e, 14 mai 2009, no 09-10.712, Bull. civ. II, no 123 148 Civ. 2e, 17 avr. 2008, no 08-10.316 149 Civ. 1re, 26 avr. 1983, no 82-17.026, Bull. civ. I, no 132, D. 1983. IR 308 ; JCP 1984. II. 20206, note J.-M. et F.-J. Pansier

150 Civ. 2e, 26 juin 2008, no 08-12.080, Bull. civ. II, no 153 151 Civ. 2e, 22 mai 2008, no 08-10.310 152 Civ. 4 juill. 2007, no 07-10.386 153 Civ. 2e, 24 juin 2010, no 10-60.089 154 Civ. 2e, 21 sept. 2006, n° 06-12.698, Bull. civ. II, n° 250 ; R. 2006. 431 ; D. 2006. 2482 ; Dr. et proc. 2007. 29, obs. Norguin ; Gaz. Pal. 6-7 juill. 2007, p. 25, note du Rusquec ; 21 sept. 2006, n° 06-11.458

155 Cass. 1re civ., 21 févr. 1984 : Gaz. Pal. 1984, 1, pan. jurispr. p. 231 156 Cass. 1re civ., 27 janv. 1987, n° 85-12.945 : n° JurisData n° 1987-000058 ; Bull. civ. 1987, I, n° 24 157 Cass. soc., 18 nov. 1982, n° 80-41.530 : Bull. civ. 1982, V, n° 629


30

fournir. Comment exercer un recours sur un élément que l’on ne peut connaître ? Le recours étant inopérant contre la lettre de notification que l’intéressé par définition connaît mais devant être fait contre le procès-verbal de l’assemblée général que l’intéressé ne connaît pas. Ceci paraît en contradiction avec la décision de la cour de justice de l’union selon laquelle l’intéressé doit pouvoir avoir connaissance du motif de la décision refusant son inscription sur la liste des experts158. Si la décision doit désormais être motivée le contrôle exercé reste en effet très limité. Cela suffira-t-il aux juridictions européennes ? Une réponse affirmative n’est pas certaine.

158 CJUE17 mars 2011 (C-372/09 et C-373/09 préc.


31

ORGANIZED CRIME AS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT

INTERNATIONAL CHALLENGES

Ma. Genada TAHO Lawyer Albania,

Author work as a Lawyer Abstract: The organized crime is one of the most complex and concerning phenomenon

in our society. This phenomenon is presented as a phenomenon which includes a lot of other sub- issues being associated in this way to a range of other penal offences which are provided by the Penal Code of the Republic of Albania. This paper aims to see this phenomenon in a wider point of view than only in the penal one, because if we see it only in the penal one we will not be able to rightly, correctly and the most important fully understand what is called “the Organized Crime” which is a social and complex phenomenon with a very important impact in the society. Today, the organized crime has a wide spread. Its ways of revealing continuously change, providing it a pronounced dynamic character, in order to resist to the new forms of fighting it. It is to be noted that despite the adaptions of the legislation and institutions which deal with its pursuing and tracing, the obtained result are few in comparison to the entire phenomenon. Thus, in order to have a more efficient war against the crime, we should firstly aim to know this phenomenon, that has extended its roots in all the countries of the world, correctly and in the right level, we should increasingly aim to improve the penal legislation, the growth of collaboration between institutions and above all the growth of collaboration in international levels.All these components compose good premises to significantly reduce the organized crime and to keep it under continuous control, because the extinction remains a big dream for the whole world.

Keywords: organized crime, criminal organization, the war against the organized crime

Introduction The term ‘Organized Crime’ has been widely used since the beginning of the

past century to describe the Sicilian- American crime groups in North America, especially after the hit of the well-known criminal groups of the 30s- 40s, Al Capone etc. Firstly this term was used by a small circle but later it was conceived as a designation for wider criminal organizations. The armed bands and the totality of their actions were called ‘Organized Crime’. The first notions of the organized crime are given by the Interpol which also predicted the risks this crime contains in different countries or for wider regions. The oldest multinational concept of the organized crime (1998) which was officially defined in a document with the international right is the definition for the criminal organizations in the mutual activity approved in the EU level. “ the Criminal Organization means a structured association created in a certain time, with the participation of three or more people, which operates in a coordinated way, with the purpose of committing a penal


32

offence, when this offences are punished with imprisonment, or isolation order for at least 4 years, or with a stronger punishment when this offenses compose a purpose in themselves or a mean to achieve material profits, or by occasion, to unjustly influence to the operational public authorities”.1 The Council of Europe in its recommendation Rec (2001)11 of 19th September 2001, approved a similar definition of the ‘criminal organized group’, without reducing its field of activity of the international prohibited acts. Meanwhile the American agencies of law enforcement accept as definition of the organized crime ‘an objectionable, continuous and self-acting criminal activity, having an organized structure, fed by the fear and corruption and motivated by the thirst for profit’. The Convention of United Nations on ‘Organized Crime (UNTOC) may be considered as the most important attempt until now, to achieve a globally accepted concept over the organized crime. This convention has entered into force in September of 2003 and until June 2006 it has been ratified by all the project’s areas, by the majority of the member states of the European Council and of the European Union being in this way the most valid legal instrument for Europe and the Region. UNTOC is implemented for the organized crime, corruption, money laundering and justice prevention, but on the condition that the penal offence has an international trait and involves an organized criminal group, according to the definition given in the convention.

1. How does the Albanian Law define the organized crime Same as in other countries of the world, the organized crime has also existed in

Albanian state despite the meaning and providing done to it by the time relevant legislation. If we refer to the Albanian state history before 1912, the Ottoman Empire rules acted in our territories. The period 1912-1939 marked the period when the issued laws from the local bodies starts to act and what is called ‘the Albanian Legal Opinion’ was born, which initially appeared in the pattern of lectures. Later, during the period 1945-1990 the penal legislation was enriched with the penal law of the year 1952, which underwent some changes in the Code of 1977 that served as the source of the right at the time. In the Penal Code, approved by the Law no. 5591 on 15.06.1977 and changed with the Law no.6300 on 27.03.1981, we find treated a similar organism to what it is called the organized crime. At the article 13 there are mentioned three kinds of this crime with the same simple collaboration provision. These forms are similarly titled with the forms that the actual code contains. If we concentrate to the relevant provisions’ formulation we shall notice that the activity of the organized crime was not the same to that

1 (Joint Action 98/733/JHA (Justice and home Affairs), dated 21.12.1998, approved by the EC on the basis of Article 3 of the EU Treaty provides for the criminalization of participation in an criminal organization in the Member States of the EU / EC cited in the report on the state of Organized Crime and Economic Crime in South East Europe, Strasbourg, August 2006, versoni Classifieds pg: 11)


33

which this crime performs today. This activity was mainly concentrated to the performing of the penal offences against the state and the socialist ideology and not for material or financial profits. Under the Penal Code approved by the Law no. 7895 on 27.01.1995 (changed) the organized crime has been specifically treated in the Chapter XI as “Penal Acts performed from the Armed Bands and Criminal Organizations” but also in other penal acts provided by this code that from the type, meaning and dangerous rate are related to the organized crime.2

2. The organized crime and its characteristics ORGANIZED CRIME AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

In the provisions’ formulation of the Penal Code we notice that we do not have a

definition for the organized crime. This shortage does not come only from the legislator’s decision to not charge the provisions with definitions but because the organized crime and the groups composing it are in a continuous dynamic changing every day the forms of their revealing and activity. Naturally the definition in law shortages is supplemented by doctrines. Except the definitions given by different authors to this phenomenon we find a definition of the organized crime from the bodies of the European Union as well, where according to it “the criminal organization is an entity with a two or more people structure, created to act for a certain time and that performs crimes for the which it is provided a maximum of at least four years imprisonment or other more severe punishments”. It is given in such spirit also a formulation for the crime type performed by the criminal groups which must on a mandatory way comply e series of criteria which are: the acts must come from the collaboration of three or more people between which it is established a relationship through a previous agreement. This organism has a sustainable character so it acts for a long period. The organized crime is an occurrence that has numerous traits and characteristics. But some of the traits which give us a clear frame and make us realize better what the organized crime is are:

Interaction of a group of individuals with the purpose to commit a crime.3 • In this interaction relationship the individuals’ roles and the statuses are clearly defined.

• The hierarchic and personal relation gives to the criminal organization leader the possibility to exercise control over its members.

• Trait of corruption of high public officers and other powerful people. • The use of threatening or violence in order to achieve the goals for which this organization has been created.

2 Article 333 "Criminal Organizations”, Section 333 (a)" Criminal Struktutuara Group ", Article 334" Performing offenses by criminal organizations and structured criminal group ", Article 334/1, Article 335

3 Prof. Dr. I.Elezi, Prof.Dr. S. Kacupi. Prof. Ass.Dr M.Haxhia Commentary of the Criminal Code (general part) Tirane 2009


34

• The orientation of member between them with the goal of climbing the career because of the hierarchic relations, the members change their positions in organization progressively depending on behavior and period of time during the which they have been members and have served for the group and its purposes.

• The existence of primary long-term purposes to accumulate as much capital, power and goods impunity as possible.

• Acting traits in national and international level • Complex criminal activity that include long-term plans and multiple execution and organization levels

• The use as a shield or shock absorber to their activities of some legal participants. • Continuous attempts to isolate the members who have a fundamental value for the organization and risks such as their identification, arrest, persecution etc.

• Cooperation with other groups in national and international level • Continuous attempt to penetrate to control the legal activities • Revenues maximization through attempt of market, enterprises and crime matrices monopolization.

3. The form and the theories of organized crime According to the Albanian legislation the organized crime appears in certain

concrete form which reveal characteristics and differences among them. The main forms of their appearance are four: the structured criminal group, armed bands, criminal organizations and terrorist organizations. The awareness reflection toward the risk of these criminal activities was also the signing on 15.12.2000 of the Convention of the United Nations “ Against the International Organized Crime”. In the view of the thematic of this paper this convention, unified for the first time the concept of the organized crime as a prior condition of building mutual strategies.4 This Convention stated the definition of the organized crime. With the law no. 9257 on 16.09.2004 there was made some changes in the article 28 of the Penal Code as a reflection of the responsibilities taken from our state on the occasion of signing of the cited above Convention which is differently known as the Convention of Palermo.5

4. The greatest organization of crime in world

a. Chinese Tradition6

The Chinese criminal organizations are real secret associations, the origin of which is found in some revolutionary-nationalist sects that were developed about

4 United Nation Convention “Against the international organized crime” and the two additional protocols ratified from Albania with the law no. 8920 on 11.07.2002

5 Article 28 "Specific Forms of Cooperation" 6 Nicollo Pollari “Tecnica delle inchieste patrimoniali per la lotta alla criminalita organizata” page 21


35

300 years ago to put in the top of Chinese Empire the Ming dynasty. The phenomenon of Chinese mafia can be understood by examining the cultural- social environment that led to the spread of CHINATOWN in all the biggest metropolitan centers in the world. The Chinese mafia, the organization of which are known as ‘Triada’ or “Intimi” have changed the behavior due to different circumstances in their history. The base of the organization is in Hong-Kong but it also operates in Taiwan, Macao, China and the whole Chinatown in Europe, North America, South Africa, Australia and New Zeeland. Currently there are about 57 Triada groups in Hong Kong. Their activity includes drugs traffic, money recycling, gambling, prostitution, car robberies etc. The biggest profits are from the falsification of computer programs, musical discs, movies in VCD and DVD, and in the smuggling of tobacco products. One of the main characteristics is the confidentiality which naturally reflects the complexity and the need for confidentiality in the rites of recruitment. However the Triada structure nowadays is less complex than before. The Triada are criminal organizations for which it is almost impossible to get information on their activity and composition. This organism is appreciated because there are almost ten thousand in Europe only, that merit the Faligot definition as: “ invisible empires”.

b. The Japanese Tradition- Yacuza7

They prefer to be called as ‘the samurais’ children’ but inside of their chivalric spirit there are hidden the cruel businessmen, able to adjust to the big changes that have characterized Japan after the war by imposing themselves with force in the world of high finance. The criminal organizations that constitute ‘ the Yacuzas” are divided in three groups:

1. The group of gamblers ( Bacuto) 2. Of ambulatory vendors (tekiyas) 3. The group of the new delinquents (guterais) The base of this organization is the ‘family’ which does not have to be

composed by members in blood relations. The entrance in the organization is done according to a certain ceremonial. Regarding to the way of acting the many components of ‘ the Yacusas’ control a certain territory as a result of the powers separation. Regarding to the range of the activity these groups are obviously involved in gambling, clandestine, and drug traffic and guns contraband. In support of these activities there have been created other structures outside Japan mainly in the area of the South- East of Asia but up to USA notably in the traffic of drugs and guns. The Japanese mafia has known how to be adjusted with the changes that have characterized the country by exploiting the economic development and by benefiting a prestigious role in the Japanese economy.

7 Nicollo Pollari “Tecnica delle inchieste patrimoniali per la lotta alla criminalita organizata” page 22,23


36

c. The Columbian Cartel 8

The most frequent forms of the organized crime in Latin America are the Columbian cartels which are known for their fundamental role in the world traffic of narcotic drugs. This kind of organization is distinguished for the wide international extension providing a detailed control in every phase of the drug traffic, so much as to enter into a security contract with the smaller traffickers with the object of the risk assumed by the latest, for different sequestrations or even for the losses that can occur. Above all these organizations have a large financial, military and logistics power. Regarding the military device the cartels dispose well -supplied deposits and soldiers who have been trained by the best English and Israeli mercenaries. The geopolitical conditions of the South America countries are very favorable for the criminal groups. In contrast of the other organizations “ the Cartels” do not have a hierarchical structure but it acts in the form of a confederation.

d. The „Cosa Nostra” in the USA9

This is a Italian-American mafia type criminal organization which was born in the early 20th Century and since the first 20 years it began to be structured and enriched. Currently it is one of the most powerful criminal organizations in the USA. This organization is constructed in the form of a confederation where the majority of the participants are originally Italian –American. The children part of it are spread almost in every state of the USA. The organized crime in the USA has a lot of common elements with the Italian one, but also it cannot be denied the autonomy this organism has won as to be considered almost totally discontented from the Italian. Regarding to the structure scheme it is traditionally based on the figure of ‘the boss’ from who depends an adviser and an ‘underboss’. The latest gives orders to those who are called capos and to whom respond those who are in a lower hierarchic scale and are cold soldiers.

e. Italian Mafia10

The most organized crime in the world, the Italian one is related with the name

‘Cosa Nostra’, which appeared in the beginning of the 19th century and in the mid-1900s it was transformed in an international organization. Different organized groups develop their activity like “Sicilian Cosa Nostra”. “La Ndragheta”, “Sacra Corona Unita” ect. With are concentrated in different areas. This is phenomenon which aims to grow and to be transformed so that it can adjust to new conditions and which has as the main target the catch of different positions which enjoy a wide power, economic profits through the use of every mean including the physical eliminations as well. All the Italian organizations have more or less the same characteristics both in organization and in activity. They are characterized by a

8 Paul Lunde “Organizet Crime” fq 14 9 Nicollo Pollari “Tecnica delle inchieste patrimoniali per la lotta alla criminalita organizata” page 25 10 Nicollo Pollari “Tecnica delle inchieste patrimoniali per la lotta alla criminalita organizata” page 31


37

range of rules an special admission rites. These groups have an unique, compact and hierarchal organization structure.

f. Albanian Ethnic Groups The activity of Albanian criminal organization is related to the “ Calabria La

Ndragheta”.11 These groups compose one of the biggest threats for the European Union and other European countries. They are mostly involved in the human beings traffic and in the narcotic substances contraband and most of the times they are characterized as users of violence, especially if competing with other groups, prostitution, guns traffic etc. Their composition i mainly traditional but they stay in touch with other groups from different states of the world. Another main characteristic is the position the Albanian groups take in the market of illegal activity outside Albania. This role consists in mediation, facilitation and services providing for other groups. Thus they serve as mediators of Columbian, Italian, Russian etc. groups.

Starting from the above, we reach to the conclusion that the organized crime is one of the most disturbing phenomenon and one of the most current threats for the modern world. In order to be understood the concept of the organized crime has to be initially defined in the relevant legislation and after efficient strategies in the war against it must be built. Today the criminal organizations have powerful roots almost in every state of the world. Today as the most known criminal organizations as the European mafia are: Albanian, Bulgarian, Estonian mafia, the ‘corsa’ mafia in France, the notorious Italian mafia, Polish, Russian, African, Nigerian mafia, North America mafia, the Mexican one, the mafia in the USA, the Israeli mafia, Irish, the well-known Columbian mafia, the Turkish one etc.12

4. The war against the organized crime 13

The war against the organized crime is one of the priority fields for which each

country adapts its governing policy and the cooperation in an international range.14 For our country this is very important element in the framework of integration of Albania in the European structures. In the top of priorities for Albanian remains the achievement of concrete improvement results in the war against the organized crime, especially by being fully based in the new legal provisions on the organized crime and precipitating the implementation of operational measures against it.

Currently Albania is part of a range of regional initiatives and beyond and is also a member of the organization SECI, the Interpol, has also ratified and signed a range of international agreements and conventions in the war against the organized crime. Based on the above and on the political-social, economic, legal and technological factors analysis, the main priorities of State Institutions in the war against the organized crime are:

11 Europian Union “Organizet Crime Report” (EUROOL) 2003 12 DIA 1998 Annual Report 13 Strategy against Organized Crime - Ministry of Interior


38

1. The war against criminal organizations, structured bands and groups 2. The war against drugs 3. The war against other illegal traffic 4. The war against money laundry and corruption 5. The war against terrorism

Conclusions

Based on what we said above the penal legislation has to make continuous

attempts to its improvement making possible the providing of all forms even of the most sophisticated in spreading ones so that the main bodies who are constitutionally or legally responsible can take the relevant measures for the drafting of strategies, plans and to include in the legislation the right means, which in collaboration with each-other give the desired maximum results. The targets of these strategies should provide the growth of collaboration, the taking of the obligation from all the institutions aiming a proactive reaction of all the implementation agencies of the law against the organized crime, illegal traffic and terrorism. In the war against the organized crime, the international collaboration of such bodies as police, prosecution, and court is the main key of success to achieve obvious results in an as dynamic ground as the organized crime is. Today it is clear that none of the states is capable to deal alone with the traffic of drugs, people and their illegal activity used for criminal organizations. Therefore the powerful international crime can be fought only with a strong collaboration between all the responsible bodies in all the international space.

Bibliography 1. The united nation convention against the illegal traffic of narcotic drugs and psychotropic

substances, of 1988. Ratified from Albania with the law no.8722 on 26.10.2000 2. The Council of Europe Convention ‘On the clearing, disputation, catch and confiscation

of the crime products’ of 1998. Ratified from Albania with the law no. 20.07.2000 3. United nation Convention “Against the international organized crime” and the two

additional protocols ratified from Albania with the law no. 8920 on 11.07.2002 4. The Council of Europe Convention on “ the Clearing, searching, and confiscation of the

crime products and for financing terrorism, of the year 2005 ratified with the law no.9646 on 27.11.2006 The Penal Code of the Republic of Albania approved with the Law no.7895 on 27.01.1995

5. The Penal Code of 1997 6. The Civil Code of 1994 7. The Code of Penal Procedure 8. The Code of Civil Procedure 9. The Law on ‘ Prevention and strike of the organized crime’ 9284, on 30.09.2004 10. The Law 9284 “ On the execution of sequestration” 11. Italian Penal Code “Codice Penale 2006”


39

12. Prof. Dr. I.Elezi, Prof.Dr. S. Kacupi. Prof. Ass.Dr M.Haxhia Commentary of the Criminal Code (general part) Tirane 2009

13. Nicollo Pollari “Tecnica delle inchieste patrimoniali per la lotta alla criminalita organizata” 14. Europian Union “Organizet Crime Report” (EUROOL) 2003 15. Paul Lunde “Organizet Crime” 16. DIA 1998 Annual Report 17. Strategy against Organized Crime - Ministry of Interior


40

LA PARTICIPACIÓN DE LOS TRABAJADORES EN LA GESTION EMPRESARIAL ALCANCES Y

PERSPECTIVAS DE UN RETO GLOBAL

Dr. Juan Manuel Gómez RODRÍGUEZ Universitatea Autonomă din Statul Morelos - Mexic

[email protected]

Asist. Univ. Dr. Nicoleta ENACHE Universitatea Valahia din Tirgoviste

Abstract: This communication is intended to address the participation from the

perspective of its impact on business management. The analysis of worker participation in management on a comparative context, allows us to know and understand the role of new forms of organizational management in the company, and the importance of involving workers in the management and decision making in business, and addressed through dialogue and social consensus, the current problems and needs that require both firms and workers in a context of economic globalization.

Keywords: workers, business environment, social dialogue

1. Introducción La prolongada recesión económica internacional, la quiebra masiva de

empresas y el desempleo generalizado a nivel mundial, son fenómenos que obligan a confrontar las visiones tradicionales de la participación de los trabajadores en la toma de decisiones de las empresas. Los impactos de la desregulación de las actividades financieras, en particular en la década de los a?os 90s, han sido una cara muy visible de la actual crisis económica global. Sin embargo, también es posible considerar otra consecuencia menos visible de este fenómeno: la actual crisis de los mercados laborales en un contexto mundial.

Ante el embate imparable de la globalización económica y financiera y la liberalización de los mercados de producción y servicios, lo que ha emergido como productos de esta nueva revolución tecnológica y de la comunicación, es la expansión del empleo temporal, eventual o parcial, la subcontratación, la expansión de la economía informal, la precarización del empleo, la desigualdad salarial, así como la reducción de las prestaciones laborales.

Este proceso lejos de reducir sus impactos se ha intensificado en la medida que el incremento de la competencia por el uso de las innovaciones tecnológicas, contribuye a la flexibilidad laboral, a la desregulación de las normas de protección de las condiciones laborales, así como a la generación de altos niveles de desempleo y a la perdida de la capacidad de negociación de los trabajadores,


41

debido a los condicionamientos que imponen los criterios de eficiencia y productividad a ultranza.

Por estas razones, la presente comunicación tiene por objeto abordar la participación desde el enfoque de su impacto en la gestión empresarial. Nuestra premisa es que el análisis de los significados de la participación y su influencia en la gestión empresarial, la reflexión de su implementación e instrumentación apropiada en la empresa del siglo XXI, pueden ser la respuesta que se necesita para recuperar el equilibrio en las relaciones laborales, habida cuenta que la reducción de los costos laborales, la reducción de las empresas por la reingeniería de los procesos productivos, la desigualdad salarial y la implementación de la innovación tecnológica, han beneficiado a las empresas en detrimento principalmente de la clase trabajadora.

A nuestro juicio, analizar la participación de los trabajadores en la gestión empresarial en un contexto comparado, permite conocer y comprender el papel de nuevas formas de gestión organizacional en la empresa, así como la importancia de involucrar a los trabajadores en la toma de decisiones y la dirección de las empresas, y atender mediante el dialogo y el consenso social, los problemas actuales y las necesidades que requieren tanto las empresas como los trabajadores en un contexto de globalización económica.

2. Los diferentes significados de la participación de los trabajadores

El o los significados de la participación de los trabajadores en la empresa, no

tienen un carácter definido ni univoco, ya que los significados de la participación de los trabajadores son variables o múltiples y se establecen de acuerdo con los diferentes roles de poder que juegan cada una de las partes involucradas, así como respecto a sus necesidades y responsabilidades en cuya configuración la cultura laboral y la práctica legal de cada país, es determinante para fijar el nivel de colaboración de los trabajadores en las empresas.

Sin embargo, la participación de los trabajadores puede también ser influenciada por los sistemas de gestión laboral, los modelos de representación de los trabajadores, así como la diferente cultura laboral en la práctica legal para implementar los contratos y aplicar la legislación laboral.

En ese sentido, la participación como categoría conceptual resulta indeterminada y compleja pues los tipos de participación suelen ser diversos y estar destinados a diferentes objetivos. En algunos países, es la negociación colectiva la que juega un papel determinante para determinar las formas de participación, en otros, la participación de los trabajadores se ligan a las formas de gestión cooperativa del trabajo. Desde otra perspectiva, la participación suele considerarse una forma de involucrar a los trabajadores en la toma de decisiones de una empresa a través de modelos de democratización de las relaciones laborales.


42

En México por ejemplo, la participación de los trabajadores no se encuentra prevista en la legislación laboral, de hecho tampoco se regula la negociación colectiva ni se establecen parámetros para llevarla a cabo, mientras que en algunos países europeos como Alemania, Reino Unido e Italia, la participación ha tomado no solo formas legales sino contractuales representativas de los trabajadores, mediante la institucionalización de Comités de Empresa, Comités sindicales o Comités sociales o de vigilancia.

La Unión Europea ha influido mediante directivas comunitarias, en una convergencia relativa hacia un modelo de participación en el que los procedimientos de información y consulta están en la base de un modelo de participación en la dirección: La empresa participativa, que combina la coalición de intereses en conflicto y los intereses cooperativos, aunque hay que matizar que dicha influencia puede considerarse de carácter reciproco, ya que también es válido afirmar que dicho modelo ha sido influenciado por la consolidación de los modelos participativos nacionales de ciertos países europeos como Reino Unido, Alemania, Austria o Italia.

3. Conflicto, negociación colectiva y participación laboral en la empresa

En México el modelo de participación está ligado con la práctica sindical de

privilegiar el conflicto mediante ejercicio del derecho de huelga, como instrumento de presión para lograr mejores condiciones de trabajo y satisfacer las necesidades de los trabajadores. Esta forma de proceder tiene su origen en la cultura laboral originada incluso antes de la revolución mexicana con los movimientos obreros de Cananea, Sonora en 1906 y Rio Blanco, Veracruz en 1907, que buscaban evitar la explotación y la desigualdad social y económica de los trabajadores mexicanos frente a los extranjeros.

Posteriormente, al triunfo de la Revolución Mexicana, el reconocimiento del Derecho de Huelga en la Constitución de 1917 y la regulación de los Sindicatos, ha sido mediante la interposición del conflicto de Huelga por la representación sindical y después la negociación, que tradicionalmente en México se han resuelto los problemas relacionados con la firma de los contratos Colectivos y el mejoramiento de las condiciones de trabajo.

La participación en México, por tanto, ha requerido como presupuesto el conflicto para la obtención de los contratos colectivos y después su revisión a través de la negociación colectiva. Además, dicha participación se ha limitado a la mejora de las condiciones de trabajo, sin considerar a la participación de los trabajadores, como una forma de influir en las decisiones de dirección de la empresa o en compartir las consecuencias económicas y financieras de gestión, mediante la obtención de títulos de propiedad de la empresa a través de acciones,


43

como ha ocurrido en el contexto internacional con la denominada “participación económica o financiera” dentro de la empresa.

En un contexto más amplio, suele incluirse como parte de la participación a la negociación colectiva, como un instrumento que permite la participación de los trabajadores no sólo en las funciones de producción sino en las de gestión y dirección de la empresa. Sin embargo, en el ámbito académico existe un cierto consenso en que la negociación colectiva y la participación, aunque presentan ciertos puntos vinculantes, se caracterizan por los elementos que las distinguen entre sí.

De esta forma, refieren que la negociación colectiva se basa en la diferencia de intereses y la mutua libertad de acción de las partes involucradas, incluso para recurrir a la interposición de conflictos colectivos, mientras que argumentan que en el caso de la participación, existe cierto condicionamiento a las partes de llevar a cabo sus acciones de conformidad con un principio de colaboración mutua o de cooperación.

Sin perjuicio de ello, consideramos que la participación de los trabajadores no necesariamente implica un condicionamiento a actuar en vías de colaboración o a través de programas de cooperación mutua. Un ejemplo de esta vinculación entre participación y negociación lo constituyen aquellos modelos de representación de los trabajadores en los que no existe limitación a la participación de los trabajadores en la negociación colectiva, tal como ocurre en aquellos modelos en los que la participación en este nivel corresponde a los representantes de los trabajadores ante la empresa.

Es importante precisar que los diversos modelos de participación de los trabajadores no deben considerarse como factores aislados de las relaciones laborales, sino como un instrumento que va más allá de aspectos como la seguridad e higiene en el trabajo, la mejora de las condiciones laborales o la protección del empleo, su finalidad no consiste sólo en la gestión de los recursos humanos, sino como un instrumento que promueve la flexibilidad necesaria en la organización para lograr condiciones técnicas y de organización que permitan ajustar y readaptar el funcionamiento de una empresa en el entorno competitivo de hoy.

4. La participación de los trabajadores de acuerdo con los instrumentos legales de la OIT

De acuerdo con la OIT, el involucramiento de los trabajadores en la gestión

empresarial no se denomina “participación de los trabajadores” sino consulta y colaboración”. Al respecto, la Recomendación Número 113 de la OIT sobre Consulta y Colaboración entre las Autoridades Públicas y las Organizaciones de Empleadores y Trabajadores a Nivel Nacional e Industrial, destaca la importancia en la consulta y colaboración para abordar las temáticas relacionadas con las políticas económicas y sociales. De conformidad con esta Recomendación, para la


44

OIT es relevante vincular la participación de los trabajadores en la toma de decisiones en el ámbito de la empresa y no únicamente su participación en los resultados de la empresa (participación económica) o en el proceso de producción o gestión de los recursos humanos.

En el contexto internacional, las tendencias de los últimos a?os en los mercados laborales están enfocadas a generar una mayor comprensión de los procesos de internacionalización de la empresa, el acceso a la información por parte de los trabajadores y sus representantes con el objeto de conocer las estrategias de las empresas de cara a la globalización, se convierte en un elemento esencial para que la participación en la toma de decisiones de la empresa resulte más relevante.

Por esa razón, las normas internacionales pueden constituirse en la vía más adecuada para proveer criterios de orientación y procedimientos a seguir para la adaptación de las regulaciones nacionales a las nuevas necesidades de gestión y control empresarial. En ese sentido, es necesario complementar las disposiciones establecidas en los contratos colectivos con disposiciones legislativas que complementen el papel que los procedimientos de acceso a la información y consulta tienen para una participación laboral realmente efectiva.

Aunque muchos de estos procedimientos han sido previstos o establecidos en la legislación colectiva, el acceso a la información y la consulta muchas veces se restringe a las relaciones laborales en estricto sentido, sin incluirse las estrategias de internacionalización de la empresa o su impacto en las condiciones laborales, un caso específico es México, que carece de disposiciones específicas relativas a la negociación colectiva y a la participación de los trabajadores en la empresa en su legislación laboral. El acceso masivo a las nuevas tecnologías por parte de las empresas en los últimos veinte a?os y la reciente recesión económica internacional, obligan a reflexionar acerca de la necesidad de que la participación de los trabajadores en las empresas se enfoque más a la gestión empresarial y con ello pueda ejercerse una función de estabilización y control en las funciones de gestión y dirección de las empresas.

La OIT ha sido muy activa en promover diversas recomendaciones para implementar la participación de los trabajadores en la empresa. Al respecto, la Recomendación número 94 de 1952, sobre la colaboración en el ámbito de la empresa, hace una clara distinción entre el rol de la negociación colectiva para determinar las características y condiciones de las relaciones laborales, y la consulta y colaboración de trabajadores y empleados para tratar temas de interés común.

Del mismo modo, la Recomendación número 129 de 1967, sobre las comunicaciones dentro de la empresa, hace énfasis en la difusión e intercambio de información como un factor que contribuye a generar un entorno de mutuo entendimiento y confianza dentro de la empresa. La Recomendación refiere que una política de comunicaciones efectiva, implica que se brinde información y se lleve a cabo consultas de forma previa a la toma de decisiones por parte de la gerencia sobre temas importantes para los trabajadores.


45

Otro aspecto importante es que establece que, el método de comunicaciones entre la gerencia y los trabajadores, no debe tener por objeto reducir el principio de libertad sindical, es decir, no debe tener por objeto restringir la función de los órganos representativos de los trabajadores a recibir información a efecto de la negociación colectiva. En ese sentido, la Recomendación establece una serie de principios para establecer y mantener canales de comunicación efectiva tomando en cuenta las características de la empresa y los intereses de su personal.

Esta Recomendación también se ocupa de los tipos de información que la gerencia estará facultada para proporcionar a los trabajadores y sus representantes, entre las que destacan la relativa a las condiciones de empleo, las de capacitación, las de seguridad e higiene, la prevención de accidentes y enfermedades, los servicios de bienestar del personal, las normas relativas a los planes de la seguridad social, así como la situación general de la empresa y las perspectivas de su desarrollo futuro, incluyéndose de manera relevante, la explicación de aquellas decisiones que tienen la posibilidad de crear efectos directos o indirectos en la situación de los trabajadores en la empresa.

Otros instrumentos legales internacionales relevantes son el Convenio número 135 y la Recomendación número 143, en los que se establecen las normas relativas a la protección y facilidades que se otorgarán a los representantes de los trabajadores en la empresa. El Convenio 135 establece medidas de protección contra el despido, motivado por sus actividades en representación de los intereses de los trabajadores, así como facilidades para permitir el desempe?o de sus funciones, tomando en cuenta las características de los sistemas de relaciones laborales nacionales, así como el tama?o, necesidades y posibilidades de la empresa con el fin de no afectar su funcionamiento eficiente.

Por su parte, la Recomendación número 143, contiene disposiciones orientadas a implementar las facilidades y medidas de protección necesarias para que los representantes realicen sus actividades de una manera libre e independiente. Destaca la previsión de que los representantes de los trabajadores deben contar con el tiempo necesario para realizar sus funciones representativas en la empresa.

Desde otra perspectiva, La participación de los trabajadores ha tenido una evolución significativa en relación con el tema de la terminación de la relación de trabajo. La OIT ha adoptado en 1982 dos instrumentos internacionales al respecto: El Convenio número 158 y la Recomendación número 166, sobre la terminación de la relación de trabajo. El Convenio 158, introduce como elementos novedosos disposiciones adicionales con relación a la terminación de la relación de trabajo por motivos económicos, tecnológicos, estructurales o por causas similares. En estos casos, el Convenio establece en su artículo 13, que el patrón deberá adoptar medidas, por ejemplo, suministrar información a los representantes de los trabajadores sobre los motivos para realizar dicha terminación, así como respecto al número y categoría de trabajadores afectados. Igualmente, proporcionar a los representantes de los trabajadores una oportunidad para realizar consultas sobre las


46

medidas a adoptar para reducir los efectos de toda terminación del empleo de los trabajadores.

El Convenio también establece que el empleador debe avisar a las autoridades públicas competentes cuando tenga previsto la terminación de las relaciones de trabajo por motivos económicos, tecnológicos o estructurales. Las autoridades también deben recibir información sobre los motivos para llevar a cabo la terminación de las labores y los plazos para llevarla a cabo.

5. La participación de los trabajadores en la gestión empresarial. Experiencias en Alemania, Chile y Corea del Sur.

En aras de caracterizar los distintos tipos de participación en el contexto

internacional, hemos elegido el análisis de tres modelos de participación en la gestión empresarial de países que se encuentran en contextos geográficos diferenciados. La idea es destacar sus características esenciales con el fin de referir su experiencia en la práctica de la participación en la gestión empresarial y su aportación en la mejora del sistema de relaciones laborales nacional. La selección de los modelos se hizo tomando en cuenta la calidad y la eficiencia así como el éxito en la gestión laboral de estos tres países.

Alemania Es en este país se encuentra el modelo de participación más estable en los

organismos de representación de los trabajadores a nivel de la empresa y en los procesos de toma de decisiones de las empresas. A nivel empresarial se expresa en la denominada “cogestión” que se constituye como una forma de gestión compartida en la que los empleadores no sólo se obligan a realizar consultas sino a decidir en forma conjunta con el Comité de Empresa respecto de temas determinados, por ejemplo en la participación de sociedades por acciones.

El Comité de Empresa es una modalidad institucionalizada de los intereses de los trabajadores, sirve tanto al establecimiento como a los trabajadores. Es importante destacar que el requisito para la Constitución de un Comité de Empresa es emplear un mínimo de 5 trabajadores que sean elegibles para votar. Para cumplir con sus funciones, ejerce derechos de información, consulta y cogestión. Los Comités están facultados para celebrar acuerdos de empresa, así como para entablar acciones legales en el supuesto de que se desconozcan sus derechos.

Los miembros del Comité gozan de una protección especial contra despidos. El Comité de Empresa no tiene capacidad para poseer activos y no es responsable conforme a la ley. El empleador asume los costos de las actividades del Comité y es responsable por sus acciones.

Ahora bien, en el caso de la cogestión, esta puede darse bajo dos modalidades

distintas de participación de los trabajadores, cogestión a nivel del establecimiento


47

por parte del Comité de Empresa y cogestión por encima del nivel de establecimiento. La cogestión comprende la participación en acuerdos de seguridad y salud, cogestión obligatoria, que se relaciona con todo lo que concierne a las condiciones laborales y que incluye la prevención de accidentes, la protección de la salud y los beneficios laborales complementarios, la cogestión voluntaria que implica a los asuntos colectivos en los que se promueve la realización de acuerdos voluntarios entre empleadores y comité de empresa, así como la adopción formal de una conciliación de intereses y de un plan social en caso de que la empresa sufra una alteración sustancial.

Chile Las experiencias en la participación de los trabajadores en las empresas se

remontan al periodo anterior a la dictadura. Hasta el a?o 1973, la participación de los trabajadores en la empresa se expresaba en aspectos relacionados con la toma de decisiones a través de modalidades de coadministración. Este modelo de coadministración paritaria fue replicado en aquellas empresas propiedad del Estado Chileno y que se constituyeron como la denominada área social de la economía nacional.

En cada una de estas empresas el sistema de participación fue adoptado después de haberse establecido normas internas de participación aprobadas por todos los trabajadores de una empresa. Las normas de participación tenían diferentes niveles de aplicación en función de los procedimientos de incorporación utilizados para el área social.

Actualmente, la legislación chilena recoge dos casos de participación de los trabajadores en la dirección. El primero de ellos es en el Banco Estatal y el otro en la empresa estatal dedicada a la explotación y comercialización del Cobre, la Copper Corporation. En ambos casos la cooperación se realiza en el Directorio.

Esta participación en el dirección del Banco Central de Chile, puede justificarse en función de la influencia y el impacto que tiene la gestión de la política monetaria y la explotación del Cobre como producto básico de exportación en la economía chilena.

Corea del Sur El sistema de participación se basa en la idea de que aunque las relaciones

entre empleadores y trabajadores suelen ser antagónicas, también pueden tener una naturaleza cooperativa. Como presupuesto para el fomento de la cooperación, se hace necesario que los trabajadores conozcan la gestión empresarial. Con la idea de la modernización industrial, se ha considerado reemplazar las relaciones antagónicas por relaciones cooperativas cuyo objeto sea la promoción de intereses comunes entre los trabajadores y la gerencia, mediante el mutuo consentimiento y la cooperación que permitan el desarrollo económico y la paz laboral.


48

En Corea del Sur existen cuatro categorías relacionadas con la participación de los trabajadores, intercambio de información, intercambio de sugerencias, intercambio de ideas o determinación conjunta. El intercambio de información permite que la evaluación de la información proporcionada y su uso lo decida cada una de las partes. En el intercambio de sugerencias se realizan intercambios de opiniones y recomendaciones sobre problemas no resueltos, su objetivo es mejorar el entendimiento mutuo y eliminar la falta de confianza.

Quizás las modalidades más interesantes sean las relativas al intercambio de ideas, en la que se permite la realización de propuestas sobre el ahorro en costos, o la mejora y la calidad en los planes de producción, así como la determinación conjunta en la que los trabajadores pueden abordar temas de interés común y tienen igual derecho de voz y voto.

Respecto a los temas que pueden ser objeto de consulta conjunta, estos se distinguen de aquellos inherentes a la negociación colectiva en que los temas de esta última corresponden a las condiciones de trabajo, dependen del criterio del empleador y suelen generar conflictos de intereses entre trabajadores y empleadores, mientras que los temas de la primera son asuntos relativos a la administración de una empresa en la que tanto trabajadores como empleadores tienen intereses comunes.

Conclusiones La participación de los trabajadores en las empresas es un concepto

indeterminado que admite múltiples significados en función de los resultados y objetivos que pretende alcanzar.

La participación de los trabajadores y la negociación colectiva no deben considerarse sólo desde la perspectiva de su distinción en función de la colaboración y la cooperación común de la primera frente a la diferencia de intereses y la libertad de acción de la segunda, sino que se constituyen en procesos de influencia reciproca que buscan recuperar el papel de los trabajadores no sólo en la mejora de las condiciones laborales sino en la gestión y dirección empresarial.

La participación de los trabajadores debe verse como un mecanismo efectivo no solo en la mejora de las condiciones laborales sino para la adopción de todas aquellas medidas que permitan la flexibilidad necesaria para que a través de la comprensión y el entendimiento mutuo, puedan llevarse los necesarios procedimientos de ajuste en la empresa, que generen paz laboral, desarrollo económico, productividad y competitividad.

Al respecto, es necesario complementar las disposiciones establecidas en los contratos colectivos con disposiciones legislativas que complementen el papel que los procedimientos de acceso a la información y consulta tienen para una participación laboral realmente efectiva.


49

Las normas internacionales relativas al acceso a la información, la consulta y la colaboración pueden constituirse en la vía más adecuada para proveer criterios de orientación y procedimientos a seguir para la adaptación de las regulaciones nacionales a las nuevas necesidades de gestión y control empresarial.

Respecto a los modelos analizados, no existe un modelo general de participación de los trabajadores en la gestión empresarial que resulte idóneo, quizás lo conveniente sería realizar una combinación de los modelos seleccionados que incluyera las cogestión en Alemania, el intercambio de ideas y la determinación conjunta en Corea, o la coadministración paritaria y la participación de los trabajadores en la dirección en Chile.

Lo importante de los modelos analizados es avanzar hacia un nuevo modelo de gestión de las relaciones laborales y de la empresa en el que el dialogo y la concertación social, permitan una mejor gestión empresarial. Para ello, se hace indispensable democratizar la gestión empresarial de cara a un nuevo tipo de ciudadanía laboral aún por construir.

Bibliografia CASALE, G. European Works Councils and Industrial Relations in Europe. East-West

Comparison, OIT Budapest, 1999. CASALE, G. Workers participation and the ILO position. Some reflections, in M.WEISS,

M.SEWERINSKY Handbook on Employee Involvent in Europe, Kluwer, The Hague, 2005 DE BUEN, N. El desarrollo del Derecho del Trabajo y su decadencia, México, Porrúa, 2005. GLASTONE, A., M. OZAKI Participación de los trabajadores en la empresa, nuevas

tecnologías y programas de formación, Madrid, Informes de la OIT, Ministerio del Trabajo, 1994

GOMEZ, J.M. “Los Efectos de la economía informal para la extensión de la seguridad social en México. Retos y perspectivas” en G. MENDIZABAL, A. SANCHEZ-CASTA?EDA y P. KURCZYN (Coords.) Condiciones de trabajo y seguridad social México, IIJ UNAM, UAEM, 2012.

KIM, D.O., H. KIM “A comparison of the effectiveness of unions and non-unions works councils in Korea: can non-union employee representation substitute for trade unionism? The International Journal of Human Resource Management 15 (1) 1069-1093

MACPHERSON, C.B. Ascenso y Caída de la Justicia Económica Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1985.

MALDONADO MOLINA, J.A. et al., La participación de los trabajadores en las sociedades anónimas y cooperativas europeas, Navarra, Aranzadi, 2007.

MORGADO, E. (1991) “América Latina: Participación de los Trabajadores en la empresa”, en Laborem, Lima, 1, 61

NUTZINGER, H.G., J.G BACKHAUS (Eds.) Codetermination: A discussion of different approaches, Berlin, Springer, 1989.

OJEDA AVILES, A., O. ERMIDA URIARTE (Eds.) La negociación Colectiva en América Latina, Madrid, Trotta, 1993.}

PASCO COSMOPOLIS, M. “Representación y participación en la empresa, en O. ERMIDA URIARTE, A. OJEDA AVILES (eds.) El Derecho Sindical en América Latina, Montevideo, Fundación de Cultura Universitaria, 1995


50

RIFKIN, J. El Fin del Trabajo. Nuevas tecnologías contra puestos de trabajo Madrid, Paidós, 2010.

SERVAIS, J.M. International Labour Law, Kluwer, 2009. STRAUSS, G. “Workers Participation in Management: An International Perspective

Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 4, 1982. VAUGHAN-WHITEHEAD, D. Worker´s financial participation: east-west experiences, in ILO

Labour Management Series, 80, OIT, Ginebra. WALKER, K.F. Workers ‘participation in management: Problems, practices and prospects

International Institute for Labour Studies, Bulletin 12, 1975. WEISS, M. Labour Law and Industrial Relations in the Federal Republic of Germany,

Kluwer, Devanter, 1987. YERGUIN, D. STANISLAW, J. Pioneros y líderes de la Globalización Argentina, Ediciones

B, 1999.


51

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LEGISLATION SEEN

IN TERMS OF CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY

Dr. Alketa ELEZI1 Universitety “Kristal”, Albania

Abstract: The history of mankind is a history created of bloodshed between the wars,

aggression, unstoppable developments both in the scientific and technical and technological in the field of interpersonal and inter-state relations. Conflicts between nations, peoples of different countries have started since early times and has not stopped even today. Have been numerous human catastrophes that have resulted from these phenomens. But in the same time to his violent side of humanity therefore the other side of the coin, the most gentle beings, and simultaneously strong and determined enough to say mass crime, suffering quite enough violence. In this way, attention was directed slowly considered a utopia-discipline of international criminal law. This paper aims to present an overview of the most serious crimes verified up to the present, crimes against humanity and to identify international acts committed set limits and to punish perpetrators. In summary this paper will address the following chapters sense of international criminal law and crimes against humanity, genocide and the notion of sanctioning the convention against genocide, torture and inhuman and ultimately international criminal responsibility, individual responsibility and the state, relying on various international acts and decisions of the ad hoc Tribunals have tried these types of crimes. To address this topic argument is structured in four chapters that explain respectively::-The first fully dedicated meaning of crimes against humanity, their sanction to the Rome Statute and the elements of crimes against humanity based on the jurisprudence of international tribunals and national courts Part Two relying on the Convention against Genocide of 1948 etymological plan examines the emergence of the notion of genocide and its treatment in the international and national levels, illustrated with cases of genocide in history. -Third-part is reserved for the crime of torture, its forms of exercise, severe consequences that it has on victims and respond to this phenomenon, many acts that prohibit and condemn the use of torture. Last but not least important, handled the responsibility of perpetrators, see it as the responsibility of the individual and state responsibility

Keywords: war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide, torture.

Introduction

International criminal law as the criminal justice branch has its beginnings in

time of the Vikings. Vikings considered piracy contrary to the right of according to their nations and pirates should be treated as enemies of humanity (hastes humani generis), so that all states should take him to the judge and condemning. In the same way ancient tribes began to react to the slave trade. It that made states to consider piracy as international crime was that each State capturing a person to

1 The author has taken the title PhD at the University of Tirana, Justice Faculty.


52

commit this crime had the opportunity to try it, regardless of nationality or country where the crime was committed.

The concept of international criminal justice was linked closely to the concept of law international humanitarian which includes in itself the totality of norms and principles that should be recognized and respected by States during armed conflicts. There were two main acts: the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, according to which many countries were involved in the recognition and condemnation of the crimes as violations of the laws and customs of war.

Two world wars were accompanied by numerous destructions bombardment population, were used weapons of mass destruction, the various poisons being so openly violating the norms of international humanitarian law. Only after World War II was a need for legal norms of the international community, the need to punish the people responsible for serious crimes committed during the war and for the first time was fo1 specifically for international crimes and for individual responsibility. Statutes of two international courts Nuremberg and Tokyo created specifically to punish Nazi criminals, crime figures predicted three International: war crimes, crimes against peace and crimes against humanity. After 50 years of development in the two courts infamous processes described above, is speaking again for international crimes in connection with the serious events that occurred in recent years in the former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda. In these cases, the international community felt the need to not leave without punishing the guilty of serious crimes, so the Security Council of the United Nations Organization (OKE) had created two ad-hoc international criminal court.

The establishment of two ad hoc courts revealed fundamental willingness of countries to convicted of these crimes through the creation of supranational jurisdictions, since the attribution of powers to punish such crimes to national jurisdictions actually can result in not enough for different reasons. International crimes such as crimes against humanity and genocide can be subject to national jurisdictions, the courts therefore have jurisdiction to internal states and not only international court.

Early aspirations of international law and of the people of its most prominent was: on the one hand that the reorganization of resources through a codification in law accordance with the principle of legality and the creation of a jurisdiction other permanent international. Efforts to realize such an aspiration that had begun in 1947 when the UN General Assembly tasked the International Law Commission to draft the text of the statute that would establish the International Criminal Court.

For many reasons, in 1947, did not meet the goal reached, only in April 1998, after two years of work (work that began in April 1996), the Commission of the Right International finished drafting the Statute. Charter was signed in Rome on 17 July 1998 during a diplomatic conference. Entry into force of the statute is conditioned by It is ratification by at least 60 states. This number is already completed by 11 April 2002. From the beginning of July 2002 statute is in full force.


53

Pending the institutionalization of criminal jurisdiction at the international level, punishment of international crimes was still fully believed states. It is already reality International Criminal Court, but it has not yet begun to function in practice. Therefore we need to clarify the nature how international (foreign element of the offense) affects the determination of jurisdiction.

In general territorial jurisdiction is, that is exercised by courts country in which the offense was committed. Criminal different systems, such as that predict that the principle of Albanian nationality (nationality) also apply in other circumstances condemning, in the case of Albanian criminal system, Albanian citizen for committing offenses outside the territory of his country.

For most of the international crime of universal jurisdiction principle applies, which means that each state can exercise its jurisdiction over the offender as an exception to the principle of the author's nationality or citizenship. To illustrate this issue mention the famous Adolf Eichmann.

The definition of crimes against humanity Crimes against humanity term used to describe all the actions performed so

cruel mass on a large scale. This is neither a technical nor the initial definition of these crimes. The first attempt to provide such a definition we find the preamble of the Hague Convention of 1907 which codified the common law of armed conflict. After World War I Allied States based on the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 created a commission to investigate crimes 1uftes implementing the Hague Convention of 1907. After World War II the question was raised of extermination, torture, mass murder of Jews.

For all it was obvious that World War II criminals will be punished: qualification dilemma stay in their legal punishable offenses. If they would qualify as war crimes (they were not directed against the armed forces or states opposing the civil war, but to the Jewish population, most of whom have German citizenship) as crimes against peace (even this qualification was impossible because lacked the political element of aggression) or in a new category of crimes against humanity as were

In 1945, U.S. and other allied countries drafted agreement “for processing and Punishment of Offenders to the Big European Axis war” and the Statute of the Tribunal in Nuremberg military headquarters that had this definition for crimes against humanity:

“Crimes against humanity are: murder extermination, enslavement, and other inhuman acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war, or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court (Tribunal), regardless of whether or not a violation of state law grossly in which it is conducted.”


54

It is accepted in today's doctrine as a crime against humanity is a result of persecution was made a group and is so severe that requires punishment except by the internal law of international law, the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal represents the first validation of crimes against humanity in positive international law. Statute of the Nuremberg Charter was followed by the creation of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East signed in Tokyo, and by Law No. 10 of the Control Council for Germany Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes Against Peace and Against Humanity According to this law countries allied German nationals prosecuted for crimes committed in their areas of occupation. Comparing the definition of the offense done against humanity and crimes of genocide or crimes that war is not very clear distinction between them. Sometimes even look like you expected set of. The difference lies on the subjective intention pushing to respective authors of such works. The purpose of the crime of genocide consists of “total or partial disappearance of a group of national, ethnic, racial or religious group”, as referred to here in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1948. Crimes against humanity on the other hand have targeted a given group and implement a plan by exercising violence systematically and massively. What distinguishes the war crimes is the objective, the time when committed crimes. And crimes against humanity committed are punishable as in time of peace and in time of war, in contrast to the category of war crimes. Finally, there is no immunity in the case of carrying out these crimes, or president state.

Elements of crimes against humanity As mentioned Above there is a convention to make an adjustment specific law

to Crimes against humanity albeit Adopted Several Instruments Such That from 1945 until today. Founding Courts statutes mention an ad hoc Nuremberg and Tokyo, the United Nations and the Council of Europe have two Conventions Adopted “ on not forecast on Crimes against Humanity and War Crimes.” Regard to the Roma Statute, he does not give a definition of the word in the literal sense of these Crimes, but lists a series of criminal Acts That must swear characterized by the extent of Systematic or widespread attack against a Civilian Population directly. Criminal Acts That counts the Rome Statute Article 7 of historians are:

Murder, extermination, deportation or forcible transfer of population, we return slavery, deprivation of liberty in violation of fundamental rules of law International, torture, persecution against any group to identify, rape, sexual slavery, forced disappearance, apartheid and other inhuman acts that cause severe pain, In the analysis of the elements of crimes will rely on the jurisprudence of the ad hoc courts and the Charter Rome.

Statute of the Nuremberg Tribunal stipulated that crimes against humanity do not can be punished if they do not present a connection with crimes against peace


55

or war crimes. The existence of an armed conflict was a necessary condition to set in motion an international level jurisdiction to punish the perpetrators of these crimes. The element of armed conflict is discussed in relation to the meaning of the civilian population. We Akayesu case “Tribunal for crimes committed in Rwanda said:” shall mean the civilian population, persons who do not participate in order active cruelty: includes members of armed forces who have left their weapons and people who can not take part in hostilities due to illness, wounds or for any other reason. The presence within the civilian population in some persons who are not included in the definition point by point the civilian people, this does not deprive the population of this quality, “

Discriminating main Article 3 of the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

determines discrimination as expressly provided characterizing element of crimes against humanity, and the statute of the Tribunal for crimes in the former Yugoslavia does not contain a such prediction. Under the doctrine, discriminatory element should be connected only with persecution, in the latter should come as a result of discrimination or discriminatory feelings that the offender has to a group.

This approach was supported by the Rome Statute, so the element of discrimination will only be seen associated with the persecution defined by this act. Criteria “of broad” and “systemic” problems that are observed sharp on these criteria the fact whether they are competing with each other or have to coexist, and if you can talk about crimes against humanity when we are dealing only with a criminal act. We Akayesu case, the court has determined that the character of “large” results from the fact that the act constitutes a massive character, attending and directed against a large number of casualties. Character “system” is based on the fact that the act is organized according to a regular pattern for the execution of a particular political and that this policy is not required to be officially recognized as state policy. However, should a plan or a policy of deliberate.

Mens rea One of the conditions necessary to qualify as a criminal act against crime

mankind is the mens rea, guilty mind, which means that the author conducts criminal full conscience, then the Direct intentionally. “So the mental element must include knowledge about facts or circumstances that would act to determine the definition of crimes against humanity, human crime to qualify in this category, it is sufficient that the defendant be aware that his act is part of a general or systematic attack against a civilian population, which is not performed this act for personal reasons, but that this was done to give the effect of a policy or a specific plan.


56

Crimes against humanity in the Criminal Code

of the Republic of Albania Being provided in the first chapter of the Special Part of the Criminal Code

Republic of Albania, crimes against humanity was deserved importance is recognized by the Albanian 1egjislatori. Article 74 of the Albanian Criminal Code which provides for crimes against humanity is based on Article 6 of the Statute of the Nuremberg Triburralit and the Statute of the Court rages for crimes committed in the former Yugoslavia “. Should mention that Albania is also one of the states that has signed the Rome Statute on 18 July 1998 and has ratified the Rome Statute. According to the Rome Statute may be deemed persons convicted by the courts only when it becomes necessary:

to protect the person from criminal responsibility; when judgment is not developed independently and impartially, in accordance with the norms of due process recognized by law International and developed in order to save a person criminal liability or responsibility to facilitate this.

The object of crimes against humanity as defined in the Albanian Criminal Code are legal relationships established in the territory of the Republic of Albania in accordance with the norms of international criminal law and international conventions aimed at guaranteeing human rights, the protection of life, health, etc., of a group of specially protected civilian population with criminal legislation against criminal acts or omissions. The interpretation of this article see the Albanian legislator has foreseen massive character of these crimes and their performance in the context of a concrete plan deliberate. We provisions listed types of acts constituting crimes against humanity and if we compare with Article 7 of the Rome Statute are few in number, However, Article 74 of the Albanian Criminal Code, punishable states as well “... violence other inhuman “punishment also enabling other criminal acts based on international documents and allow criminal expanded interpretation of acts that can qualify as crimes against humanity ingredients. Subjects of crimes against humanity may be subject to general or posacrne, including and heads of state. This makes the judges to be independent of the incriminated parties regardless of the position that the latter have or have had.

On the subjective intent of direct and deliberate plan with concrete first character massive support of this work. In addition, we carry out this work the authors are guided by political, religious, racial, ideological, ethnic. Since the drafting of this provision is considering the model of the Statute of the Nuremberg Military Court, for the qualification of acts as crimes against humanity provision requires the application of dislaiminator element, such that, we have explained above under the jurisprudence of the Court and the Council Security should be applied only in case of persecution.


57

Genocide. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide!

Middle notion of Genocide belongs twentieth century, is a new term from the

perspective etymological, but actions that contained elements of this crime are verified much earlier in history. The term genocide was used for the first time by Rafael Lemkin Pole. According to him, genocide meant the destruction of an ethnic group. Genocide directed against a group aiming partial or total destruction of his. To talk about genocide is not necessary to completely destroyed a group, whether religious, national, racial or ethnic, except when destruction comes as a result of the mass murder of all members of the national group. The essential element of genocide on the other is performing actions based on a deliberate plan to destroy a group. Genocide involves two stages:

The destruction of the national pattern of the oppressed group; Strands of international sanctioning this crime found in Resolution 95 (1) of

The United Nations December 11, 1946, when for the first time he uses the term genocide.

In this resolution defined genocide as: “The denial of the right to existence of human groups and killing and denial of the right of individual existence (individual human beings)”.

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was adopted in December 1948 by the UN in 1951 and entered into force. After that a number of states chose to incorporate in their internal systems provisions of the Convention.

The Convention defines as a crime of genocide is international as we 'peacetime and in wartime enumerate acts that are aimed to destroy partially or entirely a national ethnic or religious group by: willful killing members of the group, causing serious bodily damage (physical) or mental in establishing new living conditions for the physical destruction caused entirely orpartly, implementation of measures aimed to prevent births within the group; forcefully transfer of children from one group to another.

Definition of Genocide under the 1948 Convention was adopted by the Rome Statute which established the International Criminal Court, the Convention aims to protect the existence of certain groups of individuals, paler forcing opponents to prevent and punish genocide within their jurisdictions. The Convention lists a number of acts, and this should be considered explicit, objective side constituting the crime of genocide.

a) Killing members of the group. b) Causing serious damage to physical and psychological (mental) group

members. c) Setting in such living conditions for the destruction caused to] physical

partially or completely, in order deliberative.


58

d) Taking measures to prevent births within the group. e) Transfer forcefully of children in a group to another group. During the drafting of the Convention was to fo1 was called Cultural Genocide

consists in the destruction, elimination of elements of a group identifier (such as language, culture, customs).

All these acts that constitute the objective side of genocide, from the viewpoint Subjective be performed for the purpose of fully or partly destroyed a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. In contrast to the general category of crimes against humanity, genocide is characterized by a particular qualification is subjective side which is a specific intentional Convention against genocide in its Section three provides that except genocide will also punished:

Agreement to commit genocide; Encouraging the public to directly committed genocide; Attempts to genocide; Complicity to genocide;

Genocide in the Albanian legislation Albanian legislation provides for the crime of genocide as a crime against

humanity and has integrated the relevant chapter of the Albanian Criminal Code, Article 73. Albanian Criminal Code has made its own determination that the crime of genocide done in convention. Besides forecasting relevant to Article 73 of the Criminal Code, the Albanian legislator has drafted the Law No. 8001,. For genocide and crimes against humanity “dated 22/09/95, which is the main source of which refer to Article 73 and 74 of the Criminal Code for genocide and crimes against humanity”.

Since the purpose of Article 73 of the Penal Code is the protection of the criminal law humanity, are subject to its legal relationships established in the territory of the Republic of Albania in accordance with the laws and the Convention against Genocide and the Law No. 8001, concerning the protection of life and health of people belonging to a national, ethnic, racial, religious, against certain criminal acts or omissions. Genocide is distinguished from crimes against persons, against life and health, since it is conditioned by the relevant national, ethnic, racial and religious. Objective crime is committed by active actions aimed at implementing a plan intentional to destroy wholly or partly national, ethnic, religious or racial. According to the Albanian legislation, the crime can be performed by omission failure consisting of those actions to be performed subject to completely stop or prevent the destruction of part of the group. Although the crime of genocide committed fully considered when criminal consequences, the attempt is punishable by Albanian criminal law. In the case of the attempted genocide apply Article 73 together with Article 72 which provides for the attempted '. “From the objective point of view as well as complicity in the Convention is mandatory. Collaborators punished regardless of the role they have had to be taken into account in determining the type and mass punishment.


59

Responsibility for the crime of genocide will hold “will subject, enough to meet the requirements for criminal responsibility.

On the crime committed intentionally subjective directly, and according to a plan and with deliberate intent to destroy the specific group or fully partially.

Torture. In human treatment Torture, torquere Latin, means the infliction of pain, physical to punished or

forced to confess a crime or person to testify in a proceeding criminal. “In many countries the question of torture was used as judicial method.

Torture in International acts The historical evolution of state power was consolidated rather one of

its elements: repressive governments, especially authoritarian and dictatorial states. In this context, a phenomenon attracted the attention of the international community: Torture. Prohibition of torture was sanctioned in a number of international acts that aimed to protect human rights: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights tit vi 1948 European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 1950, Pact United Nations on Civil and Political Rights of 1966, the European Convention for the Prevention of torture, inhuman and degrading treatment and punishment. But only in 1984 was signed in New York an international Convention against Torture. European Convention of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) by was one of the first instruments sanctions banning torture has this definition in Article 3:

No one can be subjected to torture or inhuman treatment or punishment of

humiliating.

While the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in its NEMN 7 provides:

No one shall be subjected to torture, inhuman treatment or punishment of

degrading. In particular, no one may be subjected to medical or scientific

experiments without his free consent.

UN Convention against torture in article 1 provides: 1. According to the aims of this Convention in the term torture means any act

by which a person intentionally caused severe pain or suffering physical or mental intent to obtain from him or one other information or allegations to punish him for an act he has committed or is suspected of having committed, or to intimidate him to put pressure on another person or for any another motif based on a random form, such as a pain or suffering inflicted by such official or a person from any other person acting in an official capacity, at the instigation of or with his consent,


60

expressed or silent. It does not include pain or suffering arising only lawful sanctions that are an integral part of these sanctions or are caused by them.

2. This article is without prejudice to any international instrument or national

law contained no or may contain provisions of a wider character.

European Convention against Torture holds the same position on torture and UN Convention. The uniqueness of it lies in the fact that it provides n lead to the establishment of a mechanism to prevent vacant mistreatment of persons deprived of liberty. This mechanism is the Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Treatment or Punishment Inhuman or Degrading. The notion of torture in the Rome Statute is broader than the two Conventions, the fact that it refers to the quality of the subject officer committed the crime. The statute has the merit of eliminating another restriction: the scope of the statute is broad in relation to the victim, why he predicts that the victim must be a person in the custody or under the control of the accused. The scope of protection offered by the statute is broad in comparison with other international instruments against torture while not being limited to the victims of the prisoners.

Inhuman and degrading treatment. -Methods of Torture The UN Convention against Torture and the European Convention does not

have a definition of other forms of maltreatment. For that UN has prepared a Comment according to which there could be a list of prohibited acts and made a strict distinction between different kinds of punishment or treatment “The difference depends on the nature, purpose and severity of the mode of treatment. verify that in fact are different ways mistreatment, torture has resulted in so efficient a general definition of interpret each case,

With inhuman treatment by the Committee of the UN Human Rights is understood keeping people able to stop the closure of seclusion or solitude prisoners for long periods of time. Inhuman treatment is related to living conditions in the countries serving that sentence, eg lack of sanitary conditions, the cell isolation and failure to bring in the fresh air, overcrowding. Cruel and inhuman treatment is even in cases where the convicted to death on several occasions announced the time and place of execution.

Degrading Treatment breakdown is as distinctive element, which is a contempt factor to be assessed case by case, since subjectivity is inseparable from it. A humiliating treatment for an individual does not necessarily done that in the eyes of others, can also be humiliating for the individual himself. “Methods are physical and psychological torture. Both methods of torture are intended to affect the brain.

The prohibition of torture is left as an issue addressed in the plan only international, Under international law states are obliged to put into effect an appropriate legislation at the level of the right internal and make investigation


61

when it comes to torture. The UN Convention sets the obligation in Article 4 states to condemn its actions and the attempted torture exercise torture in domestic legislation relating the criminal. As mentioned above, the Convention does not envisage other forms of maltreatment, states therefore have the task to make updating national legislation.

The right not to be subjected to torture, punishment or cruel, inhuman or degrading constitutional level has risen in our country. On the other hand Albania has also ratified the European Convention against Torture by Law 8135, dated 31.7.1996 and its Additional Protocols number 1 and 2, making part of our legislation.

To complete the legal framework for torture in the Penal Code are provided for both provisions, namely Articles 86 and 87 (Torture and Torture with serious consequences) that condemn torture, as well as a provision in the Code of Criminal Procedure, Article 5, paragraph 2 and 3 that regulates the restriction of freedom of person.

The Criminal Code provides for the crime of torture in chapter offenses against committed intentionally health. The target of torture or any other inhuman act of Albanian legislation degrading of human health is specifically protected by the criminal law, criminal actions or inactions. Forms and methods to commit the crime of torture and other inhuman acts of humiliating are the most diverse. An attempt was asked to be considered torture punishable under section 86, and in terms of Article 87, that the offense is called consumed have to have serious consequences of mutilation, disfigurement, or any permanent damage to the person's health or even death. The most important is the existence of a causal link between torture and resultant income.

In terms of subjects under Albanian law may be subject general or special, enough to meet the conditions for having responsibility criminal '“indispensable condition for the offense of torture is committed as existence of the subjective view that direct intent,

As we noted international acts providing for the prohibition of torture, importance is imperative to respect human rights, especially in penitentiary institutions. In this context, Article 5 of the code of criminal procedure predict two paragraphs:

Nobody can temporarily subjected to torture, degrading punishment or

treatment. Prisoners are provided with human and moral rehabilitation treatment. It is understood that to build a society based on the rule of law Such principles should be applied in the right underwear. Only starting from principles that put everything on human dignity can build a democracy stable.

International criminal responsibility

Crimes that have analyzed so far are regulated by international convention Statutes and Criminal Tribunals individual crimes. Under the doctrine may distinguish between two categories of international crimes: crimes and crimes


62

individual state. For individual responsibility was discussed for the first time in the early twentieth century, thanks to the adoption of a series of conventions on the right of war, ius ad bellum, in this period,

Recognition of individual criminal responsibility in the international area seen from many countries as a violation of their sovereignty, the fact that the repressive power of the state in this case will be settled fairly boundaries. There were many authors of international law as Georg Jellinek, who claimed that international law as the right interstate establishes rights and obligations for states only, but not for individuals or organizations. On the other hand N. Levi “confirm this view by the fact that the nonexistence of supporting international law stems from syllogism: international law imposes obligations on states, criminal norms governing the behavior of individuals, as a result if the rate is not international criminal and vice versa. The Statute of the International Criminal Court maintained the distinction between crimes individual and state.

In Article 25 of the Rome Statute provides that no provision of this statute regarding individual responsibility will not affect the responsibility of States under international law. This means that the court is only competent to prosecute crimes committed by individuals, while for the crimes committed by the state continues to exist arbitrary powers of judicial tribunals, Even in the Convention Against Genocide of materialized find this distinction. Article 9 of this Convention provides that disputes between Contracting Parties concerning the interpretation, application implementation of this Convention, including that relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or any of the acts enumerated in Article 3 of this Convention. Finally slaughter that may exist some international instruments and international organizations engaged to determine responsibility and punish states that are responsible for carrying out illegal acts, while the Rome Statute that created the International Criminal Court became an important step towards the consolidation of the institutionalization of individual responsibility.

Conclusions Diffusion of judicial institutions, is clear evidence that the community

has received substantial international role of the criminal proceedings in respect of human rights. At the end of this working paper that carries a considerable researcher can say with conviction that the efforts for a world of peace and right existed and perhaps reach their roofs nowadays. A special role is played in this aspect elaboration of norms of international criminal justice, recently finalized the drafting of the Rome Statute that marked the establishment of the International Criminal Court.

Crimes against humanity already regarded as an autonomous legal concept by armed conflict, can therefore speak of crimes against humanity as in time of peace and in time of war, including civil war. Under the doctrine discriminatory


63

element should be connected only with the persecution was carried out by a group of another group, finding no other application for actions that constitute crimes against humanity.

The difficulty and the “importance” of such crimes requires action on the basis of a plan deliberate creates flexibility during the trial of this category of crime. Criteria “of wide “and are seen as two systematic competitive element that can also be coordinated with each other, but takes a slight element of the plan or policy. Mens rea or guilty mind arises as a necessary element: the culprit must perform criminal with full conscience and the presumption of knowledge or awareness of the crime is also considered punishable.

In the event that we would do the categorization of crimes analyzed so far, will distinguish the two of them: individual crimes and state crimes. It took many years and very important historical event that the individual responsible for crimes considered performed and the principles of international criminal law applied directly on the individual.

The Rome Statute has expressly defined competence ratione personae

(jurisdiction over the individual) International Criminal Court, that makes this court judged competent to physical persons. As one of the forms of the objective of carrying out criminal statute not consider the course of action. Gaining importance especially his inaction in cases of military responsibility headings and persons who reside hierarchically above for actions committed by their subordinates. State Responsibility, on the other hand, arises from an internationally unlawful fact, according to the decision of the International Commission of the Right. State crimes are characterized by actions which are an expression of political will and institutional state. Sanctions that are undertaken by the States for committing an illegal internationally fact intended to affect the state's position in the Bay guilty international community. The Rome Statute turn has not added any new Adjustments related to state responsibility, in this context does not recognize the International Criminal Court has no jurisdiction to adjudicate cases in which the state is a party.

During this work is constantly adjusting reflected by legislation Albanian crime figures analyzed. It has served the purpose of facing the solutions offered by the Albanian legislator with those acts international. It seems that the Albanian legal system is equipped with the necessary framework law to punish such crimes, not excluding the improvements constant that can be made in the future, The international community's goal is to achieve peace and democracy consistently in all countries of snow, this can be achieved only by putting in the forefront the dignity of the individual.


64

References 1. Bianku L, Raporti mbi studimin e perqasjes se legjislacionit shqiptar me

Konventen Europiane te te Drejtave te Njeriut, Botim i Keshillit te Europes, tetor 200l. 2. Black's Law Dictionary, Centenial edition 1891-1991 3. Eric D, Elements de droit Penal International, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 11

edition 2002. 4. Elezi I, E drejta Penale, Pjesa e Posacrne, SHBLU, Tirane, 2002. 5. Elezi I, Kacupi S, Haxhia M, Komentari i Kodit Penal te Republikes se Shqiperise, GEER. 6. Elezi I, Zhvillim historik i legjislacionit penal ne Shqiperi, Albin, 1997. 7. Ferencz B, International Criminal court, Copyright of Oceana Publications, 1980. 8. ILC (International Lae Commission) Draft code of crimes against the peace and 9. security of mankind 1996, elementi Costitutivi di crimini contro l'umanita. 10. Jellinek G, Sistema dei Diritti publici subiettivi, Milano, 1912. 11. 1 0) Jacobsen L, Vesti P, Ata qe i mbijetojne tortures, Grafika Ars, 1994. 12. Levin L, Te Drejtat e Njeriut-Pyetje dhe Pergjigje, UNESCO, 200l. 13. Levi N, Diritto Penale Internazionale, Padova 1949. 14. Levi N, In Tema di Diritto Penale Internazionale, Rivista Internazionale, Numero

4, 1929. 15. Puto A, E Drejta Nderkombetare Pub like, Tirane Albin, 2002 16. Puto A, Ndalimi i Tortures, Komiteti Shqiptar i Helsinkit, Kristalina KH, Tirane,

2002 17. Ronzitti N, Genocidio, In enciclopedia di diritto, Milano 1969, Volume XVIII. 18. Zaganjori Xh, Gjykata Penale Nderkombetare si zhvillim i rendesishem pozitiv ne

kuader te pergjegjesise penale nderkombetare, Jeta Juridike, Nr 1, Qershor 2002. Jane shfrytezuar S1 burime te' vlefshme edhe:

19. Enearta Encyclopedia. 2003· 20. vvww .wikipedia.com (Enciklopedi online) 21. www.icc.com (Faqja Zyrtare e Gjykates Penale nderkornbetare) vvww.lUl.org/icty

(Tribunali per Ish-Jugosllavine) vvww.lUl.org/ictr (Tribunali per Ruanden) www.crimesofwar.comlthebook

22. www.filodiritto.com/diritto/publico internazionale 23. vvww. preparatorycomissi on. com


65

RELATIONS BETWEEN NATURAL RESURCES

MANAGEMENT (ESPECIALLY LAND USE PLANNING AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT), HUMAN

RIGHTS & SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Dr. Enriko CEKO, University “Sevasti & Parashqevi Qiriazi” Tirana, Albania

Abstract: Purpose of the research is to give details on level of natural resources

management, sustainable development in Albania, especially on land use planning/water resources management, as a basis for human rights improvement. Approach used is based on relations between human rights/sustainable development. Human rights are very strongly related to sustainable development, which is a subject related mostly with economy and environment, where land and water are scared resources. Land use planning and water resources management are very important concepts, application of which creates opportunities for a long term sustainable development, guarantying normal life of future generations, without damaging environment, as basics of human rights. In Albania there is not any strong experience on application of sustainable development, LUP and WRM concepts, while the best international experience shows that public participation on LUP and WRM is a system and a technique that results to be very successful not only in use of these very valuable natural resources, but in declining of conflicts for land and water, too. To apply these techniques it is necessary a serious organization of decision taking structures, citizens education related with use and management of these resources, improvement/application of suitable legislation according to the actual country’s conditions and application as soon as possible and with quality of projects, action plans and in all levels, national, regional, communal, etc. Findings of this study have a applicable value for all interested parties, individuals, public, private institutions, but mainly to decision makers – civil society for improvement of the situation which has been created because lack of methods, systems, techniques of LUP and WRM, for a sustainable development and respecting human rights. The major result and implications is that defining methods, procedures and techniques of land use planning and water resources management creates some basis for a sustainable development, strata for human rights development.

Keywords: Human rights, sustainable development, resources management

Introduction In Albania there is not a clear situation about relations between human rights,

sustainable development and natural resources management, especially on Land Use Planning and Water Resources Management, especially in terms of decision making. It is evident that there are not strong relations - links between decision making process in national, regional, communal and village level about LUP and WRM, as important concepts, logical application of which creates opportunities having a long term sustainable development, guaranteeing normal life of future


66

generations, without environmental pollution, respecting human rights. In Albania there is not any experience on application of these concepts. Generally the situation has been managed with the system of decision making from above, combined with application of decisions from low levels, when the best international experience shows that public participation in strengthening respect of human rights, applying sustainable development practices, especially those related to LUP and WRM as a matter of the fact is a system and a technique that results very successful not only in use of these resources but in declining of conflicts for land and water, when these resources are vulnerable against misuse, damage, pollution and corruption risk in their management, etc, when human rights and law are violated.

1. Human rights concept Human rights are commonly understood as “inalienable fundamental rights to

which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being” (1). Human rights are thus conceived as universal (applicable everywhere) and egalitarian (the same for everyone). These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national and international law (2) The doctrine of human rights in international practice, within international law, global and regional institutions, in the policies of states and in the activities of non-governmental organizations, has been a cornerstone of public policy around the world. The idea

of human rights (3) states, “if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights.”

Despite this, the strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day. Indeed, the question of what is meant by a “right” is itself controversial and the subject of continued philosophical debate (4)

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. According to Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (5) Human rights can be classified and organized in a number of different ways, at an international level the most common categorization of human rights has been to split them into civil and political rights, and economic, social and cultural rights. Civil and political rights are enshrined in articles 3 to 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Economic, social and cultural

1 Sepulveda Magdalena, Banning Theo van, Gudmundsduttir Gudrun D, Chamoun Christine and Genugten Willem J.M. van. Human rights reference handbook. University for peace. 2004

2 James Nickel. Making sense of human rights. Blackwell Publishing. 2010 3 Beitz Charles. The idea of human rights Oxford University press 2009 4 Shaw, “International Law”, 6th. ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge2008 5 UDHR 1948


67

rights are enshrined in articles 22 to 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).

2. Indivisibility The UDHR included economic, social and cultural rights and civil and

political rights because it was based on the principle that the different rights could only successfully exist in combination of the ideal of free human beings enjoying civil and political freedom and freedom from fear and want can only be achieved if conditions are created whereby everyone may enjoy his civil and political rights, as well as his social, economic and cultural rights (6). This is held to be true because without civil and political rights the public cannot assert their economic, social and cultural rights. Similarly, without livelihoods and a working society, the public cannot assert or make use of civil or political rights (known as the full belly thesis). The indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights has been confirmed by the 1993 Vienna Declaration and Program of Action: All human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent and related. The international community must treat human rights globally in a fair and equal manner, on the same footing, and with the same emphasis (7). This statement was again endorsed at the 2005 World Summit in New York (paragraph 121).

2.1 Trade and business

Although both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights emphasize the importance of a right to work, neither of these documents explicitly mention trade as a mechanism for ensuring this fundamental right. And yet trade plays a key role in providing jobs (8). Some experts argue that trade is inherent to human nature and that when governments inhibit international trade they directly inhibit the right to work and the other indirect benefits, like the right to education, that increased work and investment help accrue (9). Others have argued that the ability to trade does not affect everyone equally-often groups like the rural poor, indigenous groups and women are less likely to access the benefits of increased trade (10). On the other hand, others think that it is no longer primarily individuals but companies that

6 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights, 1966

7 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, World Conference on Human Rights, 1993 8 COPLA. Should trade be considered a human right? December 9, 2008 9 Soraya Fernandez, Protecting access to markets. December 2008 10 Jones, Baker Nicola and Hayley. Untangling links between trade, poverty and gender. Overseas Development Institute. March 2008


68

trade, and therefore it cannot be guaranteed as a human right. Finally, it is difficult to define a right to trade as either “fair” (11) or “just” in that the current trade regime produces winners and losers but its reform is likely to produce (different) winners and losers. (12).

2.2 Natural Resources

As per thee United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights access to natural resources was a human right as a indispensable right for leading a life in human dignity. It is a prerequisite for the realization of other human rights. Especially this principle was reaffirmed for water at the 3rd and 4th World Water Councils in 2003 and 2006. This marks a departure from the conclusions of the 2nd World Water Forum in The Hague in 2000, which stated that water was a commodity to be bought and sold, not a right. (13). There are calls from many NGOs and politicians to enshrine access to water as a binding human right, and not as a commodity (14). According to the United Nations, nearly 900 million people lack access to clean water and more than 2.6 billion people lack access to basic sanitation. On July 28, 2010, the UN declared water and sanitation as human rights. By declaring safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right, the U.N. General Assembly made a step towards the Millennium Development Goal to ensure environmental sustainability, which in part aims to “halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation”. The same situation is related to energy, land, minerals, etc.

2.3 Human rights and the environment

There are two basic conceptions of environmental human rights in the current human rights system. The first is that the right to a healthy or adequate environment is itself a human right (15). The second conception is the idea that environmental human rights can be derived from other human rights, usually – the right to life, the right to health, the right to private family life and the right to property (among many others). This second theory enjoys much more widespread use in human rights courts around the world, as those rights are contained in many human rights documents. The onset of various environmental issues, especially climate change, has created potential conflicts between different human rights. Human rights ultimately require a working ecosystem and healthy

11 Ellis, Keane Karen and Jodie. Do we need a new 'Good for Development' label? Overseas Development Institute. November 2008

12 Mareike Meyn. Beyond rights: Trading to win. December 2009 13 Sutherland Ben. Water forum no 'talking shop. March 2003. BBC News 14 United Nations Department of Public Information. Water Justice. 2003 15 Article 24 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, and Article 11 of the San Salvador Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights


69

environment, but the granting of certain rights to individuals may damage these. Such as the conflict between right to decide number of offspring and the common need for a healthy environment, as noted in the tragedy of the commons (16). Environmental Rights revolve largely around the idea of a right to a livable environment both for the present and the future generations.

2.4. Natural resources management (especially land and water)

and sustainable development

Sustainable development refers to a mode of human development in which resource use aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations to come. The term 'sustainable development' was used by the Brundtland Commission which coined what has become the most often-quoted definition of sustainable development: “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (17, 18). Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social challenges faced by humanity. As early as the 1970s, “sustainability” was employed to describe an economy ”in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems.” Ecologists have pointed to The Limits to Growth, and presented the alternative of a “steady state economy“ in order to address environmental concerns (19,20, 21). The concept of sustainable development has in the past most often been broken out into three constituent parts:

• Environmental sustainability • Economic sustainability • Sociopolitical sustainability More recently, it has been suggested that a more consistent analytical

breakdown is to distinguish four domains of economic, ecological, political and cultural sustainability. This is consistent with the UCLG move to make 'culture' the fourth domain of sustainability (22). In 1987, the United Nations released the Brundtland Report, which included what is now one of the most widely recognised definitions: “Sustainable development is development that meets the

16 Hardin Garrett. The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, Vol. 162, No. 3859. December 13, 1968, pp.

1243-1248 17 United Nations. "Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development." General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987

18 Smith, Charles; Rees, Gareth Economic Development, 2nd edition. Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-72228-0

19 Stivers, R. The Sustainable Society: Ethics and Economic Growth. Philadelphia:Westminster Press, 1976, 1988

20 Meadows, D.H., D.L. Meadows, J. Randers, and W.W. Behrens III. 1972. The Limits to Growth. Universe Books, New York, NY. ISBN 0-87663-165-0,

21 Daly, H. E. Towards a Steady State Economy. San Francisco: Freeman. Daly, H. E. 1991. Steady-State Economics (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Island Press.1973

22 United Cites and Local Governments, "Culture: Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development"


70

needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (23). According to the same report, the above definition contains within it two key concepts:

the concept of 'needs', in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs (24). The United Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome Document refers to the “interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars” of sustainable development as economic development, social development, and environmental protection (25). Based on the triple bottom line, numerous sustainability standards and certification systems have been established in recent years, in particular in the food industry (26,27) Well-known standards include organic, Rainforest Alliance, fair trade, UTZ Certified, Bird Friendly, and The Common Code for the Coffee Community. Indigenous peoples have argued, through various international forums such as the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues and the Convention on Biological Diversity, that there are four pillars of sustainable development, the fourth being cultural. The Universal

Declaration on Cultural Diversity (28) further elaborates the concept by stating that “... cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature”; it becomes “one of the roots of development understood not simply in terms of economic growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual existence”. In this vision, cultural diversity is the fourth policy area of sustainable development.

A useful articulation of the values and principles of sustainability can be found in the Earth Charter. It offers an integrated vision and definition of strong sustainability. The document, an ethical framework for a sustainable world, was developed over several years after the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and launched officially in 2000. The Charter derives its legitimacy from the participatory process in which it was drafted, which included contributions from hundreds of organizations and thousands of individuals, and from its use since 2000 by thousands of organizations and individuals that have been using the Earth Charter as an educational instrument and a policy tool. Economic Sustainability: Agenda 21 clearly identified information, integration, and participation as key building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent

23 World Commission on Environment and Development. "Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development". 2011

24 World Commission on Environment and Development. "Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development". 2011

25 2005 World Summit Outcome Document, World Health Organization, 15 September 2005 26 Manning, S., Boons, F., Von Hagen, O., Reinecke, J. "National Contexts Matter: The Co-Evolution of Sustainability Standards in Global Value Chains." Ecological Economics, Forthcoming. 2011

27 Reinecke, J., Manning, S., Von Hagen, O. "The Emergence of a Standards Market: Multiplicity of Sustainability Standards in the Global Coffee Industry"Organization Studies, Forthcoming.2012

28 UNESCO, 2001


71

pillars. It emphasizes that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. It stresses the need to change from old sector-centered ways of doing business to new approaches that involve cross-sector co-ordination and the integration of environmental and social concerns into all development processes, emphasizing that broad public participation in decision making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development (29).

According to Hasna Vancock, sustainability is a process which tells of a development of all aspects of human life affecting sustenance. It means resolving the conflict between the various competing goals, and involves the simultaneous pursuit of economic prosperity, environmental quality and social equity famously known as three dimensions (triple bottom line) with the resultant vector being technology, hence it is a continually evolving process; the 'journey' (the process of achieving sustainability) is of course vitally important, but only as a means of getting to the destination (the desired future state). However, the 'destination' of sustainability is not a fixed place in the normal sense that we understand destination. Instead, it is a set of wishful characteristics of a future system (30).

As per above, in Albania there is not a clear situation in all decision making levels about human rights, sustainable development and Land Use Planning and Water Resource Management, as main natural resources. There are not strong relations - links between decision making process in national, regional, communal and village level about LUP and WRM, as important concepts, application of which creates opportunities to have a long term sustainable development, to guarantee normal life of future generations, without environmental pollution. In Albania there is not any experience on application of these concepts. Generally the situation has been managed with the system of decision making from above, combined with application of decisions from low levels, when the best international experience shows that public participation in LUP and WRM is a system and a technique that results very successful not only in use of these resources but in declining of conflicts for land and water, when these resources are vulnerable against misuse, damage, pollution, corruption risk in their management, etc.

Applying techniques of LUP and WRM is necessary to have a serious organisation of decision making structures, citizen education related to LUP and WRM, improvement and application of a suitable legislation according to the actual country’s situation and application as soon as possible of qualitative projects and action plans in all levels, national, regional and communal, etc. Land use planning and water resources management is a systematic procedure for management of land and water potentials, an alternative for use and exploitation of land and water under specific economic and social conditions to elect and adopt the best options for this. The aim is to select and apply in practice land uses and water

29 Allen Will. Learning for Sustainability: Sustainable Development. 2007 30 Hasna, A. M. "Dimensions of sustainability". Journal of Engineering for Sustainable Development: Energy, Environment, and Health 2 (1): 47–57. 2007


72

resources management methods, techniques and practices which fulfil better human needs protecting resources for the future. Movement force in that process is the need to improve resources management, dictated by changing conditions (31). A large number of people involved in the process of land use planning and water resources management, mainly in local level have not a sufficient acceptance of needs for change in use of land and water resources to prevent undesirable changes.

There is a lack of desire in politic level and there is a lack of abilities to apply in practice land and water management and use plans (32,33,34,35).

As population and human aspirations increase, land and water becomes an increasingly scarce resource, calling for land-use planning and water resources management. Land-use planning and water resources management are important to mitigate the negative effects of land and water use and to enhance the efficient use of resources with minimal impact on future generations (36).

Effective land-use planning and water resources management often involves local communities, scientific information on land resources, appropriate technologies, and integrated evaluation of resource use, but in local conditions these involvements are subject of misuse, corruption and often there are not existing at all (37). The process should includes knowledge of today and future needs for land and water, identification and solve of individual’s and community conflicts and between actual generation’s needs and future generations needs, finding of sustainable options and selection of those that fulfil identified needs planning to bring desirable changes and process of learning from the experience, but current situation shows that there is not a process at all. There is not any public information about any study on future needs for land and water, there is not any initiative for land and water conflicts resolution in national level and there is not any official initiative on learning from experience (38).

In terms of the study the efficiency is productivity growth on land and water, which should have as a focus food security, employment, inequality reduction, attacking absolute poverty, bringing and building sustainability, which is related with fulfilment of today needs without compromising future generations’ needs. In fact, productivity in agriculture (which is the main sector using land and water in Albania) during last 20 years has not shown any significant increase, while fertilisers use per land unit has been reduced by 15% in 2009 compared with 2006, and land use has been reduced by 35.000 ha in 2009 compared with 2006 (39). 31 Methods and Procedures for Land Use Planning for Agriculture development. Training Course Material. DSE, Zschortao. Germany. October 1994 (8 – 24).

32 Interview with Koci Tahiri, chairman of Agriculture Specialists League, May 2010 33 Interview with Andrea Plaku, Hocisht Commune Chairman (Devoll Region), May 2010 34 Interview with Isuf Demirxhiu, Chairman of Albanian Farmers Association, May 2010 35 Work visits in about 200 irrigation schemes investments in all the country between 2006 - 2009 36 Methods and Procedures for Land Use Planning for Agriculture development. Training Course Material. DSE, Zschortao. Germany. October 1994 (8 – 24).

37 Interview with Koci Tahiri, chairman of Agriculture Specialists League, May 2010 38 Interview with Andrea Plaku, Hocisht Commune Chairman (Devoll Region), May 2010 39 INSTAT. Tables of production, fertilizers use and land use in agriculture. May 2010


73

Legislation for land and water is in unacceptable levels, not only in technical aspects, but in the way how the legislation treat resources. There is a lack of legislation related to land and water, specifically in management aspect and exercise of law force. In Penal Code of Albania there are only 8 – 9 articles about land misuse, water misuse and environmental pollution, compared with huge legal framework of EU, where Albania is looking forward in integration process (40).

In national level the plan for LUP and WRM should have a management policy, balancing the demand toward different sectors of the national economy, national plans and budget development, identification of projects and resources localisation for development, coordination of sector agencies involved in the land and water management process, sustainable legislation in such a subjects like resources wrights, land and water use and protection, etc (41), but according to the information the public has, there is not any management policy for land and water use at all.

In regional level the plan for LUP and WRM should have development projects, because this level is a bridge between national and communal level, and should includes treatment of national plans in regional level, conflicts solving between national and regional interests, defining of needs for infrastructure improvement of resources use and market facilities, development of procedures and guidelines for land and water management improvement (42,43), but since there are a lot of conflicts between National Council of Territorial Regulation and municipalities (examples of Tirana, Durres, Korca municipalities open conflicts in eyes of public for land and water) it is evident that there is a lack of compromise between national and local level of decision making (44)

In communal and village level the plan for LUP and WRM should have exploitation of citizens knowledge and their contributes for problems and conflicts solving for resources, mainly for land and water, collection and use of information for communal and village plans creation on land and water use, transfer of these plans in regional and national level to be linked and integrated with national plans, localisation of different land and water sorts and defining the way of use and management of them, help for work coordination of different agencies related to land and water management (45), but in the fact, there is a lack of contribution of citizens on conflicts resolution, lack of information for communal and village plans on LUP and WRM, etc (46).

40 Penal Code of Albania. June 1997 (56, 68 – 70 41 Food and Agriculture Organization. Guidelines for Land-Use Planning. FAO Development Series 1. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1993 (1-13)

42 Food and Agriculture Organization. Guidelines for Land-Use Planning. FAO Development Series 1. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1993 (1-13)

43 Methods and Procedures for Land Use Planning for Agriculture development. Training Course Material. DSE, Zschortao. Germany. October 1994 (8 – 24)

44 Interview with Andrea Plaku, Hocisht Commune Chairman (Devoll Region), May 2010 45 Methods and Procedures for Land Use Planning for Agriculture development. Training Course Material. DSE, Zschortao. Germany. October 1994 (8 – 24)

46 Interview with Andrea Plaku, Hocisht Commune Chairman (Devoll Region), May 2010


74

Contents of the LUP and WRM plan for sustainable development in all levels of decision making should have Executive summary, Terms of reference, Land and water problems, Land-use and water management types and management, Land and water suitability, Appraisal of alternatives, Recommended changes in land use, The land-use plan, Implementation of the plan, Procedures for monitoring and revision and Supporting information (47,48). In most of visits I have had in about 200 irrigation schemes in communal and village level during the 2006 – 2009 period, as well as during the discussions with specialists in high and low level, results that there is a lack of contents of the land use plan and water resources management plan and in several cases there was not a plan at all. As a result, since in communal and village level there is a lack of documents, materials and actions as per above, the decision making process depends on what high level of decision making decide to do with resources (49,50,51,52).

Land use planning encompasses the following disciplines, Architecture, Environmental planning, Landscape architecture, Regional Planning, Spatial planning, Sustainable Development, Transportation Planning, Urban design, Urban planning, Urban Renaissance, Urban renewal, etc. As a matter of the fact in Albania there is a lack of specialists in those fields and sciences and this is another obstacle for application of land use planning and water resource management methods, systems and techniques.

Sustainable development is a concept which can be interpreted as an economic development without compromising environment, having a suitable economic growth, fulfilling actual generations’ needs without compromising future generations’ needs, where land and water are the most important resources related. Land and water resources are essential for farming, grazing, forestry, wildlife, tourism, urban development, transport infrastructure, and other environmental functions. The increasing demand for land and water, coupled with a limitation in its supplies, is a major cause for more conflicts over land and water use throughout the world and in Albania too.

GIS is an important aspect for helping government and commercial organizations manage natural resources more efficiently. GIS helps the water resource professional evaluate arrays or “layers” of information, and hence provides a tool for conducting tasks ranging from watershed planning to assessments of global climate change. As a matter of the fact there is a lack of GIS system in Albania, available especially for local users in communal and village level.

47 Food and Agriculture Organization. Guidelines for Land-Use Planning. FAO Development Series 1. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1993 (1-13)

48 Methods and Procedures for Land Use Planning for Agriculture development. Training Course Material. DSE, Zschortao. Germany. October 1994 (8 – 24

49 Interview with Koci Tahiri, chairman of Agriculture Specialists League, May 2010 50 Interview with Andrea Plaku, Hocisht Commune Chairman (Devoll Region), May 2010 51 Interview with Isuf Demirxhiu, Chairman of Albanian Farmers Association, May 2010 52 Work visits in about 200 irrigation schemes investments in all the country between 2006 - 2009


75

Community groups may promote and maintain, in cooperation with state and national agencies, systems for the LUP and WRM, but there is not any initiative or organized public participation on this issue.

Conclusions Human rights are commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to

which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being. Human rights are thus conceived as universal (applicable everywhere) and egalitarian (the same for everyone). These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national and international law. Human rights can be classified and organized in a number of different ways, at an international level the most common categorization of human rights has been to split them into civil and political rights, and economic, social and cultural rights.

Right for trade and use of natural resources, especially for land and water are basic concepts related closely with environmental human rights in the current human rights system. The right to a healthy or adequate environment is itself a human right. The idea that environmental human rights can be derived from other human rights, usually – the right to life, the right to health, the right to private family life and the right to property (among many others). The onset of various environmental issues, especially climate change, has created potential conflicts between different human rights. Human rights ultimately require a working ecosystem and healthy environment, but the granting of certain rights to individuals may damage these. Sustainable development refers to a mode of human development in which resource use aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations to come.

In Albania there is not a clear situation in all decision making levels about human rights, sustainable development and Land Use Planning and Water Resource Management, as main natural resources. There are not strong relations - links between decision making process in national, regional, communal and village level about LUP and WRM, as important concepts, application of which creates opportunities to have a long term sustainable development, to guarantee normal life of future generations, without environmental pollution.

In Albania there is not any experience on application of these concepts. Generally the situation has been managed with the system of decision making from above, combined with application of decisions from low levels, when the best international experience shows that public participation in LUP and WRM is a system and a technique that results very successful not only in use of these resources but in declining of conflicts for land and water, when these resources are vulnerable against misuse, damage, pollution, corruption risk in their management, etc.


76

APPENDICES

Fig 1. Circles of Sustainability image (assessment - Melbourne 2011)

Fig 2. Scheme of sustainable development at the confluence of three constituent parts. (2006)


77

Fig 3. Two ways links planning in different levels (41. p.6)

Fig 4. People in planning (41. p.9)


78

Fig 5. Steps in LUP (41. p.12. )

Fig 4. Steps of LUP, inputs, activities and outputs (41. p. 13)


79

References

Sepulveda Magdalena, Banning Theo van, Gudmundsduttir Gudrun D, Chamoun Christine

and Genugten Willem J.M. van. Human rights reference handbook. University for peace. 2004

James Nickel. Making sense of human rights. Blackwell Publishing. 2010 Beitz Charles. The idea of human rights Oxford University press 2009 Shaw, “International Law”, 6th. ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge2008 UDHR 1948 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on

Economic Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, World Conference on Human Rights, 1993 COPLA. Should trade be considered a human right? December 9, 2008 Soraya Fernandez, Protecting access to markets. December 2008 Jones, Baker Nicola and Hayley. Untangling links between trade, poverty and

gender. Overseas Development Institute. March 2008 Ellis, Keane Karen and Jodie. Do we need a new 'Good for Development' label? Overseas

Development Institute. November 2008 Mareike Meyn. Beyond rights: Trading to win. December 2009 Sutherland Ben. Water forum no 'talking shop. March 2003. BBC News United Nations Department of Public Information. Water Justice. 2003 Article 24 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, and Article 11 of the San

Salvador Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights Hardin Garrett. The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, Vol. 162, No. 3859. December 13,

1968, pp. 1243–1248 United Nations. “Report of the World Commission on Environment and

Development.” General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987 Smith, Charles; Rees, Gareth Economic Development, 2nd edition. Basingstoke:

Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-72228-0 Stivers, R. The Sustainable Society: Ethics and Economic Growth. Philadelphia:Westminster

Press, 1976, 1988 Meadows, D.H., D.L. Meadows, J. Randers, and W.W. Behrens III. 1972. The Limits to

Growth. Universe Books, New York, NY. ISBN 0-87663-165-0, Daly, H. E. Towards a Steady State Economy. San Francisco: Freeman. Daly, H. E. 1991.

Steady-State Economics (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Island Press.1973 United Cites and Local Governments, “Culture: Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development” World Commission on Environment and Development. “Our Common Future, Chapter 2:

Towards Sustainable Development”. 2011 World Commission on Environment and Development. “Our Common Future, Chapter 2:

Towards Sustainable Development”. 2011 2005 World Summit Outcome Document, World Health Organization, 15 September 2005 Manning, S., Boons, F., Von Hagen, O., Reinecke, J. “National Contexts Matter: The Co-

Evolution of Sustainability Standards in Global Value Chains.” Ecological Economics, Forthcoming. 2011

Reinecke, J., Manning, S., Von Hagen, O. “The Emergence of a Standards Market: Multiplicity of Sustainability Standards in the Global Coffee Industry”Organization Studies, Forthcoming.2012

UNESCO, 2001 Allen Will. Learning for Sustainability: Sustainable Development. 2007 Hasna, A. M. “Dimensions of sustainability”. Journal of Engineering for Sustainable

Development: Energy, Environment, and Health 2 (1): 47–57. 2007


80

Methods and Procedures for Land Use Planning for Agriculture development. Training Course Material. DSE, Zschortao. Germany. October 1994 (8 – 24).

Interview with Koci Tahiri, chairman of Agriculture Specialists League, May 2010 Interview with Andrea Plaku, Hocisht Commune Chairman (Devoll Region), May 2010 Interview with Isuf Demirxhiu, Chairman of Albanian Farmers Association, May 2010 Work visits in about 200 irrigation schemes investments in all the country between 2006 -

2009 Methods and Procedures for Land Use Planning for Agriculture development. Training

Course Material. DSE, Zschortao. Germany. October 1994 (8 – 24). Interview with Koci Tahiri, chairman of Agriculture Specialists League, May 2010 Interview with Andrea Plaku, Hocisht Commune Chairman (Devoll Region), May 2010 INSTAT. Tables of production, fertilizers use and land use in agriculture. May 2010 Penal Code of Albania. June 1997 (56, 68 – 70 Food and Agriculture Organization. Guidelines for Land-Use Planning. FAO Development

Series 1. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1993 (1-13) Food and Agriculture Organization. Guidelines for Land-Use Planning. FAO Development

Series 1. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1993 (1-13) Methods and Procedures for Land Use Planning for Agriculture development. Training

Course Material. DSE, Zschortao. Germany. October 1994 (8 – 24) Interview with Andrea Plaku, Hocisht Commune Chairman (Devoll Region), May 2010 Methods and Procedures for Land Use Planning for Agriculture development. Training

Course Material. DSE, Zschortao. Germany. October 1994 (8 – 24) Interview with Andrea Plaku, Hocisht Commune Chairman (Devoll Region), May 2010 Food and Agriculture Organization. Guidelines for Land-Use Planning. FAO Development

Series 1. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1993 (1-13) Methods and Procedures for Land Use Planning for Agriculture development. Training

Course Material. DSE, Zschortao. Germany. October 1994 (8 – 24 Interview with Koci Tahiri, chairman of Agriculture Specialists League, May 2010 Interview with Andrea Plaku, Hocisht Commune Chairman (Devoll Region), May 2010 Interview with Isuf Demirxhiu, Chairman of Albanian Farmers Association, May 2010 Work visits in about 200 irrigation schemes investments in all the country between 2006 -

2009


81

ALTERNATIVE MEASURES OF PUNISHMENT

AND THE ROLE OF THE PROBATION SERVICE, FOR THEIR RIGHT IMPLEMENTATION

PHD candidate Adrian LEKA Lawyer Albania

Abstract: „…Human dignity, rights and freedoms, are the basis of this state, which

has the duty to respect and to protect them”1 Rights and fundamental freedoms are rights

that arise with every human and have a universal character. Their protection and promotion is the primary obligation of every state and government. These rights and guarantees are not only known for Albanian citizens, but equally to foreigners and persons without citizenship. The whole Albanian legal system is based on principles and constitutional arrangements. This means that the principles of human rights and fundamental freedoms are an integral part of all legislation in general and of each subsidiary law in particular. Limitations of constitutional rights and freedoms may only be imposed by law in the public interest or for the protection of the rights of others. The limitations may never infringe the essence of freedoms and human rights. Since the adoption of the Criminal Code in 1995, judges in Albania have had available a range of sanctions as alternatives to imprisonment, which they could give in the sentence phase. In practice, alternatives to imprisonment are rarely used and the trend has been mainly to imprisonment. Evidence shows that prisons not only rehabilitate, but they also tend to criminalize individuals resulting in repeated offenses. Moreover, the increased population in Albanian prisons over the last decade is a matter of great concern. Prison overcrowding is a phenomenon that is determined by demographic, economic, social and political factors. This is an issue that causes a lot of administrative problems and often affects the behaviour, health and morale of the prisoners. In Albania is used the amnesty and pardon as measures to reduce overcrowding. Amnesties are effective measures to combat overcrowding and are used in many countries. In Albania it is necessary to develop effective care after release from prison. At the same time it is needed a long criminal policy to avoid the use of amnesties as short-term measures to reduce the prison population in Albania. To address the problem of overcrowding in prisons there is a solution that is in accordance with the recommendations outlined in international instruments and aims to change the practice of sentencing by increasing the number of alternatives to imprisonment. The purpose of introducing alternatives to imprisonment is not only addressing the problem of overcrowding in prisons or finding an efficient system of punishment, but the use of alternatives reflects a fundamental change in the approach of the crime, the offenders and their place in the society by changing the focus of punishment, from isolation to restorative justice and reintegration.

Keywords: alternative punishment, probation service, Criminal Code

1 Albanian Republic Constitution,article 3


82

1. The need and advantages

of implementing alternative sentencing

Implementation of alternative punishment in Albania aims to strengthen and promote human rights, to expand the representation of diverse interests and needs of society, to contribute to the development and emancipation of society, community involvement and participation in institutional processes.

The objectives aimed to be achieved by implementing alternative sentencing are:

1- Creation of a second opportunity for the defendant that present problems with drug and alcohol addiction, behavioural problems, personality, aggressive and anger management.

2- Proper medical and psychosocial treatment aiming their rehabilitation. 3- Their integration into society, which will enable more cooperation with the

relevant institutions such as the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities and Ministry of Education (provision of vocational training, education, employment and housing).

4- Establishing credibility to the general public on the effectiveness of alternative sentence implementation in Albania.

5- Institutionalizing alternative punishment in Albania.

The advantages of alternative sentencing

- To reduce the probability of returning on the road of crime. - They cost less to taxpayers; financially alternative sentencing costs less

than keeping offenders in the institution. - Provides ability to repay the damage and the victim, the community

benefits from its regular members and have a clear plan for life, this plan includes participation in economic life, a regular job and give a concrete contribution to the community instead of creating problems.

- They obliterate the “school of crime” in prison. Alternative punishment avoids the acquiring of prison culture, lifestyle, of expression and of various habits acquired while in prison.

- Assists in maintaining social and family ties. - Gives to the offenders an opportunity to reintegrate into society. - Eliminates the stigma of imprisonment; the shame of being in prison is

very real so as also the innocent family members suffer it even more than the prisoner himself.

To achieve satisfactory results it is worked in collaboration with local social

and welfare services to promote and increase the chances of inclusion into the society. For this purpose a memorandum of cooperation was signed between the Directorate of Probation and Project Partner Associations.


83

2. Probation service

Deprivation of liberty as a punitive measure for criminal acts with small social

dangerousness is estimated as the last alternative and then as a result only when the riskiness of the offense would make it impossible to establish any other alternative measure. In the international efforts to limit detention by replacing it with other alternatives, with a less coercive treatment are rising not only because of the overcrowding in prisons or expenses that a state has for the treatment according to the rights and freedoms of prisoners but also for the adverse impact that imprisonment can bring such as the breaking of relations with family and relatives, impact or effect that the convicts have on each - other, subsequent labelling of these people when they come out of prison.

For this reason also in Albania within the framework of the reform of the justice system by Law nr.10024, dated 27.11.2008 “On the execution of criminal judgments” Parliament has approved the legal framework for the establishment and functioning of the Institution of Probation Service as State Body for the supervision of the alternative sentencing.

The creating of the practice of Probation Institution in Albania took place in May 2009 when was created the Directorate General of Probation and its four regional offices in Tirana, Durres and Fier with a total of 50 employees.

a) Probation service role in every stage of the criminal proceedings 1.Probation Service supervises and supports the implementation of alternative

sentencing in order to protect the public interest and prevent the commission of offenses, assisting convicted person in the performance of alternative punishment in the fulfilment of the obligations and requirements arising from the sentence and in overcoming the difficulties for his re-integration

2. Probation Service cooperates and provides information and reports to the court and prosecution according to the legal provisions. “The report is based on facts, must be impartial and objective, and sent within the time defined by the court, “as this report will be of particular importance for the court because are the employees of the probation that somehow make the specific case studies.

3. The Probation Service determines methods of implementing alternative punishment in accordance with the law. When necessary, the Probation Service cooperates with state institutions, central or local and local community, as well as with other institutions and non-profit organizations for the implementation of alternative sentencing.

b) Organization and functioning of the Probation Service The Probation Service is a centralized state body, under the Ministry of

Justice.


84

This concept of organization permeates all the legal regulations (the method of appointment of the General Director and staff, structure and staff organization, budget organization centralization; powers of the General Director, etc..)

The Probation Service is organized and operates in national and local level. It consists of:

1. General Directorate of Probation in the Ministry of Justice, 2. The local offices at the courts of first instance, 3. Probation Service employees status Probation Officer is the person charged with the supervision and assistance of

the offenders in implementing alternative punishment in accordance with the legal provisions in force.

4. Standards and procedures of supervision of the execution of alternative sentencing. Probation Service, through its employees, creates contacts with the convicted, holding meetings with him and his relatives and gets all the data on the social context of the convicted. The Probation Service documents its activities through the creation of personal file of prisoners, keeps records of the activity, to conclude with the drafting and submission of evaluation reports. The personal file begins at the moment of establishing the first contact with the convicted and continues until the end of the execution of the sentence. The information contained in the files serves as the basis of the final product for drafting reports.

5. Ways of realizing the rights of the convicted. Based on the results of the assessment of personality and constant contact with

the convicted during the execution of alternative sentencing, the Probation Service helps the accused to overcome the difficulties for social reintegration. Probation Service contacts the family of the convicted person, other people close to him, performs social environmental monitoring of the prisoners, and cooperates with NGOs and intermediary service for the reduction and elimination of social vulnerability of offenders and his rehabilitation.

In carrying out this activity, the Probation Service aims to reduce and eliminate the social dangerousness of the defendant, making him aware of the offense committed and its consequences and also to raise awareness of the danger and importance of the offense, as well as the self-discipline. The probation employee is required to develop and implement effective programs, assistance and counselling for the prisoner based on the identified needs and supports him with the aim of fulfilling the social needs related to education, training, employment, housing and other similar needs in order to respect the rights, freedoms and legitimate interests of the prisoners and to ensure respect for their personal dignity.

6. European Organization for Probation (CEP). CEP is an organization that operates at European level. Its purpose is to enable the defendant’s involvement in the community through the implementation of alternative punishment applied by the Office of Probation, community service, mediation and counselling.

The focus of this organization is to promote the professionalism of Probation Service in national and European level. CEP promotes European cooperation on


85

important issues of probation through the organization of conferences. In this way it affects positively on the development and implementation of alternative sentencing.

Its members are the organizations working for probation and interest groups. CEP brings together practitioners, managers, academics, experts and

representatives of the justice system and probation service from all over Europe. Together they represent a network of experts who contribute to the treatment of offenders in the community. Their common interest is to protect society from the cost that represents the prison institution

3. The role and the procedurial position of Probation Service during the supervision of the execution of alternative sentences One of the main Constitutional principles of the Criminal Code of the

Republic of Albania is the principle of humanity. In accordance with the constitutional principles of criminal law expressed in a

range of humanity provisions, starting from the special protection that is given to women and children, age on criminal responsibility, penalty not more than half of the punishment provided by law for the offense committed, no penalty with life imprisonment of persons who have not reached the age of 18 years but in particular to determine the alternatives of punishment, which include fragmentation (Semi- freedom), release on bail where are expressed the alternatives to imprisonment.

Necessary condition, one of the most essential of the decision taking of the court, in the case of application of alternatives to imprisonment is also the report prepared by the Probation Service. This body has the obligation not only to compile this report but also to monitor and facilitate the implementation of alternative sentence and to help the person released from further suffering of imprisonment, to overcome the difficulties for social reintegration.

Supervision of the execution of alternative sentences “semi-liberty”

provided by Article 58 of the Criminal Code “For the sentence up to one year in prison, the court, because of the duties of

the convicted person for the job, education, or vocational training, family

responsibilities or essential need for medical treatment or rehabilitation, may

decide its execution with semi imprisonment.

A convicted person serving a sentence in semi is forced to return to prison after

having performed duties outside the prison, within a period specified by the court.

When the convicted person does not fulfil its obligations under this Article,

applies Article 62 of this Code.”2

2 Violation of the conditions and obligations during the trial period, Article 62 of the Criminal Code


86

“The Probation Service supervises the convicted person in semi liberty, when located outside of the execution institutions of criminal decisions.

The probation service reports immediately to the prosecutor and, where necessary, to the director of the penitentiary, where the convicted person with semi liberty is not eligible or doesn’t fulfil its obligations for the purpose of this sentence. When the convicted person with semi liberty does not return to institution of the penitentiary, the director of the institution in cooperation with the probation service after having verified the facts and circumstances of his failing to return, notify the immediately the prosecutor.”3 Supervision of the execution of the “Suspension of execution of prison sentences and putting to the test” provided by Article 59 of the Criminal Code

Supervision of the execution of the “Suspension of execution of prison sentences and put to probation” provided by Article 59 of the Criminal Code

Under this provision “Because of the little danger of the person, age, or mental

health conditions, lifestyle and needs, particularly those related to family, school or

work, the circumstances of the offense, the court gives sentence imprisonment up to 5

years, may order the convicted person to maintain contact with the probation service

and will be put on probation, suspending execution of sentence, provided that during

the probationary does not commit another criminal offense.

The Court orders that the convicted meets one or more obligations, provided

in Article 60 of this Code4.

The deadline of probation is 18 months to 5 years.

If the convicted does not maintain contact with the probation service or does

not fulfil the obligations laid down in Article 60 as ordered by the court, the court

decides to replace the first sentence with another penalty, the extension of

surveillance, within the period of probation, or revocation of suspension of

execution of judgment “

To apply this provision shall be fulfilled two conditions: First: At the conclusion of the trial the court finds that the defendant should be

sentenced to not more than five years; Second: during the judicial review it results that there is one of the following

circumstances: The defendant presents little risk to society, the defendant is a minor or old,

has special mental or health condition, has an obligation to work, education, training or vocational training, is essential to family responsibility, the defendant has committed the offense in some mitigating conditions or had a very good behaviour after the crime. Regarding the second condition - Special circumstances include three main directions:

3Article 7 , Law no. 10 024, dated 27.11.2008 “On Amendments and Additions to the Law no. 8331, dated 31.04.1998 “On Execution of Criminal Sentences”

4Article 60 Penal Code of the Republic of Albania “Obligations of prisoners put under probation”


87

1. The obligation of the convicted to work, education or vocational training. 2. Core responsibilities to the family of the defendant 3. Prisoners need for medical treatment or rehabilitation From the statement of Article 59 of the Criminal Code results that these

conditions are independent of each other and not mutually exclusive. The convicted put under probation, during the probation, must report regularly to the probation service, which should regularly inform the local authorities of the State Police. On the basis of legal regulation the Probation service supervises the execution of the court decision and immediately reports to the prosecutor when the convicted person does not maintain contact with the service or does not fulfil the defined obligations. When the convicted put under probation does not appear for objective or subjective reasons the employee of the probation service drafts the relevant report also in the case of job changing of the person under probation, the employee of the probation service should be informed immediately. Probation Service5 explicitly provides the obligation that has the convicted put under probation in case if the residency or address changes.

The role and procedural position of the Probation Service during the

supervision of the execution of alternative sentences “detention at home”

provided by the Criminal Code article 59/ai. Article 59/a I of the Criminal Code provides that “For sentences of

imprisonment up to two years or when the remaining time is part of the sentence,

according to a decision for a longer period of imprisonment, the court may decide

the given sentence to be performed by detention at home of the prisoners, in a

private home or at a different centre and public health care, when the following

circumstances exist:

A) For pregnant women or mothers with children under the age of 10 years

who live with her.

B) For fathers who have parental responsibility for the child who lives with,

under 10 years old when his mother died or is unable to care for him/her.

C) For persons in serious health conditions that require continuous service

from the health service, outside the prison.

Ç) For persons over 60 years old who are healthily incapable.

D) For young people, less than 21 years old, with documented health needs,

study, work or family responsibilities.

The court may allow persons sentenced to detention at home may leave the

residence for meeting the essential needs of the family, to engage in work activities,

education or rehabilitation program, with which the probation agrees.

In this case, the court determines the measures to be taken by the probation

service.

5Probation Service Regulation, Article39


88

The Court revokes the detention at home and replaces it with another penalty,

when there are no more conditions set forth in the first paragraph of this article. If the

convicted person leaves the residence without the authorization of the court or violates

certain obligations of the court decision, applies Article 62 of the penal code”

This form of sentence of imprisonment is applied by the court applies when two conditions are completed simultaneously:

First: At the conclusion of the trial the court finds that the defendant should be sentenced to not more than two years in prison, regardless of whether or not the prisoner is under arrest as a precautionary measure when to the prisoner has remained to serve no more than two years in prison, according to a precedent ruling for a longer period than two years of imprisonment

Second: During the trial review it comes out that there is one of the following circumstances:

- The defendant / convicted may be pregnant or mother with children under the

age of 10 years, living with;

-defendant / convicted may be a father who has parental responsibility for the

child under the age of 10 years who lives with him, when the mother has died or is

unable to take care of;

-defendant / convicted is in serious health conditions that require constant

care from health care, outside the prison.

-defendant / convicted may be over 60 years old and is incapable;

-defendant / convicted may be under the age of 21 years, with documented

health needs, study, professional or family responsibilities.

The Probation Service supervises the execution of detention at home and cooperates, as appropriate, with local authorities, social services, local police and other entities, private and local. The probation service provides information and assistance needed for the convicted of health care, social welfare institutions and non-governmental organizations to cooperate with the implementation of the decision to stay home. The probation service designs programs for the person who is sentenced to detention at home. If the convicted person is not able to meet the obligations imposed by the court, due to changing circumstances, probation reviews these obligations, for which shall report immediately to the prosecutor. “

If a person who is sentenced to detention at home, does not respect the obligations imposed, the probation service verifies facts and circumstances and reports immediately to the prosecutor and, where appropriate, proposes him the request for the change of obligation “.

The legislator has given the right to the Probation Service that if the convicted is unable to fulfil the obligations imposed by the court due to changing of circumstances, to review these obligations for which he reports immediately to the prosecutor.The situation is different in the other case when the circumstances have not changed, but the person who suffers the punishment of “detention at home” does not respect the obligations imposed by the court, even in this case the probation service shall carry out the relevant facts and circumstances and following


89

as provided by the legal provision reports to the prosecution, where appropriate, he proposes that the request for change of obligation. The law in this part of the provision gives the right to the Probation Service to propose for the

Supervision of the execution of a “detention at home” by the Probation Service is in several forms, which are: Routine visits announced, routine unannounced visits, maintaining contact with the convicted and his family.

The legislator has resolved in its forecasts also the situation where the court under Article 59 / a, paragraph 2 allows the movement of prisoners, the legal service employee designs a program by supervising the way the convict respects the essential needs of the family allowed by the court. If the Probation Service as a supervisory body determines that the conditions for which the court has appointed an alternative measure don’t exist, reports it immediately to the prosecutor in order that the later one is directed to the court to revoke the alternative measure and its replacement with another one.

The Probation Service report, except that it should be informative in this case, must contain a concrete proposal to substitute the punishment.

The Probation Service makes the same report and in cases where the convicted doesn’t meet the obligations derived from the sentence “detention at home” having reviewed the facts and circumstances that have brought the failure of fulfilment”. Then it is the prosecutor who applies all procedures and obligations of Article 62 of the Criminal Code.

The role and procedural position of the Probation Cervice during the

supervision on the execution of alternative sentences “work in the public

interest” provided by Article 63 of the Criminal Code “The Court, due to the low volatility of the person and the circumstances of doing

the crime, when given a sentence of up to one year in prison and his replacement with

the obligation that the convicted must fulfill a job in the public interest.

Work with the public interest means carrying out of a jobvy the convicted, with

his consent and without compensation, in favor of the public interest or association

designated by the court, for a time from forty to two hundred and forty hours. This

obligation can not be set when the inmate refuses to suspend the judicial hearing.

The work performed in the public interest within a period of six months with

the inmate obligation to maintain contact with the probation service. The probation

service determines the type of work to be performed, determines the place of

performance and the days of the week when it will be done, taking into account, to

the extent possible, the regular employment of prisoners or his family obligations.

Th duration of work in the public interest does not exceed eight hours per day.

After the completion of work the penalty is considered null.

If the convicted person does not perform the work in public interest, doesn’t

maintain contact with the probation or violates the terms or other obligations

imposed by the court, the prosecutor informes the court immediately. The court, in

this case under decides under section 62 of thisCode “


90

This form of sentence of imprisonment by the court applies when two conditions are met:

First: During the trial review the court finds that the defendant should be sentenced not more than one year in prison;

Second: During the trial review the court finds that the social dangerousness of the person who

committed the offense and the circumstances of the commission of the crime is low. This sentence has a particularity,can not be given by the court if the prisoner

does not want it. Work in public interest consists in performing a job without compensation, in favor of the public interest, the community where the convicted person resides or beyond. This work can be carried out in public or in an association set by the court. Its duration is from 40 to 240 hours and should be completed by the inmate within a period of 6 months.

Article 63 of the Penal Code provides for the manner of serving the sentence, taking into account family obligations of the prisoners, interests and skills, etc. In any case daily work time cannot exceed 8 hours a day.

Even this sentence will be revoked or replaced if the convicted does not comply with the conditions set by the court in its decision.

Initially the court, after deciding for a convicted person, with the consent of the person, the suspension of the execution of imprisonment and its replacement with an obligation to perform work in the public interest, sends a copy for immediate execution to the prosecutor, which deals with the execution of the sentence.

In cooperation with the entity with which will be conducted the work, the Probation Service, before starting the work of make the convicted aware for the technical rules of safety at work. Within the information, the Probation Service informs the convicted person in connection with the obligations that this person has to fulfil in a correct way the instructions and obligations given by the probation service is precisely this institution that defines the list of bodies and associations, public or private, where the work will be performed in the public interest.

Under this law6, the court may order the suspension of the execution of a work in the public interest due to the sudden illness of the offender because of the death of a family member and the convicted person must make the family caregiver and also because of exceptional circumstances.

For the suspension of work it is also done the relevant legal regulation where after the request from the prisoner near the prosecutor, the probation service drafts the relevant report and then it is the court that decides to suspend the execution of alternative sentences and the length of the suspension.

It is exactly the Probation Service the body that decides the type of work in the public interest, place and days of the week when it will be carried out this activity.

6Law no. 10 024, dated 27.11.2008 "On some amendments to Law no. 8331, dated 31.04.1998 "On the execution of criminal decisions”


91

In case of non-fulfilment of obligations by the convicted, the probation service first verifies whether the working conditions are not met and immediately makes the report and presents it to the prosecutor.

If the convicted during all the time assigned to perform the work in the public interest or in the interest of an association, fulfils all the assigned obligations, the subject itself near to which is performed the work, at the end of the working time provides the convicted with a certificate over the working hours and the dates of its fulfilment. This confirmation serves to the convict to make it part of the file of his execution of criminal judgments held by the prosecutor, but also of the supervision, in order that later the convicted is called not convicted for the purposes of judicial status.

The role and procedural position of the Probation Service during the

supervision on r the execution of “probation” provided by article 64 of 65 of

the Criminal Code The Criminal Code of the Republic of Albania, Article 64 provides that “The

imprisoned convicted may be released on bail, from serving a sentence only for

specific reasons, if with his behaviour and performance shows that the sentence

has been served the purpose of his education, so as to have suffered:

- Not less than half of the sentence imposed for criminal offenses.

- Not less than two-thirds of the sentence imposed for crimes with punishment

measures up to five years in prison.

- Not less than three-quarters of conviction for crimes sentence of five to

twenty-five years imprisonment.

In the measure of the suffering sentence is not calculated the time gained by

amnesty or pardon

The bail is not allowed to convicted with repeated intentionally committed crimes

The bail is revoked by the court, when the convicted for a criminal offense

committed intentionally, during the term, commits another offense intentionally

applying the provisions for penalties union.

Article 65 “it is not allowed the bail for the convicted to life imprisonment. Only in exceptional cases the sentenced to life imprisonment may be released

on condition when: He has served not less than twenty-five years of imprisonment, and during the

punishment has had excellent behaviour and is appreciated that the purpose of punishment is to achieve his education.

Judicial practice regarding bail is rich for those courts that have jurisdiction in institutions of criminal decisions executions. The definitions “special reason” is not provided by the Criminal Code, but it is left in the evaluation of the court. Another element required by this provision is “offender’s behaviour”. This should be seen in the dynamic parameter for all the punishment suffered by the convicted citizen.

In accordance with Article 64 of the Penal Code, the accused has the right to apply for bail in the court of the place of execution of sentence


92

The probation service supervises the executions of the bail decision and, when necessary, cooperates with local authorities and State Police. The probation service may request to the prosecutor a change or some changes of obligations of the person released on bail when he is not able to meet them. “

The person, who has been released on bail, has an obligation to report regularly to the Probation Service throughout the condition. As in other cases of the execution of alternative sentences, the Regulation sets out the procedures to be followed by the Probation Service when the convicted is unable to fulfil the obligations deriving from the bail. In these cases, the Probation Service verifies the failure of the conditions, if such failure of these conditions is the result of objective and subjective factors, notifies the prosecutor of the failure and makes proposals to amend the related obligations and in accordance with the new situation created. That a bail decision is considered that are not implemented the mandatory conditions it is sufficient to determine that the person releases is unable to fail the fulfilment of these obligations, whether all, some or only one of them, that the court has decided.

The way it is executed and supervised an alternative punishment is determined by Article 31/9 of Law no. 10 024, dated 27.11.2008 “On some amendments to Law no. 8331, dated 31.04.1998

The Probation Service supervises the fulfilment of the obligations and conditions set by the court, assist and advise the convicted to fulfil these obligations and assists in its social integration. At the request of the court or prosecutor, the probation service prepares a report on the implementation of the court decision and supervision program. When the convicted does not meet the terms and conditions set by the court, probation service shall report to the prosecutor, which contains information on the circumstances of the breach, the explanations given by the convicted, the assessment and proposal of the probation employee, together with the respective reasons, to define additional obligations, to extend the term of supervision or to change the terms and obligations for the execution of the sentence. “The role of the Probation Service in the execution of an alternative punishment consists in monitoring the fulfilment of obligations in advising the convict for the fulfilment of obligations and helps the convict to reintegrate into society. In the case that an employee of the probation service finds that the prisoner has not fulfilled its obligations, it prepares a report which is submitted to the prosecutor, the latter powers the court to change these terms, conditions and obligations which are defined only by court issuing the decision and seeking back for suspension or extension of the suspension of the execution.

4. Probation service reports Evaluation reports, as a rule, are drafted at the request of the prosecutor or the

court. However, in special cases, the Probation Service prepares and presents


93

evaluation reports mainly, to report an event out of the routine supervision on the alternative punishment. While the final report on the overall progress of execution of sentence of the convicted is drafted at the initiative of the Probation Service and documents, inter alia, the performance of the core functions of the service “alternative sentencing supervision”. This report forms the basis for the prosecutor to issue a special decision on the performance of alternative punishment.

5. The application of alternative penalties for minors One of the constitutional principles of the Criminal Code is about humanity

that regarding Minors finds the most direct expression. The special protection that enjoy the minors, their right be protected from

violence, abuse, exploitation, their exploitation for tiring work that can harm their health. Half penalty sentence for a committed offense, the exclusion from life imprisonment. Within the alternative penalty in Albania since September 2007, are being applied alternative penalties, mainly for minors. In this legal initiative the Court of Tirana is the one that has made the most progress in this direction, it has had a good collaboration with UNICEF and non-profit organizations. UNICEF has undertaken to assist the Albanian authorities in the adoption of national laws and international conventions and on the other hand is taking care of some minor who are sentenced to community service work.

UNICEF has so far identified 14 host centres, private companies and state-owned companies, which are ready to welcome such minor convicted. Their host capacity is 2 people and all the emphasis is on the quality and not quantity. Alternative penalty applies to those juveniles who have committed minor offenses and where there are some mitigating circumstances. As a result of this initiative is judged to start addressing two of administrative measures for juveniles, which are at a very high efficiency, mainly made possible by the actual legislation. One of the alternatives is to work in community service and the second is what is called the mediation between the victim and offender to resolve the conflict without going in criminal situations. “Working in community service, which is provided in law is possible to be given by the courts.

Treatment in these cases is multidisciplinary ranging from psycho-social evaluation to vocational training. Work is one of the elements, but it is on the function of education and is based on the Labour Code, which provides easy jobs for this category. Work in helping the community is done strictly and is performed 3-4 hours per day.


94

Conclusions

It is very difficult to make an accurate assessment of how the implementation

of alternative sentencing is going on in Albania as we are still at an early stage of development of these alternatives. Seeing the positive effects that these types of punishments have on the convictedhimself, society and family as well as seeing the statistics rising is fair to assume and expect that there will be an increase in the application of alternative sentences.

We should always keep in mind the great role that the Probation Service will have in implementing more efficient alternative sentencing. The reports of the probation service employees form the basis of assessment of the convicted with alternative sentencing, also these reports somehow determine the activity of the Court Prosecutor, the steps to be followed until the completion of the alternative punishment.

In granting a sentence intended not only to punish persons who commit offenses but also the rehabilitation and preparation of these persons to reintegrate in the community after serving their sentence, something is almost achieved entirely through alternative sentencing.

One of the goals of alternative sentencing is to cut costs, and at the moment this goal is achieved because the entire contingent that is currently serving an alternative punishment is a potential contingent of prison convicted.

However, we should expect that after a certain period of alternative sentencing, where we have what to compare, where is studied recidivism and to see the social life later on of the subjects who underwent alternative punishment that could become a comparison of positive and negative parts of concluding that alternative punishments are or are not more effective than prison sentences

Bibliography

1. The Constitution of the Republic of Albania 2. The Penal Code of the Republic of Albania 3. Criminal Procedure Code of the Republic of Albania 1. Prof. Dr.. I.Elezi, Prof. S. Kaçupi. Prof. Ass.Dr M.Haxhia, Commentary of the Criminal

Code (the general part ), Tirana 2009 (updated and supplemented with additions and changes made to the legal reforms of 2001, 2003, 2004, 2008 as well as case law).

2. Prof. Dr.. I. Elezi, “Criminal Law of the Republic of Albania”, Tirana, 2002. 3. Elezi I., “ Criminal Law (Special Section)”, Tirana 2005. 4. Islam H., A. Hoxha, I. Panda, “Criminal Procedure”, Editions Morava, Tirana 2010. 5. Hysi V. “Criminology”, Tirana, 2006. 6. Shtino Nj. “Forensic Psychiatry”, 2005. 7. Mucha Sh. “Criminal Law,” The General part “Tirana 2007. 8. “Legal Life” no. 1 Tirana March 2009 H. Islam “Execution of alternative sentencing and

probation service.”


95

9. “Juridical Tribune”, 2004, no. 46, H. Bano “Execution of Prison Sentences”. 10. “ Juridical Tribune “ 2004, no. 47 K. Traja “System Characteristics of Fundamental

Rights”. 11. “ Juridical Tribune “, 2005, no. 55, H. Islam “Alternatives to imprisonment”. 12. Decision No. .. 302, date 25.3.2009 to the adoption of the Regulation “On the

organization and functioning of the probation service and the establishment of standards and procedures for supervising the execution of alternative sanctions”

13. Probation Service Bulletin 2010, published by the General Directorate of Probation 14. Manual application of imprisonment Alternatively measures, © OSCE Presence in

Albania, 2010, 15. http://www.dpbsh.gov.al


96

RÈGLE DE TAYLOR ET POLITIQUE MONÉTAIRE

DANS LA ZONE UEMOA

Prao Yao SÉRAPHIN Enseignant-Chercheur à la Faculté des Sciences

Economiques et de Développement à l’Université Alassane Ouattara de Bouaké (Côte d’Ivoire) E-mail : [email protected].

Abstract: In this study, we build a model showing the way the Central Bank of The

West African States (CBWAS) fix his interest rates, by means of the monetary policy rule. It is a question of leading an analysis on the adequacy of the monetary policy of the CBWAS with Taylor’s rule. The results obtained from the annual data (from1960 to 2003) inform that Taylor’s rule, in the initial version, presents a weak explanatory power of the behavior of the authorities of theWest African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU). In spite of this weak explanatory power, Taylor’s rule could however constitute an additional reference of appreciation to be considered in the system of decision of the central bank.

Keywords: WAEMU, Taylor rule, Monetary Policy, Central Bank reaction function J.E.L. Classification:E52, E58, E61.

1. Introduction Au cours des années 1960 et 1970, les débats sur la discrétion et les règles

entourant la conduite de la politique monétaire ont opposé les keynésiens partisans de la première solution aux monétaristes favorables à la seconde, plus précisément à une croissance de la masse monétaire à un taux constant, indépendamment de l'état de la conjoncture. Par exemple, pour Barro et Gordon (1983) « dans les politiques monétaires discrétionnaires, les autorités monétaires sont toujours soupçonnées par les agents privés de vouloir faire de l’inflation, un instrument pour stimuler l’activité ». Pour réduire ce biais inflationniste, Rogoff (1985) propose l’adoption de règles actives de comportements pour les autorités monétaires.

Les points de vue sur la question se sont rapprochés au cours des années 1980 et 1990 et l'on s'accorde aujourd'hui sur les deux principes suivants: 1) il est préférable que la conduite de la politique monétaire obéisse à une règle ; 2) celle-ci doit être suffisamment souple pour permettre non seulement de réaliser la stabilité des prix à moyen terme, mais aussi d'atténuer les fluctuations de l'activité.

L’étude des règles de politique monétaire a connu un regain d’intérêt depuis la proposition d’une règle de détermination du taux d’intérêt par Taylor (1993). Depuis cet article fondateur, l’idée de modéliser la fonction de réaction ou la stratégiedes banques centrales sous la forme d’une équation simple reliant le taux d’intérêt nominal à un petitnombre de variables économiques, en général l’inflation et l’activité, a connu un succès croissant. Ce dernier s’expliquant en partie par sa


97

faculté à reproduire des caractéristiques essentielles de modèles plus larges utilisés en pratique par les banques centrales (Clarida et al. 1999) avec une remarquable économie de moyens: l’expression la plus simple du modèle ne comporte que quatre équations linéaires.

Une telle représentation suscite un intérêt parmi les macroéconomistes, y compris chez les économistesdes banques commerciales qui font profession de commenter les actions de la banques centrales. A cet égard, il est vrai que l’utilisation de règles de politiquemonétaire par les banques centrales, à des fins de communication externe comme de guides pourl’action, suscite de sérieuses réservesSvensson(2003) pour une critique de leur utilisation, néanmoins,une règle de Taylor estimée à partir de la chronique de taux à court terme peut être utile pour unebanque centrale, à la fois pour rationaliser ex postl’élément systématique de son comportement passéet pour répondre aux évaluations de sa réactivité que lui retournent les central bankwatchers.

Ce papier propose d’analyser l’adéquation de la politique monétaire de la BCEAO à la règle de Taylor. Il s’agit de vérifier dans quelle mesure la politique monétaire de la BCEAO a respecté la règle de Taylor. L’objectif principal de cette étude est d’analyser l’adéquation de la politique monétaire de la BCEAO à la règle de Taylor afin de savoir si elle peut être une fonction de réaction de la Banque centrale. En harmonie avec la vocation initiale de l’équation proposée par Taylor, l’objectif de cette étude est à la fois descriptif et normatif:

- il s’agit dans un premier temps, de vérifier si la politique monétaire de la BCEAO peut être résumée par une règle simple de politique monétaire active combinant un objectif d’inflation et de production;

- il s’agit dans un deuxième temps de donner un outil de décision supplémentaire aux autorités monétaires lequelrenforcerait ainsi leur transparence et leur crédibilité.

La suite du travail est organisée de la manière suivante. La deuxième section présente la littérature théorique et empirique. La troisième section présente un sommaire résumé de la politique monétaire de l’Union ainsi que l’évolution de quelques variables clés de la règle de Taylor pour quelques pays de l’Union.

La quatrième section présente l’approche méthodologique de l’étude et la construction des données du modèle. La cinquième section discute les résultats empiriques. Ladernière section revient en conclusion sur les résultats de l’étude et en tire les implications en termes de politiques monétaires.

2. La revue de la littérature théorique et empirique

2.1. La littérature théorique

La littérature théorique sur les règles monétaires est foisonnante. Elle distingue deux catégories de règles, à savoir, les règles d’objectif et les règles


98

d’instrument. Les premières permettent de lier les variables-objectif à leurs niveaux cibles. Elles sont obtenues en minimisant la fonction objectif de la banque centrale et permettent d'apprécier l'opportunité des interventions de la banque centrale, en indiquant les marges de fluctuation admissibles de la variable-objectif autour du niveau cible. Les principales règles d'objectif rencontrées dans la littérature sont celles de Hall (1984) etSvensson (1999). Hall a proposé une règle de ciblage du niveau des prix visant à stabilisergraduellement le chômage autour de son taux naturel et le niveau des prix autour de la cibleétablie. Quant à Svensson, il propose une règle de ciblage de la prévision d'inflation. Dansun régime de ciblage de la prévision d'inflation, la banque centrale s'appuie sur les prévisionsd'inflation et compare ensuite le taux d'inflation anticipé avec le taux d'inflation ciblé. Sesinterventions sont ajustées en fonction de l'écart entre les deux, de manière à ramenerl'inflation anticipée à un niveau proche de l'inflation cible. Les secondes c’est-à-dire, les règles d'instrument permettent de lier les instruments de politique monétaire (taux d'intérêt) aux variables-objectif (inflation, production). Il s'agit enparticulier de la règle de taux d’intérêt de Taylor ou la règle de base monétaire de McCallum (1997),qui sont des méthodes théoriques ou empiriques pour atteindre la cible d’inflation ou la ciblede production. D'ailleurs, l'essentiel de la recherche économique en matière de ciblaged'inflation a été consacrée à la spécification de telles règles ou à les tester sur les données dedifférents pays. Dans sa formulation la plus simple, la règle de Taylor peut être exprimée de la façon suivante:

(1) Où , et désigne le niveau cible du taux d’intérêt directeur ;

la valeur d’équilibre de ce taux d’intérêt ; la variable exprimée en termes réels ; le taux d’inflation en glissement annuel ; la cible correspondant à ce

taux d’inflation ; d’inflation ; le logarithme de la production effective en termes réels ; le logarithme de la production potentielle en termes

réels ; l’écart de production. De nombreuses variantes de la règle de Taylor ont été élaborées ces dernières

années. Levin, Wieland et Williams (1999) font intervenir un taux d’intérêt retardé dans leur version. Selon eux, l’ajout de cette variable retardée participe à la réduction de la volatilité de la production, de l’inflation et des taux d’intérêt dans les quatre modèles qu’ils examinent. L’équation qu’ils retiennent est ainsi spécifiée:

(2)

Où représente le degré de lissage. Un autre important prolongement des travaux de Taylor est celui proposé par

Ball (1999).D’après cet auteur, la règle devrait inclure le taux de change dans le cas d’une petite économie ouverte et suggère la formulation suivante:

(3)


99

Où est le taux de change nominal observé (une hausse de la valeur de cette variable équivaut à une dépréciation de la monnaie) et est le taux de change nominal d’équilibre. Dans ce modèle, Ball définit comme le taux d’inflation de long terme, ce qui exclut les effets passagers des fluctuations du taux de change. G. Sachs (1996) a développé une autre version de la règle de Taylor en introduisant les anticipations de l’inflation, une règle reformulée sous la forme “forward-

looking”, c’est-à-dire, prospective.

2.2. La littérature empirique

La littérature empirique sur la règle de Taylor est riche et variée. Les formes bien sûr diffèrent d’un pays à l’autre en fonction des spécificités et des contraintes propres liées à chaque économie. Larèglede Taylorafaitl’objetdeplusieurs travauxempiriquesdansbeaucoupdepayssurtout dans les pays développés où plusieurs études font autorité.

2.2.1.Dans les pays développés

La règle de Taylor a, depuis la deuxième moitié des années 90, connu un certain nombre d’adaptation par les banques centrales à travers le monde. Les travaux de Frédérique Sibi (2000), sur l’expérience de la Banque Centrale Européenne (BCE), ont mis en exergue une fonction de réaction, estimée sur la période 1990:T1-1998:T4, qui renseigne un poids élevé accordé à l’inflation compte tenu de sa politique de ciblage de l’inflation. Toutefois, ces résultats ont également montré l’importance de la production ou sa croissance comme une variable clé dans la conduite de la politique monétaire de la BCE, sans toutefois pouvoir déterminer si cette dernière y constitue un objectif implicite ou un indicateur de l’évolution des tensions inflationnistes.

Dans le cas de l’Allemagne, Clarida, Gali et Gertler (1998) ont évalué le comportement de la BUNDESBANK au cours de la période 1985-2004, en retenant l’hypothèse de lissage du taux d’intérêt. Se basant sur les mêmes hypothèses,AdrienVerdelhan(1999) ainsiqueJean-StéphaneMésonnieretJean-PaulRenne(2004)ontdéduit une « règle » de type Taylor qu’une Banque Centrale Européenne (BCE) fictiveaurait suivie depuis la création du SME (1979-2003). Elle accorderait de l’importance aussi bien à l’inflation qu’à l’activité économique.

En général, les travaux dans la zone euro (Verdelhan [1999], Sibi [2002], Mésonnieret Renne [2004]) arrivent à la conclusion selon laquelle la politique monétaire y est bien représentée par des règles de Taylor simples, en ce sens que les taux de Taylor calculés sont très proches des taux de marché.

Dans le cas Canadian, Srour (2001) trouve que la Banque Centrale du Canada (BCC)agit en ayant un comportement de lissage du taux d’intérêt. Lestravaux empiriquesdeFtiti(2006)ont abouti à deux conclusionsintéressantes. D’unepart,ilsont montréquelaBanqueCentrale dela Nouvelle Zélande (BCNZ)adopteune règle monétaire de typeTaylor. Pour l’auteur, la BCNZ utilise


100

des données courantes concernant le taux d’inflationetlegapde production tout enadoptantlelissagedutauxd’intérêt.D’autrepart,Ftiti (2006) proposedeconsidérerletaux dechangedansla function de réaction dela banquecentrale,étant donnéquecette variable includes informations additionnelles sur l’allure futurede l’inflationqui ne sontpas captéespar cettedernière même si cette variable n’est pas significative danssonmodèle.

2.2.2. Dans les pays africains

Si les travaux empiriques sont légions concernant les économies avancées, lalittératureéconomiquerenseignetrèspeudetravaux surlarèglede TaylorenAfrique.Parmi les rares auteurs qui se sont penchés sur le cas des économies africaines, citons AbdallahetAl(1998),Tenou(2002), Okot(2008).Concernant l’Ouganda, Abdalla et al. (1998) modélisent les taux d’intérêt decourt terme, et ne trouvent pas une bonne adéquation avec les taux de Taylor. Toujours dans le cas de l’Ouganda, se basant sur des données trimestrielles sur la période 1988Q1-2006Q2, Okot (2008) cherche à savoir si la conduite de la politique monétaire par la Banque d’Ouganda suit une fonction de réaction modifiée des anticipations d’inflation de la courbe de Phillips néokeynésienne. Ces derniers résultats confirment ceux d’AbdallahetAl(1998): les taux de Taylor divergent de ceux pratiqués par la Banqued’Ouganda.

Dans le cas de la Tunisie, en s’appuyant sur des données trimestrielles de 1997 à 2011, Rima Lajnaf (2013) trouve que la règle de Taylor peut s’adapter à la Banque Centrale Tunisienne.

Dans le cas des pays de la Communauté Economique et Monétaire de l'Afrique Centrale (CEMAC), ChristianK.Nguenanget al(2009),sur la basedesdonnéestrimestriellesde1986à 2006,indiquentquelaBanquedesEtatsdel’AfriqueCentrale(BEAC)procèdepar lelissagedutaux d’intérêt.Enoutre,elle accordeunpoidsplusimportantàla stabilitédes prixqu’àl’activité économique. Ces résultats sont confirmés dans le cas de la République Démocratique du Congo par les études de Jean-Louis KayembewaKayembe et Gérard Mutombo Mule Mule (2012) pour le compte de la Banque Centrale du Congo (BCC). En prenant comme référence la règle de Taylor et en utilisant les données trimestrielles 2001: T1-2012-T2, ces auteurs aboutissent à des résultats suffisamment fiables pour que cet outil d’ajustement du taux d’intérêt directeur de la BCC puisse être soumis au Comité de Politique Monétaire pour validation en tant que fonction de réaction de la BCC.

Dans le cas des pays de l’UEMOA, Tenou(2002) a fait une approximation acceptable ducomportementdela BCEAO.A l’aide des données trimestrielles de 1991 à 1999, cette estimation, qui donne la fixation des taux d’intérêtdelaBCEAO,tientcomptedesvariableséconomiques fondamentales,à savoirl’écartd’inflationdu différentieldel’inflation, dugapde productionet dutaux d’intérêtdécalé. Les résultats obtenus tant sur des données annuelles que sur des


101

données trimestrielles montrent que la règle estimée décrit relativement bien le comportement des taux du marché monétaire.

3. La politique monétaire de l’UEMOA et l’évolution des variables de Taylor

3.1. L’évolution de la politique monétaire de l’UEMOA

L'appartenance à une union monétaire intégrale depuis plus de 50 ans constitue une source majeure de convergence des effets de la transmission monétaire dans les pays de l'UEMOA. Cette union qui est définie comme un ensemble d'arrangements institutionnels qui déterminent entièrement la politique monétaire appliquée dans les différents pays membres, aquatre caractéristiques principales.

Premièrement, la parité entre le franc CFA et le franc français (aujourd’hui l’Euro) est fixe mais ajustable dans le but de prévenir l'inflation;

Deuxièmement, les avances de la BCEAO aux Trésors nationaux sont limitées à 20 % des recettes fiscales de la dernière année;

Troisièmement, les réserves en devises étrangères sont centralisées par la BCEAO, chaque pays membre étant tenu de céder à celle-ci jusqu'à 65 % de ses devises étrangères ; les réserves de change de la BCEAO sont déposées dans un compte d'opérations ouvert auprès du Trésor français;

Quatrièmement, le Trésor français s'engage à mettre à la disposition de la BCEAO les quantités de devises dont elle aurait besoin en cas de difficulté ; en contrepartie de la garantie accordée au franc CFA, la France est membre du Conseil d'Administration et du Conseil des Ministres, les deux instances qui définissent la politique de la BCEAO. Chaque pays membre a une voix dans chacune de ces deux instances.

Dans l’UEMOA, la politique monétaire durant les années post-indépendances a été globalement axée sur la gestion de la monnaie et la défense de la parité fixe entre le FCFA et le franc français.

Depuis 1963, la politique monétaire dans les pays de l'UEMOA a connu trois phases dans son évolution. La première phase, de 1963 à 1973, est caractérisée par la poursuite de bonnes performances économiques, un contrôle très étroit de l'Institut d'Emission par une direction française et une politique monétaire orthodoxe dont le principal objectif est la préservation de la valeur interne et externe de la monnaie. La deuxième phase, de 1975 à 1989, est marquée par la première réforme d'après indépendance (1973-75) et le transfert à Dakar (Sénégal) du siège de l'Institut d'Emission (1978). Cette réforme a redéfini les objectifs de la politique monétaire.Désormais, on a par ordre de priorité, la monnaie au service du développement, la promotion et la mobilisation de l'épargne et la stabilité monétaire. L'africanisation complète de la gestion de l'Institut d'Emission est intervenue au cours des années 1970 et 1980. Elle est clôturée par la deuxième


102

réforme intervenue en 1989. La réforme de 1989 qui inaugure la troisième période, a consacré un réaménagement complet du dispositif de gestion de la monnaie et du crédit. Appliqué progressivement depuis octobre 1989, ce nouveau dispositif s'articule autour de trois principales exigences qui sont:

- la réduction du rôle de la monnaie centrale au profit d'une mobilisation accrue de l'épargne intérieure,

- l'abandon graduel des mécanismes administratifs au profit de moyens d'action plus simples et plus incitatifs, et enfin,

- le renforcement de la surveillance bancaire avec notamment l'institution d'une structure supranationale de contrôle, la Commission bancaire de l'UEMOA.

La troisième phase: à partir de 1993. A compter d'octobre 1993, les autorités monétaires ont décidé l'application du nouveau dispositif de gestion monétaire qui marque l'abandon total, par la Banque Centrale, des instruments de contrôle administratif. On note la mise en œuvre des mécanismes de marché qui comportent trois volets: le marché monétaire par adjudications d'enchères régionales, le système des réserves obligatoires, le régime des accords de classement. La dévaluation du franc CFA en 1994 est l'événement majeur de la troisième période tant, la fixité du taux de change du franc CFA par rapport au franc français semblait être un trait institutionnel de la Zone Franc et de l'UEMOA.

3.2. L’évolution de quelques variables

Une analyse de l’évolution des variables clés de notre modèle estprésentée dans cette section. Les graphiques suivants représentent le profil d’évolution de l’ensemble des variables qui déterminent selon la règle de Taylor, l’évolution des taux d’intérêt. On remarque que toute élévation durable du niveau de la croissance (PIBGA) se traduit par une élévation de la croissance potentielle (HPGA) et inversement. L’output gap et l’inflation à part quelques sous-périodes évoluent en sens inverse.


103

Figure 1: Le PIB et le PIB potentiel au Benin

Source: Graphique élaboré à l’aide du logiciel RATS

Figure 2: Le PIB et le PIB potentiel de la Côte d’Ivoire



104

Figure 3: Croissance et croissance potentielle en Côte d’Ivoire

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

PIBGACI HPGACI


Figure 4: Croissance et croissance potentielle au Sénégal

-12

-8

-4

0

4

8

12

16

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

PIBGASENE HPGASENE



105

Figure 5: Croissance et croissance potentielle au Benin

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

PIBGABENIN HPGABENIN


Figure 6: Inflation et output gap pour la Côte d’Ivoire



106

Figure 7: Inflation et output gap pour le Sénégal


4. La méthodologie et la construction des données du modèle Cette section présente l’approche méthodologique de l’étude, la construction

des variables. Après avoir passé en revue les différentes variables, nous présentons la spécification retenue pour le modèle.

4.1. L’approche méthodologique de l’étude

Pour étudier l’adéquation de la règle de Taylor aux économies, plusieurs auteurs ont proposé diverses modélisationsthéoriques et empiriques qui rivalisent de pertinence. Les études deKamgna, Y.S. et al(2009) pour la BEAC et celles de Tenou (2002) pour la BCEAO ont adopté des méthodologies intéressantes avec une version augmentée de la règle initiale de Taylor. Mais elles ne sont pas effectuées avec les soins statistiques nécessaires. Par exemple, les tests sur la précision et de stabilité du modèle n’ont pas été effectués. Notre étude efface ces lacunes et retient la version initiale de la règle de Taylor. Pour vérifier la robustesse de la règle de Taylor, nous avons adopté une approche intéressante. Premièrement, pour la précision du modèle, nous avons eu recours à l’erreur quadratique moyenne ou RMSE (RootMean Square Error).Deuxièmement, comme tous les modèles servent à des fins d’analyse de politique ou de prévision, nous avons prêté une grande attention à leur adéquation statistique. Sims (2001) soutient qu’il est important d’examiner cet aspect lors de l’évaluation des règles de politique monétaire, ce que la plupart des études antérieures ont négligé de faire. Selon les tests Paco


107

Goerlichissus de la procédure URAUTO du logiciel économétrique RATS, quelques variables utilisées de quelques pays (ECCI de la Côte d’Ivoire et les trois du Mali) ne semblent pas être stationnaires. Mais cela ne pose aucun problème car selon Huchet-Bourdon, M. (2003), les fondements économiques, nous incitent, lors de l’estimation de la règle de Taylor, à opter pour l’introduction des variables en niveau puisque ce sont ces variables que les autorités monétaires surveillent pour manipuler le taux du marché monétaire.La méthodeéconométrique retenue dans l’ensemble de cette étude est l’estimation de la règle simple de Taylor (1993).

4.2. La construction des variables

• Les sources des données Pour l’analyse empirique, nous utilisons essentiellement des données

annuelles. L’étude porte sur la période allant de 1960 à 2003. La source principale des données utilisées reste le CD-ROM du FMI (2006). L’étude porte sur les pays de l’UEMOA à l’exception de la Guinée-Bissau pour indisponibilité de données.

• La présentation des séries Pour compléter les variables de la règle originale de Taylor, plusieurs auteurs y

ont apporté des modifications, en calculant différemment les variables de référence, ou en ajoutant d’autres variables, tels que le taux de change, la masse monétaire. Mais pour le cas de la zone euro, Sibi (2002) après introduction du taux de change euro-dollar dans sa fonction de réaction, conclut que la BCE ne réagit pas aux fluctuations du taux de change. Vu que les pays de l’UEMOA ont signé un accord de coopération monétaire avec la France, nous excluons le taux de change dans notre modèle.

* La notion du PIB potentiel Le PIB potentiel est défini ici comme la production macroéconomique

réalisable sans une accélération de l’inflation au-delà de son niveau courant. Ce PIB potentiel peut s’interpréter comme la croissance tendancielle de l’économie et s’obtient à partir de méthode de lissage sur le PIB, notamment le filtre de Hodrick et Prescott (1980 et 1997). Le filtre de Hodrick et Prescott est une méthode de décomposition entre cycle et tendance, c’est-à-dire une méthode d’extraction des composantes tendancielle et cyclique d’une série économique. On considère la décomposition de la série de PIB en volume de la façon suivante:

Avec:

La composante tendancielle du PIB ;

La composante cyclique ou conjoncturelle ; Le filtre de Hodrick et Prescott permet cette décomposition en minimisant:


108

Si alors on a une composante conjoncturelle nulle et le PIB et le PIB

tendanciel sont confondus ( ) ;

Si alors on a une tendance linéaire, c’est-à-dire une croissance

tendancielle à taux constant ( ) ;Surles données annuelles, on pose généralement

* L’écart de production ou output gap L’écart de production (output gap), c’est-à-dire la différence entre la

production observée et le niveau de la production potentielle permet d’évaluer les pressions qui s’exercent sur l’appareil de production. Il est noté

Lorsque cet écart est positif, cela indique que le niveau de la production effective est plus élevé que le niveau soutenable. Il y a donc une pression inflationniste. Mais lorsque l’écart est négatif, c’est que le niveau de la production effective est plus faible que celui de la production potentielle. Des pressions déflationnistes se font sentir. La croissance du PIB potentiel (ou taux réel neutre) en glissement annuel (GA) en % sera notée

et la croissance du PIB en volume en

glissement annuel (GA) en % par * L’inflation annuelle, la cible d’inflation et l’écart d’inflation L'inflation telle que mesurée par l'indice des prix à la consommation reflète les

variations du coût d'un panier de biens et services acheté par le consommateur moyen. Le contenu de ce panier peut être fixe ou être modifié à intervalles réguliers notamment chaque année. L'inflation est un phénomène correspondant à une augmentation générale et durable des prix. Elle se traduit par une baisse durable du pouvoir d'achat de la monnaie. Il est noté ici

L’inflation cible est l’objectif d’inflation à atteindre à un horizon donné. Lorsque le taux d'inflation est pris pour cible, la règle de décision fait en sorte qu'il réagisse à l'écart de production. En conséquence, la variance du taux d'inflation est proportionnelle à celle de l'écart de production. Dans le cadre de cette étude, un taux de 2 % ( ) a été fixé comme cible explicite d'inflation pour l'indice des prix à la consommation (IPC).L’écart à la cible d’inflation est la différence entre l’inflation actuelle

observée et l’inflation cible que nous notons . * Les taux courts, les taux réels neutres et les taux de Taylor


109

Pour caractériser l’évolution de la politique monétaire, nous utilisons la série des taux d’intérêt à court terme (les taux directeurs de la BCEAO). Le taux d’intérêt à court terme est noté dans notre cas. Le taux réel neutre est le taux d’intérêt réel réalisant l’équilibre de long terme. Il est noté dans notre étudeoù .Une difficulté de la règle de Taylor réside dans la détermination du taux d’intérêt réel neutre. Habituellement, on identifie ce taux à la croissance potentielle de l’économie ou croissance tendancielle de l’économie, c’est-à-dire la croissance soutenable sans inflation excessive. On pose alors . Les taux de Taylor ou taux simulés sont représentés par

4.3. La spécification du modèle

La règle de Taylor mefinit alors:

(4)

A long terme, la cible d’inflation est atteinte et l’output gap est nul, et le taux d’intérêt nominal est tel que le taux d’intérêt mefi est égal au taux mefi mefini, c’est-à-dire à la croissance potentielle. La politique monétaire est donc mefini vis-à-vis de l’activité à long terme. Par contre, à court terme, avec la règle de Taylor, la politique monétaire, est active. Trois cas sont au moins possibles:

- Si et augmente alors les autorités monétaires augmentent , avec Dans ce cas, la politique monétaire est restrictive.

- Si et diminue alors les autorités monétaires diminuent , avec Dans ce cas, la politique monétaire est accommodante.

- Si augmente alors les autorités monétaires augmentent . Le mefinitio reflète l’aversion des autorités monétaires pour l’inflation par

rapport aux fluctuations de l’activité. C’est également la pondération attribuée par les autorités monétaires à la stabilité des prix. Concernant ce mefinitio traduit de mefinit les autorités monétaires veulent réduire les fluctuations de l’économie par rapport à l’inflation. C’est également la pondération attribuée par les autorités monétaires à la stabilisation de la production. Si les autorités avaient un ciblage uniquement sur l’inflation, alors par definition, on aurait et


110

5. Interprétation des résultats

L’évaluation de l’adéquation des politiques monétaires à la règle de Taylor

peut se concevoir de deux manières: - L’évaluation par simulation où les différents coefficients affectant les

variables de la règle de Taylor sont donnés. On compare alors, par simulation, les taux courts historiques aux taux de Taylor simulés (calculés) ;

- L’évaluation par estimation des coefficients de la règle de Taylor comme un modèle à plusieurs variables. Dans ce cas, l’hypothèse d’une stricte conformité à la règle est alors levée et plusieurs possibilités sont envisageables.

5.1. Evaluation par simulation

Dans l’ensemble, l’adéquation des politiques monétaires à la règle de Taylor semble plutôt médiocre: les écarts entre les taux observés et simulés sont élevés et le sens d’évolution des taux est faiblement reproduit par le modèle.

Figure 8: Evolution du taux court, du taux neutre et du taux de Taylor du Benin



111

Figure 9: Evolution du taux court, du taux neutre et du taux de Taylor en Côte d’Ivoire


Figure 10: Evolution du taux court, du taux neutre et du taux de Taylor au Sénégal


Il semble que la règle de Taylor soit davantage adaptée au cas Togolais. On

assiste globalement à une convergence des taux courts vers les taux de Taylor avec des degrés et des rythmes variables selon les pays.Sur toute la période, à l’exception de la Côte d’Ivoire et du Togo où jusqu’en 1965, les taux de Taylor sont supérieurs aux taux courts, les taux de Taylor et les taux neutres sont nettement inférieurs aux taux courts: les politiques monétaires ne sont pas alors accommodantes. Sur toute la période, les taux courts n’ont pas connu de variations importantes. Dans la zone UEMOA, les politiques monétaires sont donc restrictives.


112

Pour dépasserles appréciations qualitatives sur l’adéquation des politiques monétaires à la règle, il est indiqué de construire un indicateur définissant le niveau de précision du modèle. Il est recommandé, dès lors que l’on raisonne sur un modèle qui n’est pas estimé ou lorsque l’on évalue un modèle estimé sur une autre période que sa période d’estimation, de se référer à l’erreur quadratique moyenne ou RMSE (RootMean Square Error). Soit , l’écart entre le taux court observé et le taux simulé, le RMSE est donné par:

Pour disposer d’une information sur l’évolution dans le temps de la précision

du modèle, les statistiques ont été calculées sur des périodes glissantes d’une durée de 10 ans arbitrairement choisie. L’exercice est réalisé à la fois pour le taux neutre et la version complète de la règle de Taylor.

Figure 11: Précision de la règle de Taylor simulée: beta1= Beta2= 0.0



113

Figure 12: Précision de la règle de Taylor simulée: beta1= Beta2= 0.5


Les calculs confirment les indications fournies par les premiers graphiques. Le

Burkina-Faso et le Mali se détachent nettement, surement en raison de la période d’estimation. Pour les autres pays, la précision est globalement la même à l’exception du Togo. Il apparait en outre que pour la plupart des pays, la règle de neutralité monétaire est aussi précise que la version complète de la règle de Taylor.

5.2. Evaluation par estimation et tests sur longue période

Le modèle contraint estimé est le suivant:

(5)

Avec L’estimation du modèle permettra d’obtenir la série des taux courts estimés

selon la règle de Taylor. Le taux court estimé est donc logiquement obtenu en ajoutant le taux neutre à la variable d’écart estimée. Précisons que l’introduction d’une constante est d’ordre technique, et non théorique. Car le coefficient de la constante n’a pas d’interprétation économique dans notre modèle dans la mesure où cette variable est exclue du modèle théorique. Il pourra à la limite être interprété comme le niveau moyen d’une ou des variables manquantes ou comme une erreur de mesure systématique sur certaines variables. On peut penser qu’avec la cible d’inflation constante à 2% sur l’ensemble de la période, l’écart à l’inflation cible est sans doute surévalué en moyenne. Un coefficient négatif (respectivement positif) pour la constante pourra s’interpréter comme un objectif d’inflation supérieur (inférieur) à 2% ou encore comme un biais accommodant (restrictif) de la politique. Pour juger du pouvoir explicatif du modèle de Taylor vis-à-vis des


114

politiques monétaires, nous utilisons ici la statistique d’écart type estimé comme ci-dessous indiquée:

Avec

Figure 13: Evolution du taux court, du taux de Taylor et de la variable mesurant l’écart entre taux court et taux neutre au Benin


Figure 14: Evolution du taux court, du taux de Taylor et de la variable mesurant l’écart entre taux court et taux neutre en Côte d’Ivoire



115

Figure 15: Evolution du taux court, du taux de Taylor et de la variable mesurant l’écart entre taux court et taux neutre au Sénégal


Même les versions estimées de la règle de Taylor n’apparaissent pas

meilleures par rapport à la simple simulation de la règle. • Test sur les paramètres et .

1960-2003 Benin Burkina Côte d’Ivoire Mali Niger Sénégal Togo

2,42 2,69 6,87 2,93 3,48 2,68 5,81 DW 0,24 0,25 0,058 0,25 0,16 0,36 0,13 Fisher F 157,69 85.14 17,46 28,54 76,05 139,28 37,73 Signif 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000

2,72 2,71 0,63 1,11 3,04 2,29 0,18

T-stat 4,37 3,81 0,34 1,14 4,14 3,62 0,13

-1,004 -0,95 -1,16 - 0,96 - 0,90 - 1,13 - 1,22

0,0566 0,075 0,19 0,12 0,07 0,06 0,14

Test T-Stat -17,708 -12,682 -5.900 -7.405 -11.972 -16.637 -8.6819

Signif 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000

Test T-Stat -26,52 -19,345 -8,4377 -11,253 -18,594 -23,9872 -12,221

Signif 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000

-0,0395 0,038 -0.021 - 0,13 0,077 -0,014 0,055

0,073 0,11 0,15 0,20 0,08 0,10 0,11

Test T-Stat -0,5376 0,33 -0.1380 -0,6759 0,9464 -0,1393 0.5041

Signif 0,59385 0,7394 0,89094 0,5100 0,3497 0,88986 0.6170

Test T-Stat -7.339 -4.0651 -3.3822 -3.1328 -5,153 -5.0713 -4,0162

Signif 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 Fisher F 362,311 231,545 39,260 73,00 175,117 310,834 87,994 Signif 0,00 0,000 0,00 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000


116

La valeur des écarts types estimés indique que le modèle est le plus adapté aux cas du Benin, du Mali, du Sénégal, du Burkina. Le test de significativité globale de Fisher permet de conclure pour les 7 pays à l’apport des variables ECINF et GAP dans l’explication des taux courts. La constante est significative (variable Signif< 0,05) pour tous les pays à l’exception du Togo, de la Côte d’Ivoire et du Mali. Les coefficients sont moyennement élevés (de 1,11 à 3,04) traduisant sans doute le biais restrictif moyen des politiques monétaires dans ces pays au cours de la période.

Le paramètre est négatif dans tous les pays et significativement différents de 0 au seuil de 5%. Ces résultats sont en contradiction avec les fondements théoriques du modèle. Mais pour le Benin, le Burkina, le Mali et le Niger où ces coefficients sont supérieurs à -1, il est possible de maintenir une indexation positive des taux courts sur l’inflation. Le paramètre n’a pas le signe positif attendu dans tous les pays. Le bénin, la Côte d’Ivoire, le Mali et le Sénégal ont des coefficients de signe négatif. Mais à l’exception du Benin et du Niger, les estimateurs sont peu précis (écarts types élevés) de sorte qu’on ne peut pas rejeter pour un seuil de 5% l’hypothèse de nullité. Pour le Burkina, le Mali, la Côte d’Ivoire, le Sénégal et le Togo, ces coefficients ne peuvent pas être considérés comme significativement diffèrent de 0,5 en raison de l’imprécision des estimateurs.

Pour analyser la stabilité globale du modèle, nous avons utilisé le test du COSUM de Brown, Durbin et Evans. Le test s’appuie sur une série d’estimations et de résidus récursifs où la période d’estimation n’est pas fixe mais croissante de

1,……,r avec La dernière estimation porte donc sur l’ensemble de la période de référence. La statistique du test repose sur une somme de résidus récursifs normalisés qui doivent sous hypothèse nulle de stabilité

des coefficients du modèle se situer à l’intérieur du corridor .On constate que la statistique du test sort du corridor pour 5 des 7 pays étudiés. C’est seulement dans les cas du Benin et du Mali, que la statistique du test ne sort pas du corridor. Les modèles sont donc globalement instables. La dynamique des coefficients de réaction et présente une forte variabilité. Il n’y a pas de réelles convergences vers les valeurs de Taylor (0,5) ou vers des niveaux communs. Les conditions d’exercice de la politique monétaire n’étaient pas favorables à une forte adéquation avec ce type de règle monétaire (évolution des instruments, contrainte des accords de coopération).

6. Conclusion La présenteétude a cherché à savoir s’il y a adéquation des politiques

monétaires de la zone UEMOA à la règle de Taylor entre 1960 et 2003. Autrement dit, dans quelle mesure, ces pays ont pu se conformer en matière de politique monétaire à la règle de Taylor.Elle avait également l’ambition de tester la


117

robustesse des coefficients de Taylor et la précision du modèle. Les principaux résultats obtenus de cette étude permettent de mettre en relief trois enseignements. Le premier est que la règle de Taylor, dans sa version initiale, ne cadre pas avec la politique monétaire de la BCEAO. Le deuxième est que le modèle n’est pas globalement stable sur toute la période d’étude. Le troisième est que la BCEAO a mené une politique monétaire restrictive.La faible adéquation de la règle de Taylor à la politique monétaire de l’Union n’est pas alarmante. Il ne s’agit que d’une rationalisation ex-post de l’évolution des taux: les données immédiates ne sont souvent pas connues ou, au mieux, provisoires. Les calculs dépendent pour partie de la valeur estimée de la croissance potentielle, de sorte que la règle de Taylor permet davantage de « post-dire » l’histoire que d’aider le banquier central dans la prise de décision en politique monétaire. En outre, notre étude n’inclut pas les variables retardées du taux monétaire comme KossiTenou (2002), qui montre que de façon générale, les variables retardées du taux du marché monétaire, du gap de production et du différentiel du taux du marché monétaire expliquent 90% de l’évolution du taux du marché monétaire. Larèglede Taylorpeut donc être considérée commeun outil indicatif de la politique monétaire de l’Union étant donné sa grande simplicité.

Les références bibliographiques Abdalla, Y.A.,Abuka, C.A., etA.Wandera (1998). «Indirectmonetary policy in Ouganda:

Themonetary authority’s reaction function», Research Departement of the Bank of Ouganda, december.

Ball, L. (1999). « Policy Rules For Open Economies». In: Monetary Policy Rules, sous la direction de J.B. Taylor, Chicago, University Of Chicago Press, p.127-154.

Barro,R.J.,GordonD.B. (1983). «Apositivetheoryof monetarypolicyinanaturalrate model»,Journal ofPolitical Economy, vol.91, p.586-610.

Barro, R.J,GordonD.B. (1983). «Rule,discretion andreputationinamodelofmonetary policy»,JournalofMonetaryEconomics, vol.12, p.101-121.

Clarida, R., Gali, J., Gertler, M. (1999). «Monetary Policy Rules in Practice: Some International Evidence», European Economic Review, vo.42, n°6, p.1033-1067.

Clarida, R., J. Gali et M. Gertler (1998). « Monetary Policy Rules in Practice: Some International Evidence», European Economic Review, vol. 42, p.1003-1067.

Ftiti Z. (2006). « Règle de Taylor dans le cadre du Ciblage d’inflation:Cas de la Nouvelle Zélande », Troisièmes doctorialesMacrofi, 10 et 11 mai 2007, Faculté des Sciences Economiques de l'Université Lumière Lyon II.

Goldman S. (1996). « The International Economic Analyst », volume 11, issue 6 Juin 1996 Hall, R. E. (1984). « Monetary Strategy with an Elastic Price Standard ».In:Price Stability

andPublic Policy, Kansas City, Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, p. 137-159. Hodrick, R.J. and Prescott, E. C.(1997). « Postwar U.S. BusinessCycles: An Empirical

Investigation», Journal of Money, Credit andBanking, Vol. 29, n°1. Hodrick, R.J. and Prescott, E. C. (1980). «Post-war U. S. Business-Cycles: AnEmpirical

Investigation», Working Paper, Carnegie-Mellon University. Huchet-Bourdon, M. (2003). « Fonctions de réaction des banques centrales européennes et

convergence», Revue d’Analyse Economique, vol. 79, n°3, p. 297-326, Septembre 2003. Kamgna, Y.S., Nguenang C., Talabong H. et I. Ould. (2009). « Fonction de réaction de la


118

banque centrale et crédibilité de la politique monétaire: cas de la BEAC», Direction des études, BEAC.

KayembewaKayembe, J.L., Mutmbo Mule Mule G. (2012). «Estimation de la règle de Taylor et mécanisme d’ajustement du taux d’intérêt directeur par la Banque Centrale du Congo», Direction générale de la politique monétaire et des opérations bancaires, direction de la recherche et des statistiques.

Lajnaf R. (2013), « Règle de Taylor et conduite de la politique monétaire en Tunisie », International Journal of Innovation and AppliedStudies, Vol. 3, n°1,p. 271-283.

Levin, A., V. Wieland et J. C. Williams (1999). « Robustess of Simple Monetary Policy Rules under Model Uncertainty». In:Monetary Policy Rules, sous la direction de J.B. Taylor, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, p. 263-299.

McCallum B.T. (1997a).«Issues in the design of monetary policy rules», NBER, Working Paper, n°6016.

McCallum B.T. (1997b).«The alleged instability of nominal income targeting», NBER, n°6291.

Mésonnier J.S., Renne J.P. (2004). « Règle de Taylor et politique monétaire dans la zone euro », Bulletin de la Banque de France, No 45.

Okot N. (2008). « Can a rule based monetary policy work in a small liberalised economy? The case of Uganda », Bank of Uganda Working Paper, BOUWP 10/08.

Rogoff K. (1985). « The Optimal degree of Commitment to Monetary Target», QuarterlyJournal of Economics, vol.100, p. 1169-1990.

Sibi F. (2002). «Règle de Taylor et application à la zone-euro », Thèse de doctorat, Université Paris I Panthéon Sorbonne et CNRS, Paris.

Sibi F. (2000). «Règle de Taylor et application à la zone-euro »,TEAM–PôleFinance,Université Paris I.

Sims, C. (2001). « A Review of Monetary Policy Rules», Journal of Economic Literature, vol.39, p. 562-566.

Srour, G. (2001). « Why Do Central Banks Smooth Interest Rates? », document de travail n° 2001-17, Banque du Canada.

Svensson, L. E. O. (2000). « Open-Economy Inflation Targeting», Journal of International Economics, vol. 50, p. 155-183.

Svensson L.(1999). « Inflation targetting as monetary policy rule »,Journal of Monetary Economicsn° 43,pp. 607-654.

Taylor, J. B. (1993). « Discretion versus Policy Rules in Practice», Carnegie –Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, vol.39, p. 195-214.

Taylor, J. B. (1993). « Introduction». In: Monetary Policy Rules, sous la direction de J.B. Taylor, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, p. 1-14.

Tenou K. (2002). « La règle de Taylor: un exemple de règle de politique monétaire appliquée à la BCEAO», Notes d’Information et Statistiques, BCEAO, No 523

Verdelhan, A. (1999). « Taux de Taylor et Taux de Marché de la zone euro», Bulletin de la Banque de France, n°61.


119

EU LEGISLATION IN THE FIELD OF ICT

AND ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS – FULL IMPLEMENTATION IN ALBANIA

PHD candidate Alketa MUKAVELATI Board Member Electronic and Postal Communication

Authority –AKEP, Albania

Abstract: Albania’s aspiration to join the European Union flourished since the beginning of the 90s, immediately after the collapse of communist regime. The fact that for Albanian people the idea of change was associated with joining the big European family is more than significant. The only way of getting rid of the tragic isolation and the deep economic backwardness was linked with the European integration through building up the democracy and market economy. The European Union intervention to assist our country, initiated the EU institutions indications with a view to approximating our country’s parameters in compliance the model this institution provided. Since that time, Albania had a model to be applied in order to be part of this institution in the future. One of the primary requirements of the EU was the transformation of our country into a sustainable democracy, the basis of which had to be strong institutions supported by a developed and stable economy, with reference to competition and free trade of goods. The fulfilment of the two criteria above, together with the core obligation to adopt the acquis communitaire, set the fundamental precondition to enable the inclusion of other countries to the EU. This does not necessarily mean copying the European countries legislation, but implementing the fundamental principles of this legislation, adapting them to the conditions of the aspiring country. The Stabilisation Association Agreement (SAA) signed on 12 June 2006, which replaced the Interim Agreement on trade and trade related matters, stimulated the engagement of the Albanian Government in implementing an ambitious agenda towards the local legislation harmonisation with that of the EU. Part of this active process was also the legislative reform in telecommunications sector or as it is differently referred to, the electronic communications.

Keywords: European Union, electronic communications, institution, principles.

Introduction Telecommunications or electronic communications constitute a very important

sector of the Albanian economy. The term electronic communications is a new term (approved by the EU in 2002) and comprises all types of electronic communications – telecommunications, data transmission and television broadcasting – which shall be carried forward by the same networks. This term replaced the term “Telecommunications” in the Albanian legislation, applied in line with the law until August 2008, Law No. 8618, dated 14/06/2000 “On telecommunications in the Republic of Albania”, amended, and repealed by Law No. 9918, dated 19/05/2008 “On electronic communications in the Republic of Albania”.


120

The applicable Law in the Republic of Albania, pursuant to which the telecommunications sector relations were regulated in 2006, the same year of SAA signature, was the Law No. 8618, dated 14/06/2000 “On telecommunications in the Republic of Albania”. This law sanctioned legal arrangements which guaranteed the implementation of the Telecommunications Development Policy Paper in the Republic of Albania, approved with Decision of the Council of Ministers No. 288, dated 18/06/1999. The imperative of this paper was the implementation in the most practical manner of the EU directives in the telecommunications sector at the time. The European Union had adopted a number of policies, drafted to ensure the European liberalisation of telecommunications services and infrastructure. The Albanian Government was aware of the fact that the EU membership was conditioned also by the compatibility with directives that these policies implement. For this

reason, the Government defined as its main objective in the telecommunications sector that in the near future the telecommunications regulatory framework in the Republic of Albania shall be entirely based on the EU policy principles and Albania shall adopt this framework as soon and as practically as possible with the existing and future directives. The main objective was decided to be the opening of telecommunications services to the private sector. The purpose of the Law No. 8618 was the protection of the public interests and the establishment of a transparent regulatory environment, promoting investment and free competition.

By signing the SAA in 2006, the objectives of the Albanian Government clearly focused on the need of harmonising and adapting the sector legislation with the EU Directive, by planning to work towards the implementation of electronic communications legislation pursuant to the EU directives, strengthening the Telecommunications Regulatory Entity capacities and role.

To this end, in the framework of approximating the Albanian legislation with acquis communautaire in the field of electronic communications, the following legal initiatives were undertaken:

• Amendment of the Law No. 8618, dated 14/06/2000 on telecommunications in the Republic of Albania with the aim of fully approximating the Directive 1999/5/EC, dated March 9, 1999 on radio and end telecommunications equipment and joint recognition of their conformity;

• Approval of the new document of telecommunications development in the Republic of Albania, which shall fully approximate the Directive 1999/5/EC, dated March 9, 1999 on radio and end telecommunications equipment and joint recognition of their conformity;

• Improvement of the regulatory framework for licensing new operators into a fully liberalised electronic communications market;

• The drafting and implementation of the secondary legislation (procedures, licensing regulations and the supporting regulatory framework).


121

The telecommunications in the Republic of Albania

Pursuant to the Government initiative on the liberalisation of the

telecommunications market in the country, on November 6, 2006 the Assembly approved the Law no. 9637 “On some amendments and additions to the Law no. 8618, dated 14/06/2000 “On telecommunications in the Republic of Albania”“.

The additions and amendments to the material law enabled the legal possibility for licensing and operation of different undertakings also in the urban and interurban areas apart from the rural areas, thus marking a new development in the telecommunications market by approving on 26/06/2007 of the first licence to “NISATEL” sh.p.k for the construction and use of the public telecommunications network and the provision of publicly available fixed telephony in urban areas and specifically in Vlora Municipality.

Pursuant to these changes TRE, with Decision of the Steering Board No. 353, dated 02/04/2007 approved two regulations:

Regulation “On granting Individual Licences of Class II “Telecommunications public operators for the provision of publicly available fixed telephony service”“.

Regulation “On granting the General Licence “Telecommunications service provider”“ (amended by DSB No. 380, dated 23/07/2007).

These two regulations in particular and the licensing institutional policy in general were oriented towards the fulfilment of legal obligations, having as their main principles:

Rational and effective administration of the Radiofrequency spectrum with the aim of optimising the use of bands in accordance with the National Frequency Plan – NFP and the ITU and CEPT recommendations;

Encouragement of telephone and Internet access penetration and the increase of quality of service;

Facilitating the administrative procedures of licensing and meeting the deadlines;

Establishment of regulatory procedures for enabling licensing in the spirit of adopting the reform supporting technology neutrality and convergence;

Taking care to include the principles and requirements for maintaining and ensuring non-infringement of national security.

Application of these legal acts and bylaws produced immediate results as regards the market liberalization. Thus, the market structuring from the licensing point of view during the first 6 months of 2007, is presented as follows:

I. Individual Licence of Class I for the provision of fixed and mobile telephone service on a national level:

▪ Albtelecom – Telecommunications Public Operator for the provision of fixed telephone service.


122

▪ Albanian Mobile Communication (AMC) – Telecommunications Public Operator for the provision of mobile services.

▪ Vodafone Albania - Telecommunications Public Operator for the provision of mobile services.

A. ▪ Eagle Mobile - Telecommunications Public Operator for the provision of mobile services. (not yet in operation, but conditioned to start provision on 13/03/2008, at the latest).

II. Individual licence of Class II for the provision of public telephone service in rural, urban and interurban areas, beeper services, personal mobile global communications services and any other services that use the radiofrequency spectrum.

Upon approval of Regulation “On granting the Individual Licences of Class II “Public telecommunications operators for the provision of public fixed telephone service”“ on 02/04/2007, the register of Public Telecommunications Operators in Rural Areas was named the register of Public Telecommunications Operators for the Provision of Public Fixed Telephone Services.

III. The general licence for the provision of Internet access for data transmission services, for value added services, for public pay phones (coins or prepaid card) and for all the other services not mentioned in Class I and II:

The licensed undertakings for the provision of Internet service reached the number 32. These undertakings, even though not all of them active in the market, are:

1 ISP Backbone Internet Provider, 15 National ISPs, 2 Regional ISPs, 9 Local ISPs and 5 PoP ISPs.

8

25

43

51 50 5255

61

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Number of Public Telephone Operators providing service in Rural, Urban,

and Interurban areas over the years

Lic. te dhena Lic. te hequra Lic. ne fuqi


123

With reference to the EU market, the opening of the telecommunications

market to competition has acted as a catalyst in a sector previously reserved to oligopolies. In order to keep pace with these changes, the European decision-making bodies have approved the relevant legislation on the same wavelength with the technological progress and the market needs. These developments have encouraged the approval of a new regulatory framework for electronic communications, whose main purpose is to strengthen competition by making it easier to enter the market, thus stimulating investment in the sector.

The “Framework Directive” constitutes a part of the “Telecommunications Package”, designed to remodel the existing telecommunications regulatory framework in order to promote competition in the electronic communications sector. This new regulatory framework comprises this Directive and four other specific Directives, respectively:

Directive on the authorization of electronic communications networks and services (the “Authorization Directive”)

Directive on access to, and interconnection of, electronic communications networks and associated facilities (the “Access Directive”)

Directive on the universal service (the “Universal Service Directive”); Directive on the processing of personal data (the “Privacy and Electronic

Communications Directive”).


124

Added to this list, there is also the recent Decision on a regulatory framework for radio spectrum policy (“Radio Spectrum Decision”). The “Telecoms Package” was amended in December 2009 by the two Directives “Better law-making” and “Citizens’ Rights” as well as by a body o European Regulators for electronic communications.

The objective of this Directive is to establish a harmonized framework for the regulation of electronic communications networks and services. It also includes certain aspects of terminal equipment to facilitate access for disabled users. It contains horizontal provisions serving the other measures: the scope and general principles, basic definitions, general provisions on the national regulatory authorities (NRAs), the new concept of significant market power, and rules for granting certain essential resources such as radio frequencies, numbers or rights of way. In response to the convergence of technologies and the need for horizontal regulation of all infrastructures, the new framework is no longer limited to telecommunications networks and services but covers all electronic communications networks and services. This includes fixed-line voice telephony, mobile and broadband communications and cable and satellite television. On the other hand, the content of services delivered over electronic communications networks, such as broadcasting content or financial services, is excluded, as is telecommunications terminal equipment to facilitate access for disabled users.

This Directive requires the adoption of national measures in terms of

access to electronic communications with a view to respecting the fundamental

rights and freedoms of natural persons.

The legislative reform in telecommunications sector

The Albanian Government, in the framework of the agenda for the

implementation of tasks assigned in the SAA for the telecommunications/electronic communications sector, in 20008 compiled the draft law “On electronic communications in the Republic of Albania”, which was approved by the Assembly of Albania on 19/05/2008 with No. 9918, and is based on the 2002/2003 EU directives and repealed the previous law no. 8618.

The purpose of the law 9918, dated 19/05/2008 on Electronic Communications is to promote competition and efficient infrastructure through principle of technological neutrality in electronic communications and to ensure the right and adequate services in the territory of the Republic of Albania through qualitative services provided by operators/undertakings with efficient cost-oriented prices.

The approval of the Law No. 9918, dated 19/05/2008 “On electronic communications in the Republic of Albania” transformed TRE (Telecommunications Regulatory Entity) to AKEP (Electronic and Postal Communications Authority). AKEP is a public, independent, non-budgetary, legal entity, which exercises its activity in compliance with legislation in force. AKEP in its work and decision-making within its competencies is independent. Pursuant to the abovementioned


125

law, AKEP encourages efficient competition in the provision of electronic communications networks and services through establishing the relevant conditions of an attractive market in the electronic communications field for private domestic and foreign investors. The new Law no.9918, dated 19./05/2008 “On electronic communications in the Republic of Albania” provides that the every undertaking is free to provide electronic communications networks and the provision of electronic communications networks and services when it does not require the use of scarce natural resources, like frequencies and numbering is granted by notifying AKEP, which within only 15 days confirms the notification by allowing the service provision. Undertakings in need for allocation of scarce natural resources (frequencies and numbering), the undertaking shall request the issuance of Individual Authorisation to be issued within 30 days from application in accordance with the legal and sublegal provisions. Mitigation of procedures is one of the novelties of the new law ensuring an attractive market and enabling a fast implementation of an efficient infrastructure of Electronic Communications in the Republic of Albania. The Government aims at bringing the law on electronic communications closer to the latest EU standards.

Upon approval of the Law No. 9918, dated 19/05/2008 “On electronic communications in the Republic of Albania” (2002 EU directive package) Albania implemented the new legal framework of the European Union in the field of electronic communications in 2008. This law imposed the transition to the general authorisation regime for all the electronic communications networks and services.

Upon approval of the Law No. 9918, AKEP assisted by the consultancy company DDL of the project “Development of the Telecommunications Regulatory Framework” worked on the preparation of the new regulatory framework based on two main documents:

“Regulation for the General Authorisation Notification, approved with DSB no. 495, dated 19/09/2008.

“Regulation on Individual Authorisation”, approved with DSB no.510, dated 04.11.2008.

After the approval of these documents work continued for the establishment of: (1) Register of Undertakings who provide electronic communications networks and services and (2) transposition of licences to Individual Authorisations.

By the end of 2008, the Register of Undertakings contained 99 registered undertakings, of which 17 are new undertakings, legal and natural persons. Currently, after the update, the number of undertakings has reached 118.

On 26/12/2008, with separate decisions of the Steering Board all the Licences were repealed and transposed to Individual Authorisations for the use of frequencies, numbers and number series.

The transition from the licensing regime to that of authorisations was transparent and accompanied by the participation and contribution of market players through publication of documents on the webpage of AKEP, consultancies and the seminar organised on 19/12/2008.


126

The Law no. 9918 is based on the EU regulatory framework for 2002 on electronic communications (Directives 2002/19/EC, 2002/20/EC, 2002/21/EC, 2002/22/EC and 2002/58/EC.

But the 2002 Directives have been amended in 2009 by Directives 2009/136/EC and 2009/140/EC. These two directives contain a number of amendments. Many of these changes refer only to adjustment of rules presented in 2002 Directives.

The EU member states shall transpose the new provisions into their national laws until May 2011.

Also, experiences showed that some of the articles of the Law no. 9918 are not fully harmonised with the EU framework and for this purpose, the legislative intervention was deemed necessary. The new Law no. 102/2012, dated 24/10/2012 is fully harmonised with the latest acquis communaitaire (directive 2009/136/EC and directive 2009/140/EC, which amended the 2002 directives). The Law 102/2012 sets forth:

• The shortest time limits for AKEP replies to notifications (article 14) and applications for numbers (article 82);

• Clearer rules for administrative payments received by AKEP, which shall be based on AKEP expenses (article 24, 78, 86 and 117);

• AKEP decisions shall be proportional (article 16 and 34); • Clearer rules for procedures for granting restricted frequencies through public competition (articles 68 and 69), within specific time limits for every step of the procedure and clearer distribution of accountability between AKEP and the Minister; and

• Strengthening the role of AKEP as regards the consumer protection by introducing a procedure for dispute resolution between consumers and undertakings outside the court (new articles 120/1).

Amendments are specifically important since: • The main issue of the 2009 EU regulatory framework is the increased

cooperation at EU level. Albania may not entirely participate to this cooperation, but an additional sentence in article 7, paragraph 1 of the Law obliges AKEP to take into account the relevant recommendations and decisions of the European Commission and the newly established Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC);

• Amendments to article 62 guarantee that the radiofrequency management is a principle neutral to technology and services. Services neutrality means that the users of radio frequency may use the allocated frequencies for any kind of services (e.g. voice, broadband Internet access or multimedia content distribution). Technology-neutrality means that the radiofrequency users may use any kind of technology available (e.g. GSM, UMTS or LTE). The new provisions also include the possible exemptions from these two principles.


127

• Provisions for number portability in principle are extended to all numbers of the National Numbering Plan and in principle the numbers shall be ported within one working day. This requirement emerged from the amended Directive of Universal Service has already been taken into consideration by AKEP in the regulation on number portability.

• The 2009 EU regulatory framework sets forth some provisions for strengthening the consumers’ rights and rights of disabled users.

For example, the initial obligatory period set out in the contract shall not be more than 24 months and also the operator shall provide contracts with a maximum duration of 12 months (article 99, paragraph 3). In cases of infringement of personal data security, the operators shall inform AKEP and the affected subscribers (article 122).

In the framework of completion of secondary legislation pursuant to the Law no. 9918, amended, the Electronic and Postal Communications Authority has taken several decisions to encourage competition and reduce prices in the electronic communications market, among which:

• Regulation on market analysis, approved on July 17, 2009 by AKEP, determines the relevant markets subject to regulation. The list comprises 16 markets in accordance with the EU 2203 recommendation (all markets, except radio television services and international roaming);

• Incremental tariff regulation for calls termination into wholesale mobile market, based on the BU-LRAIC model;

• Retail and wholesale market analysis for leased lines; • Regulatory measures for the implementation of mobile number portability; • Regulation for local loop unbundling of the incumbent operator for full and

shared access; • Market regulation for SMP operators, especially as regards the wholesale

market of access into physical network infrastructure (including shared full and partial access) from a fixed location and the wholesale market of broadband access, by imposing the obligation for transparency non-discrimination (publication of RUO).

Other obligations have been imposed by AKEP in the retail market as regards the minimum leased lines (including specific types of leased lines up to 2Mb/sec), the wholesale market of terminating segments of leased lines and the wholesale market of trunk lines of leased lines.

In addition, there has been progress in defining certain measures for the protection of competition such as the implementation of mobile number portability, decisions on the RIO and the tariff control and their cost orientation (in accordance with BULRAIC). The implementation of carrier selection pre-selection were imposed as obligation for international and national calls.


128

Acknowledging the need to take measures to encourage private investment in infrastructure (including broadband), in line with the practices of regulatory authorities of France and Portugal, AKEP has prepared the map of the existing infrastructure in the form of an electronic atlas, including the existing networks and other passive elements, thus providing orientation to the necessary measures for facilitating their use with a view to extending the NGA network.

The issuance of authorisations to undertakings for the provision of electronic communications public networks and services during 2012was based on the provisions of the new regulation “On general Authorisation” approved with DSB of AKEP No. 1774, dated 02/02/2012, accompanied by the relevant on line application.

The on-line application, based on the conditions of the annexes of the regulation, has enabled the reception of detailed and necessary information on:

• Networks/services provided by the undertaking; • Legal status, accompanied by the NRC extract; • Technology used and communications mediums; • Conditions for the provision of access and service to the subscriber –

standard contract. The on-line application for authorisation to enter the electronic

communications market, among others specifies the undertakings’ contact details, since the application module itself requires a valid e-mail address in order for the undertaking to receive the information to log in “username, password, confirmation code”, acceptance or return for review of the application.

The implementation of this regulation causes the “Register of Undertakings” to be more detailed and organised, thus making it easier to identify the undertakings and the networks/services provided by them.

As to the above, after the application based on the new regulation in the “Register of Undertakings” the number of undertakings that provide electronic communications networks and services in the Republic of Albania is 157 compared with 204 undertakings registered by the end of 2011. This application made it possible to clear the register from unreal undertakings.

The registered undertakings have notified on: - provision of public mobile telephony service, 4 undertakings; - provision of public fixed telephony service 73 undertakings; - provision of public data transfer, 53 undertakings; - provision of value added services, 33 undertakings; During 2012, apart from the work for the fulfilment of the necessary

regulatory framework of the sector, AKEP has worked on the upgrade and improvement of information systems for achieving the objective of passing to e-Authority: provision of on-line services to its consumers and the digitalization of internal procedures of information processing.

By the end of 2012, pursuant to the provisions of the new regulation “On General Authorisation”, approved on 02/02/2012, after the on-line application by


129

the interested parties, the number of undertakings in the “Register of Undertakings” that provide electronic communications networks and services in the Republic of Albania was 157 compared with 204 undertakings registered by the end of 2011. This application made it possible to clear the register from unreal undertakings

The number of active mobile subscribers by the end of 2012 (subscribers who have used mobile services in the last 3 months) reached to 3.5 million, constituting a growth by 14% compared with 2011, and the number of active users per 100 inhabitants was 125%, about the same as the average level in the EU countries.

The growing trend of the average call use that started in 2009 has continued in 2012, and the annual growth was higher than in 2011. The estimate calls consumption has increased with 14-17%, calculated per active user, while the use of SMS has increased considerably with 75%-83%. An active user has made approximately 319 minutes of outgoing calls and has sent about 35 SMS per month.

The increase of competition in the market, the continuous reduction of termination tariffs between operators and the positive effect of the mobile number portability has brought about a continuous reduction in tariffs for mobile services. The number of subscribers of fixed telephony by the end of 2012 suffered a decrease with about 27000 or 8% as compared with 2011. This reduction came as a result of the decrease in the number of Albtelecom subscribers.

Albtelecom has been offering combined packages as regards the fixed telephony, such as: telephony and Internet access. The tariff packages of Albtelecom’s main competitors in the fixed telephony offer a lower monthly subscription rate and lower on-net tariffs as well as integrated packages including telephony, Internet and in some cases TV. With regards to Internet tariffs, Albtelecom and alternative operators have applied considerable tariff reduction and an increase of download capacity and/or increase of speed for the same price.

The development of technology and consumer behaviour with regards to integrated and simple packages (including number of minutes to the monthly fee) and the increase of demand for Internet access has turned the broadband access into the main drive for the development of fixed telephony. The total number of subscribers with broadband Internet access by the end of 2012 reached about 215 thousand, constituting a growth with roughly 24% compared with 2011. The number of broadband subscribers per 100 inhabitants is 7.6% compared with 6.2% by the end of 2011. The number of household broadband subscribers (fixed and mobile) is about 200 thousand or approximately 27% of households. Number of mobile users that use GPRS/EDGE (2.5 G) in 2012 reached about 1.4 million from 1.2 million in 2011, constituting a growth of 15%.


130

Bibliography

1. Law No. 9590, dated 27.7.2006 “On the Ratification of Stabilization Association

Agreement between the Republic of Albania and European Communities and their member States”

2. Law No. 8618, dated 14.06.2000 “On telecommunications in the Republic of Albania” 3. Law No. 9637, dated 06.11.2006 “On some amendments and additions in the Law no.

8618, dated 14.06.2000 “On telecommunications in the Republic of Albania”“. 4. Law No. 9918, dated 19.05.2008 “On electronic communications in the Republic of Albania” 5. Law 102/2012, dated 24.10.2012 “On some amendments and additions in the Law no.

9918, dated 19.05.2012 “On On electronic communications in the Republic of Albania”“. 6. Policy Paper for the Development of Telecommunications in the Republic of Albania,

approved with Decision of the Council of Ministers No. 288, dated 18.06.1999, amended. 7. Policy Paper for Electronic Communications in the Republic of Albania, approved with

Decision of the Council of Ministers No. 322, dated 05.05.2010. 8. Directive 2002/21/EC (Framework Directive) 93 9. Directive 2002/20/EC (Authorisation Directive) 10. Directive 2002/19/EC (Access Directive) 11. Directive 2002/22/EC (Universal Service Directive) 12. Directive 2002/77/EC (Liberalisation Consolidation) 13. Directive 2009/140/EC (Better Regulation Directive) 14. Report on AKEP activity for 2008 15. Report on AKEP activity for 2009 16. Report on AKEP activity for 2012 17. “Regulation on General Authorisation Notification”, approved with Decision of the

Steering Board of AKEP no. 495, dated 19.09.2008. 18. “Regulation on Individual Authorisation”, approved with Decision of the Steering Board

of AKEP no. 510, dated 04.11.2008.


131

THE ENLARGEMENT OF THE EUROPEAN UNION

AND THE IMPACT OF ITS CRISES ON THE WESTERN BALKAN COUNTRIES

PhD Candidate Erjola XHUVANI Tirana, Albania

Abstract: The enlargement of the European Union with the Western Balkan countries

is one of the most important policies of the EU. A carefully enlargement of the Western Balkan countries is in the interest of the EU. The enlargement of the EU by the accession of the Western Balkan countries will contribute to strengthening stability, freedom and prosperity in Europe as a whole. Meanwhile the EU is dealing with the enlargement process; it’s facing also with the financial and economic crises. This paper analyzes the impact of the economic and financial crisis with regard to the Western Balkan countries seeking membership in the EU. It focuses on reduction of the negative influence of the crisis on the economies and improvement of the economic situation of the populations in the WB countries. In the first part of the article will be analyzed the road of enlargement of the European Union towards Western Balkan countries. In the second part of the article will be analyzed the origin and causes of the financial crises in Europe. In the third part will be analyzed the influence of the European crises in the Western Balkan countries and the in the fourth part will be given the findings and conclusions of this article regarding the influence of the European crises in the enlargement with the Western Balkan Countries.

Keywords: European Union, Western Balkans, European crises, European integration, economic crises, enlargement of the EU

1. Enlargement of the European Union towards Western Balkans The enlargement of the European Union by the accession of the Western

Balkan countries will contribute to strengthening stability, freedom and prosperity in Europe as a whole. EU enlargement eastward will be a completion, and not just in geographical terms, of the Union, and will strengthen its borders in Southeast Europe. It would complete the European single market with territory and populations in which European values are widespread and strongly supported. It is especially important that a gradual but foreseeable accession process be offered and guaranteed to all countries concerned. However, future enlargements will concern countries that are at different stages of progress on their road to the EU. Croatia joined the EU on 2013.

When does this Western Balkans enlargement process started? On 21 June 2003, the Heads of State and Government of the European Union (EU) together with the leaders of the Western Balkan countries met in Thessaloniki and reached a consensus on a joint statement, better known as the Thessaloniki Declaration. At


132

the EU-Western Balkans Summit, the Union confirmed its ‘unequivocal support to the European perspective’ of the region and declared that the ‘future of the Western Balkans is within the European Union’. This statement paved the way for a wide range of concrete steps and initiatives aiming at integrating the Western Balkans – Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia1, Montenegro, Serbia and Kosovo* – in the EU1.

In December 2005 the European Council granted the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia the status of a candidate country2. In October 2009 the European Commission recommended to the Council that it open negotiations with the country as well as move to the second phase of implementation of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement; the Commission reiterated its proposals in 2010. However, the Council has not yet concluded its deliberations on the Commission’s proposals, and accession negotiations have not started yet3. Bosnia and Herzegovina still is a potential candidate country.

Since 2010, Montenegro has also been a candidate country for EU membership. Montenegro’s European perspective was endorsed by the Council in June 2006 after the recognition of the country’s independence by the EU Member States. Montenegro submitted its application for EU membership on 15 December 2008. The Commission recommended that the Council should grant Montenegro the status of candidate country and considered that negotiations for accession to the European Union should be opened with Montenegro once the country had achieved the necessary degree of compliance with the membership criteria4. Albania is also a candidate country. It presented its application for EU membership in April 2009. In compliance with the procedures prescribed, a European Commission opinion on the country’s application was presented in November 2010. A month later the European Council endorsed the recommendations contained in the Commission’s opinion. In the 2011 first progress report on Albania’s application, the Commission assessed the fulfillment of these criteria and did not recommend opening EU accession negotiations at this time. In October 2012, Commission recommended that Albania be granted EU candidate status, subject to completion of key measures in the areas of judicial and public administration reform and revision of the parliamentary rules of procedures. Similarly to Albania, Serbia presented its application for EU membership in 2009. Due to a lack of cooperation with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) the process slowed down at the next steps of the procedure. Subsequently, in October 2010, the Council of the European Union requested that the Commission submit its opinion on this application. The arrest and

1 http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/countries/detailed-country-information/albania/index_en.htm 2 http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/countries/detailed-country-information/former-yugoslav-republic-of-macedonia/index_en.htm

3 A major topic of discussion is the so-called name issue between the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Greece. Although this is a bilateral question that is not due to be solved as part of the accession process, it is of the greatest importance as a major identity issue for both countries.

4 The Commission’s 2011 progress report on Montenegro reaffirmed the necessity for the country to fulfil some of the following key criteria mentioned in the opinion on Montenegro’s accession in 2010.


133

transfer to the ICTY of Ratko Mladić and Goran Hadžić were crucial steps for moving the application procedure forward and removed a major obstacle on the European path of Serbia. This step is especially important with respect to the regional cooperation between the Western Balkan countries and the process of reconciliation, of which the region is in strong need. A second significant obstacle was the lack of dialogue between Belgrade and Pristina: the establishment of dialogue has been made, which in itself marks significant progress, though what the results will be is not yet clear. The 2011 Commission’s opinion recommends that the Council should grant Serbia the status of candidate country, a recommendation based on the progress achieved in reforms, displayed cooperation with the ICTY and regional reconciliation, and on the understanding that Serbia will re-engage in the dialogue with Kosovo and move swiftly to the implementation in good faith of agreements reached to date. On December 2010 the Council of Ministers give a positive decision on Serbia status. In 2008 the EU repeated its willingness to assist the economic and political development of Kosovo through a clear European perspective. On October 2009 Commission issues communication 'Kosovo-Fulfilling its European Perspective. One year later, on January 2012, Commission launches visa liberalization dialogue with Kosovo and on October of the same year the Commission its feasibility study for a Stabilization and Association Agreement between the EU and Kosovo. Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo are potential candidates for EU membership. Both countries have to make additional efforts to complete the state-, nation- and institution-building process5. Significant for the European perspective on these two countries is the permanent interest of the European institutions in assessing the progress made in political and economic reforms and in measuring their adaptability and adjustment to the EU in all aspects of future membership. However, for countries involved in disputes over borderlines or afflicted with absence of good neighborly relations, it might be difficult to fulfill the Copenhagen criteria for EU membership

The Western Balkans represent a complex and diverse reality. The region is important for Europe as a single entity bridging Central Europe with the South-East, stretching to the borders of Europe at the Mediterranean Sea. However, the Western Balkans require specific approaches and instruments to handle the diversity of problems and dilemmas which every society or sub-region faces on its way to full membership of the EU. Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia have the most stable institutional systems region-wide, but the chances of those countries for membership are still quite diverse. These two countries face particular problems of political nature that hamper their EU accession. Skopje needs to sort out the “name issue” with Athens, which proves to be an important identity dispute for both

5 Since 1995 an international presence under UN mandate, namely the Office of the High Representative (OHR) has been in place in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Peace Implementation Council Steering Board has set objectives and conditions to be met for the closure of the Office of the High Representative. Kosovo has been recognised by 81 UN Member States, including 22 EU Member States.


134

countries. Apart from having embraced the agenda of partnership with the United Nations war crimes tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), Belgrade needs to cope with the major national strategic issue of its attitude to the Kosovo status quo.

A country without fixed borders and neighborhood relationships could not pass the test of the Copenhagen criteria for EU membership. The conflicts of the 1990s have brought deep communal and institutional destruction as part of a general process of de-modernization throughout the region. As a consequence, significant parts of the Western Balkan region have lost their potential for national re-construction (or nation-building) and the ability for communal self-governmental, as in the cases of BiH and Kosovo.

Meanwhile regarding Albania and Montenegro, these countries need most concentrated efforts at institutional development to achieve the standards of EU membership in observable future. Albania still battles with the effects of a half-century isolation and needs to speed up the institutional and economic aspects of societal modernization, which is at its initial stage. Montenegro has to strengthen its representative institutions, to take care of the transparency of relationships between state and society and to reduce the scope of organized crime and high-level corruption in public life and in society in general.

In its approach towards the EU membership of Eastern Europe, Brussels has failed to recognize the strong developmental aspect of the accession process of many post-communist countries. The accession approach towards Bulgaria and Romania had treated law and order, judiciary and institutional efficiency as issues of strictly institutional nature, while important societal, cultural and political aspects of those issues have been largely neglected. Based on this experience, two alternative options seem possible for Brussels in its strategy of enlargement towards the Balkans. Escapism is the first one – the Commission could issue a communication, simply stating: “When you, the countries of the Balkans, mature in a natural manner to the level of membership, we’ll invite you”. The second option

involves development and improvement of the accession. instruments on the part of the EU – adjustment of the accession process to the diverse realities of the Balkans and the East of Europe in general. The EU is an indisputable success as an agent of modern development, demonstrated in the South of Europe in the last three decades. In the case of the Balkans, this experience has to be also extended to the process of pre-accession, of preparation of the diversified Balkan realities for full integration into the European mainstream. Apart from having achieved different levels of institution-building and local political elites’ capacity to deal with the agenda of accession, the Western Balkans represent a diversified reality in many important aspects of societal and communal life. Western Europe has long ago completed the process of nation-building (with all the positive and negative consequences of that) and has been resolving bloody disputes among nations by applying a new set of principles that made the EU possible as a post-national construct. The nation-building process is not completed in the Balkans, though, and in the region we face communities at different levels of development and


135

fulfillment of their national identity and nation-building agendas. Uneven communal and national development in terms of culture, modernization, economic improvement and institution-building bids an unstable environment in the region of the Western Balkans in the observable future. That might impede the EU accession process, if it is strictly framed in the narrow administrative criteria of the Brussels bureaucrats, overwhelmed by form to the expense of substance. More attention should be paid to the question what price Europe will pay in neglecting the opportunities of the Western Balkans’ integration into the European mainstream. It is obvious that the old criteria for membership – with all their comprehensive standards and procedures – will not sufficiently facilitate the process of Balkan accession. Raising the standards and the requirements for the candidate countries will prove inappropriate and inflexible.

2. Origin and causes of the financial crises in Europe Countries with free market economy in the second half of 20-th century

reached greater economic development. U.S., in the previous century, dominated in the world in all spheres, especially in economy. In the second part of the same century high level of economic development reached East Asian countries, Japan and China. In the Latin American continent political turbulence belonged to the past, while their main preoccupation of the late 20th century was economic growth and prosperity. The Eastern part of Europe, realizing the transition period and main aim was membership to great European family. Causes of the global financial crisis related with one of the types of mortgages known as “subprime Mortgages”. These types of loans were given to people who had no credit settlement skills. In September of 2008 such bad loans in the U.S. had 25 million risky loans that totaled the amount of 4.5 trillion USD. Risky loans were given by banks and then these were sold to large financial firms like Merrill Lynch, Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and Citibank. These firms in the form of guarantees provided credit (mortgage backed securities) then sold them everywhere in the world. In more favorable terms of lending and the collapse of regulatory restrictions on getting credit, according Th. Friedman, three factors led to the deregulation of the banking system in the U.S.: devaluation risk, the moral decline of business and privatization of profits and distribution of loss. Later crisis had not only the character of liquidity, but it took the character of a financial crisis and in the end the economic character. What we can freely say is that the essence lies in the banks and financial markets, because the roots of crisis are financial and monetary. The financial crisis hit not only financial and banking markets. Consequences of it were in more sectors. Real economic sector was one that was most severely affected, especially the banking system, economic growth, consumption, employment, energy and environment.

U.S. financial crisis began to be felt in Europe, often in the first quarter of 2008. She first began to be felt in the UK, Switzerland, France and Germany. The


136

spread of the crisis in Europe was something that was not expected, rather it well known but not known what kind of intensity would be. Even as in the past the old maxims still applies: “When the U.S. sneezes, Europe catches a cold.” One of the most important gauges of economic activity, i.e. GDP, during the crisis in EU member countries and the euro area decreased or slowed significantly, whereas in 2009 it recorded a negative result.

Table 1. GDP at market prices

67

Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 European Union

2.7 0.2 -1.6 2.3 1.5 2.4

Euro Zone 2.3 1.9 0.9 0.8 1.2 1.3 Although in late 2009 seemed to the world economy, especially that of the

United States slowly improved and overcome the crisis, in Europe, it deepened even more compare with the 2008. The financial crisis hit nearly all EU member states, but the euro area countries were those who felt most of this crisis. Serious problem was the huge debt that had Greece which exceeded over 350 billion USD. The budget deficit had spent 13% of GDP, which had passed the limits of the Maastricht Convergence. Despite best efforts of the member states of the euro area to help Greece out of economic collapse, it was given assistance in the form of packages, yet it also this year, probably the next few years will be faced with a recession from which they could hardly emerge from the crisis. Spain also has economic difficulties recently. It is the fourth economy in the EU ranks. Allowances that were given to Spain, will hopefully help the economy recover, otherwise deepening crisis in this country will not only rattled the euro area, but also beyond. International Monetary Fund warned Spain that can score even deeper recession than previously expected, from minus 1.7 percent this year and minus 1.2 percent next year. IMF also published evaluation of the Spanish budget deficit this year and next year will exceed the expectations of the Spanish government. Spanish deficit this year will probably be seven percent, while next year 5.9 percent of GDP. Ireland also found in non-enviable situation. That, immediately after Greece, sought financial assistance from the ECB and other international financial institutions. In France forecasting for 2012 year is that it ends with a minimal growth of 0.3%. Economic difficulties are apparent in the UK where prices increased steadily. Since 2007 the ratio of the EUR =USD rate so continually became too severe. If this year had a record and 1EUR = 1.60 USD, in 2009 this ratio was 1EUR = 1.35 USD. This report in July 2012 is 1EUR = 1.21 USD. In July 2012 the European Central Bank in order to stimulate the economy lowered to 0.75% interest, which is 10-year record in the history of the euro. 6 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/search_database 7 Source Eurostat, statistics, search database 2012


137

Indeed Europe is facing a financial crisis that `s never been before. Unemployment in the euro zone reaches the highest average rate at 11%, while Spain in July, 2012 reached a record number of 25.1%. Thoughts like that of Greece's exit from the euro area and the abandonment of the use of the euro as national currency are frequent. But there are other opinions such as that of economist Robert Mandel, described as “the father of the euro”, the emergence of Athens from the common currency area would take place 20 years beyond. In an interview for Greek newspaper “To Vima”, Canadian Nobel laureate said that “If Greece back to drachma and devalues national currency by 50%, will not solve the problem of colossal debt. Besides, would have more time to arrive at today's level of living”.

Table 2. Share of EU exports in the world exports

8 (%)

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 European Union (27) 17.3 17.4 16.7 17.2 16.0 16.2 16.6 Canada 4.6 4.3 3.9 3.5 3.4 3.6 3.5 USA 12.3 11.9 11.2 11.8 11.4 11.6 11.8 Japan 7.7 7.3 6.7 6.5 6.9 6.8 6.8

The table 2 clearly shows that the export share of EU countries in world

exports in the years of crisis diminishes, so that by 17.4% in 2007 as in 2010 it totaled. New York Institute of Economic Thought for the dire economic situation, inter alia, says: “We believe that at the moment Europe is heading blindly into a disaster of incalculable proportions, 16.0%.”. However the EU has undertaken a number of activities aimed at exceeding the difficult financial situation. So the euro-zone members signed a supplemental agreement, as was the case with fiscal agreement or the establishment of funds as was the case with the European Fund for Financial Stability (European Financial Stability Facility). Fiscal agreement provides constitutional limitation of the amount of budget deficit and public debt for each member country and those aspiring to join the Monetary Union. European Financial Stability Fund represents the fund which provides unlimited power for liquidation of the securities markets of the state.

3. The influence of the European crises in the Western Balkan countries

Western Balkan countries, Albania, Macedonia, Kosovo, Bosnia and

Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, since the beginning of the transition period and thereafter, showed their interest to join the European Union. Membership process today is a top priority of governments of all Western Balkan countries. Also

8 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/search_database


138

all the countries of WB more than half of their economic cooperation realize with member countries of the EU. WB economies are mostly small and open to the global economy. Economic activities of WB countries are diverse ranging from exchange of goods and services and to the fluctuation of foreign direct investment and financial markets. Since the economic cooperation among member countries of EU and Western Balkan countries is quite intense, it is normal and logical to expect that the European crisis appear and have a negative impact on economic development of these countries. This mostly reflected in the following activities: credit market slowdown, rising prices of products and services, business bankruptcy, increasing unemployment, reducing the value of assets, bad loans increased, reduce the capacity of banks to grant new loans, etc. Some of the Western Balkan countries as Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo and Albania, were initially less affected, because they were less integrated into the global economy.

Table 3. GDP Growth, (Annual %), West Balkan Countries, 2007-20119

Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Albania 5.9 7.7 3.3 3.5 3.0 0.8 Bosnia&Herzegovina 6.8 5.4 -2.9 0.8 1.7 -0.70 Kosovo 6.3 6.9 2.9 3.9 8.2 0.80 Macedonia 6.1 5.0 -0.9 1.8 3.0 -0.27 Montenegro 10.7 6.9 -5.7 2.5 2.5 0.50 Serbia 5.4 3.8 -3.5 1.0 1.8 -0.70

The table top mark GDP of all the Western Balkan countries has decreased on

the period of 2007-2011. Thus, in 2008, Albania has a GDP growth of 7.7% as of this year and by 2011 its GDP has been declining ever, even in 2011, it is only 3.0%. Meantime Albania and Serbia continued growing, though below the high rates prior to the crisis. After the 2009 recession, Bosnia and Herzegovina’s economy slowly continued to gain steam in 2010 and 2011, although the recovery remains fragile10. However, government spending for construction has played an important part in the strong rise of gross fixed capital formation. The slowdown of the Albanian economy in 2012 is associated with negative performance of major trading partners such as Italy and Greece.

The same trend occurred with macroeconomic indicators Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2007 which has a GDP growth of 6.8, while all subsequent years that GDP growth slows, as in 2011 barely manages to be 1.7 %. Kosovo also notes similar results as its neighbors with distinction since 2009, it marks a positive result. In Kosovo in 2012 has fallen to export, remittances decreasing markedly while economic growth is not projected to exceed 3.8%. In 2012 according to the

9 http://search.worldbank.org/data?qterm=GDP+growth&language=EN&format= 10 European Commission, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2011 Progress Report.


139

results in the first quarter of other countries have slower GDP growth or even they have recession. Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia also the culmination of years of global economic crisis faced with numerous economic difficulties. If we compare the growth of GDP of these countries with average growth of GDP in the euro area and EU will see that almost all countries have the greatest increase in all analysis years. Even in 2009 when the euro area and EU have decreased record -4.4% declines in GDP in the Western Balkan countries is small. However, the above-mentioned table can clearly see the impact of global financial crisis and the decline of GDP of member countries of the EU significantly affects the GDP decline in the WB countries.

A very important indicator of economic performance of a country, obviously it is public debt. This indicator in the Maastricht Treaty was the subject of discussion and the decision was taken that the economies of member countries of the EU and those countries aspiring to join the EU, public debt should not exceed more than 60% of GDP own.

Table 4: Central government debt, total (% of GDP)11

Country

name 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Albania 53.9 55.2 61.6 61.0 60.0 60.6 Bosnia & Herzegovina

- 30.7 36.1 39.6 40.6 43.8

Kosovo - - - - - Macedonia 33.3 28.7 32 34 35.0 27.3 Montenegro - 29.0 38.2 40.9 44.0 52.1 Serbia 29.8 27.9 32.6 38.7 45.0 61.5

Recent economic analysts and researchers pay more attention the public debt,

because the causes and roots of the financial crisis is precisely that debt obligation to lenders internal states and external. the average public debt in the euro area and the EU in 2010 and thereafter exceeded specified by the Maastricht economic convergence. The biggest concern is that countries that borrow primarily to cover needs for the functioning of the state and not for capital investment. If these borrowed funds were used for capitalization, to support economic activity which increased employment and stimulated economic growth, the public debt does not pose any greater risk, but if these are used for administrative salaries, payment of pensions or for projects not productive, as is the case in Macedonia, project “Skopje 2014”, then the negative consequences are not avoided. According to recent data from the ECB indicate that the overall financial crisis and recession that has begun to grow in the budgets of most European governments, makes them face

11 Source World Bank 2012


140

huge debts. Greek government debt is now equal to 165 percent of GDP, in Italy the figure marks the 120 percent, 108 percent in Ireland.

4. European Union and Western Balkans after Croatia accession

The entry of Croatia into the EU is a big test of the benefits that European

integration can still bring to a stagnant Balkan country. The other Balkan candidates will pay close attention. Will the inflow of foreign direct investment to Croatia increase? Will EU funds help to create more growth and infrastructure development even though Zagreb’s fiscal space for co-financing is almost non-existent? Will Croatia be relegated to a second-class member state with little or no influence? Much will depend on the Croats themselves. Smart economic policy can seize on new trade and business opportunities inside the EU, turning them into growth and jobs. Smart diplomacy can reinforce Croatia’s ties with her non-EU neighbours (Serbia, in particular) laying ground for future trade and growth across the region. With good strategy and alliances inside the EU club, Zagreb can do a lot to keep the vision of the European Balkans credible and on the agenda. It is in Croatia’s interests to help its neighbours to join the EU as soon as possible, but Croatia could also misuse its seat behind the EU table to score political points, reinforcing new divisions in the region and free riding on the huge credit and political investment behind its own EU membership. If Croatia is unable to leverage the opportunities EU membership brings, it would have wider repercussions for the region. The EU is now ill-equipped to afford another case like Bulgaria or Romania, and failure in Croatia could dramatically slow down further enlargement.

The emergence of a multi-speed Europe has downgraded the value of EU membership, and relegated the Western Balkans to the “outermost circle” of European politics. Dimitar Bechev, Senior Policy Fellow at the European Council on Foreign Relations calls it the “periphery of the periphery – countries that have an important stake in the current debate about the future contours of Europe but no real voice12“. Their economies are closely interconnected with the EU, which is by far the most important source of their financial flows either in the form of foreign direct investment or labour remittances from abroad. More than 90% of the banking sector in the Balkan countries is owned by banks from Austria, Italy, Greece and Slovenia, which have significantly deleveraged their loans and exposure in the face of huge problems at home. Montenegro and Kosovo use the euro, while Bosnia’s and Macedonia’s currencies are de facto pegged to it. Such

12 D. Bechev, “The periphery of the periphery: The Western Balkans and the Euro crisis”, European Council of Foreign Relations, August 2012, http://ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR60_WESTERN_BALKANS_BRIEF_AW.pdf


141

interdependence exposes the region to the economic slump in Southern Europe, and to the ongoing problems in the euro zone.

After a sluggish recovery, Balkan economies are now struggling with a double dip recession, characterized by a decline in outputs and sharp increases in unemployment. Serbia has an unemployment rate above 25%, Macedonia over 30% and Kosovo over 40%. Exports, foreign direct investment and remittances have all been hit in recent years. The World Bank, in its December 2012 report, warned that no other region in Europe is experiencing greater shocks from the on-going crisis. It projected a drop of 0.6% in the combined real GDP of Albania, Bosnia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia for 2012. Such troubles are to a large extent also due to policy failures at home – lack of competitiveness and reforms, strong monopolies with political patronage, and old infrastructure. New sustainable growth needs to be based on accelerated structural reforms, and on major infrastructure projects of regional significance (highways, rail, energy, gas, tourism). The European Investment Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the World Bank will help fund cross-regional infrastructure projects in a joint €30 billion scheme for 2013-14. In the long run, however, additional financing for growth will not be effective unless accompanied by smarter government policies along with tough fiscal adjustment. Austerity might be politically suicidal, as shown by recent protests in Bulgaria. But, according to the World Bank, a continuation of current policies could lead to a vicious cycle of low or negative growth, high debt and even higher risks of social upheaval.

Conclusions The new Balkan approach is a combination of slow EU integration along with a

search for new loans and investment from the East. Last year, Turkey was among the top three foreign investors in Croatia and Serbia, and among the top five in Bosnia. The Serbian government is courting new loans from Russia and Asia as it needs $6 billion this year to service its debt (25% more than in 2012). In addition, state assets in energy and agriculture are being sold to Arab sheiks and Azeri oligarchs. A new bridge over the Danube in Belgrade and 140 km of highways in Serbia are being built by Chinese companies. Such diversification of investment partnerships, now common across the region, reflects larger shifts in the global economy, but also shows a degree of desperation. In any case, it will make the EU a less dominant partner than before. Although the EU is still referred as the “indispensable power” in the region, it might have to struggle more to impose its agenda in the near future. Deeper crisis could bring the Balkans region closer to Europe – but only if the EU keeps its door open and reframes the enlargement agenda in economic terms, as a credible blueprint for sustainable growth and new jobs. More than new strategies, however, we first need to renew something fundamental: the ethos of shared responsibility, of Europe for the Western Balkans and of the Balkan countries for themselves.


142

Bibliography Center for the Study of Democracy. The Response of the Western Balkan Countries to the

Economic and Financial Crisis. Handout. August 2011 European Commission, Commission Opinion on Albania’s Application for Membership of the

European Union, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2010) 680 (9 November 2010), accessed at http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/ key_documents/2010/package/al_opinion_2010en.pdf on 20 November 2012

European Commission, ‘Conclusions on Bosnia and Herzegovina’, Enlargement Strategy and Main Challenges 2010–2011, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, COM(2010) 660 final (9 November 2010), accessed at http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2010/package/conclusions_ bosnia_en.pdf on 20 November 2011

European Commission, Enlargement Strategy and Main Challenges 2011–2012, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2011) 666final (12 October 2011), accessed at http://ec.europa.eu/ enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2011/package/strategy_ paper_2011_en.pdf on 20 November 2011.

European Commission, The Western Balkans: Overcoming the Economic Crisis: From Regional Cooperation to EU Membership, accessed at http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/ western-balkans-conference/index_en.htm on 24 May 2011.

Gallup Europe, Gallup Balkan Monitor in Partnership with the European Fund for the Balkans: The Effects of the Financial and Economic Crisis (May 2011), accessed at http://www.balkan-monitor.eu/ on 25 June 2012

International Institute for Strategic Studies, [Study on the Impact of the Global Crisis on the Geopolitical World Map] (in Bulgarian), Dnevnik (Sofia), 8 September 2010).

Institute for Regional and International Studies, The Western Balkans: Between the Economic Crisis and the European Perspective

Minchev, O., ‘Conclusions’, in The Western Balkans: Between the Economic Crisis and the European Perspective (Sofia: IRIS, 2010), 127–9, accessed at http://www.iris-bg.org/ files/The%20Western%20Balkans.pdf on 20 October 2011

Minchev, O., ‘Introduction’, in The Western Balkans: Between the Economic Crisis and the European Perspective (Sofia: IRIS, 2010), 2–6, accessed at http://www.iris-bg.org/ files/The%20Western%20Balkans.pdf on 20 October 2011

Regional Cooperation Council, Western Balkans and Europe 2020—Supporting Convergence and Growth, International Coordination Conference in Brussels on 30–31 March 2011, accessed at http://www.rcc.int/pages/0/32 on 10 November 2011

G. Knaus and K. Bender, “Why Croatia’s EU accession will strengthen the EU”, Rumeli Observer blog,19October 2012, http://www.esiweb.org/rumeliobserver/2012/10/19/whycroatias-eu-accession-will-not-weaken-the-eu-in-english/

The Prospect of the EU Enlargement to the Western Balkans in 2013”, Bulletin PISM no. 24, 8. March 2013, http://www.pism.pl/publications/bulletin/no-24-477

“The periphery of the periphery: The Western Balkans and the Euro crisis”, European Council of Foreign Relations, August 2012,

Documents

REVUE EUROPÉENNE DU DROIT SOCIAL · 8 . Revue europénnee du droit social 8 The court shall order, in accordance with art. 97 2 para. 3 temporary delegation of parental authority